Sanh ' ma Serene = Sones = Sig seem Ey, ve me iste es AAAS te , ante Rs ‘3 ae BE ‘ eK on at Henge Write giving ee i in Shaiya Lae MORT AMER AW SUR Tatts, Yrs ios, Ag) a Ne A ee i y iH . ny 7 AOD iy sl ai ee 7 es p PedWicel Uc? day ae CL a; oe i i aa “9 a ES - re oa re ae 7 aete AL A aT : any a | 7 re Me poate .! a | i ae Le iw iy os oy Lees oy i ise rN ene a iy) ue - o : : ~ a ree BL ' ae 7 7 pie - a SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM ButueTin 197 LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WAGTAILS, SHRIKES, VIREOS, AND THEIR ALLIES ORDER PASSERIFORMES BY ARTHUR CLEVELAND BENT Taunton, Massachusetts UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1950 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price $1.50 ADVERTISEMENT The scientific publications of the National Museum include two series known, respectively, as Proceedings and Bulletin. The Proceedings series, begun in 1878, is intended primarily as a medium for the publication of original papers, based on the collections of the National Museum, that set forth newly acquired facts in biology, anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of new forms and re- visions of limited groups. Copies of each paper, in pamphlet form, are distributed as published to libraries and scientific organizations and to specialists and others interested in the different subjects. The dates at which these separate papers are published are recorded in the table of contents of each of the volumes. The series of Bulletins, the first of which was issued in 1875, con- tains separate publications comprising monographs of large zoologi- cal groups and other general systematic treatises (occasionally in sev- eral volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions, catalogs of type specimens, special collections, and other material of similar nature. The majority of the volumes are octavo in size, but a quarto size has been adopted in a few instances in which large plates were regarded as indispensable. In the Bulletin series appear volumes under the heading Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, in octavo form, published by the National Museum since 1902, which contain papers relating to the botanical collections of the Museum. The present work forms No. 197 of the Bulletin series. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. CONTENTS Page Tiana eCoYe Ab Kyi CO) Oye a Ae PE eg ee Vil COLO LE) Be EY NSPS Og GON oF ONS ee i ge te eg ca Bera 1 Familyserimellidac:.Accentorst: 2220 2 es su on Me See ee er ee ee 1 Prunellaymontanellay Mountain accentor:-.—-— 92 -=- 222252225222 _- 1 abit see ae eee nee Linu: Be toe 2 ten ee Ne ey Ae See ee Pee i TED RSH ei OLE G90) Oe re ag ea 3 Family Motacillidae: Wagtails’and pipits-2= 9-9 Y0)!2 2-2-2 ese eel ce 3 Motacillajalbavalbas White -wactaile== === ee 3 TEM ea 1S as eet ee np EA IRAP ee TANCES SHE MINS SPN ed 3 ADB) YS E58 LO Ua Tse ne tng al ne Ue RT 11 Motacilla alba ocularis: Swinhoe’s wagtail________________-_------ 12 AFA BGS Secs Ser Once tree Se py oe eA et ee a 12 MTS ET Ui ti Tne ee a ee oe een ee wee een eS 16 Motacilla alba lugens: Black-backed wagtail______._____-_-------- 16 1 OG os ie ne ee ee a 16 MO ISCEUO UGC Tas teeter Bi 2 ee Rte Rey ele es bs meg AE ere Sh 2 18 Motacilla flava alascensis: Alaska yellow wagtail_----_------------ 19 APET Sa BGS ey ait ne cen ope 9B eta Be 8 ele RT 19 Distributions aes ss es eee er ee Oe Os 24 Anthus spinoletta rubescens: American pipit..._....__-..---------- 25 EV 1S sees ea a eh tee A Re ee 2 ee a ee 25 LB SELS gl ODN AC 0) DE eget teh ik cane ga Pe che Re, eM ie 35 Anthus spinoletta japonicus: Japanese pipit._.._____.-_-.---------- 38 TFET Sh LT GS ees ete re pete nae mca ng SATO Vs Ce teed YD ee ee, pal 38 NEVES GT: UTE OTN ee ae eB TNR Rear Bn a ec Ses a ye at 40 Anthusspratensiss- Meadow piplts 22 2222s Soe Ee 40 SUED op i lec ie SS Re Rea ea i UL ORE aU A Ot FES a 40 JEL ESG Rar OLN CO 0 5 Ai re on i Ry oe a ee Ren Rigg epee al gree 47 Anthusicervinus? Red-throated *pipit.22 22 2-4 Pel ens See Se 48 TFET Sa BD Tit reer rr ns eI Ee te PL ain ri eee tS pes ee Ry 48 SGP UE EEO Repro ye TE RRO eR. eae PONS ae TE Se Ra 52 Anthus spragueiscopragie Ss pipit= 254. es eo 52 TEATS ELS iy te IN os en eel Ae ANRITSU 52 1S Grd UG ee ey oy ee se at Boge An ee en, Sek ef 61 Family -Bombycillidacs Waxwitg@s.s.25 627s ee re ee 62 Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceps: Bohemian waxwing- -------------- 62 MEET Sh 1 G3 eee re er, Se Pan oe esi pe nS See tris he at ce! 62 Distributions 2s aes Sas ee BEERS OMA JOUINUE22 77 Bombyeilla;cedrorum: |Cedar waxwint< 22-5. 2222 sss 79 AFAV63 E15 eee om ot aera Bile ce Dericrar oc eee AN BIE CERNE Bae A pt 79 Distrib UtliO Mesos soon Re a ee aon ee we on RR 99 PamilyPtilogonatidae:/silky fiycatchers=s92 2222 eee 102 Phainopepla nitens lepida: Phainopeplas 5. 2522-22222 25. S20 102 1S oy Ud eee ee ee Pee eee, ee eee Lae ae 102 DistribUtlon seas eas sk SE BRE OST 2a) 113 IV BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM = Page Ramily, haniidae?Shrikes=-2 520-2 3428 - ee 114 Lanius borealis borealis: Northern shrike_-_-________._____-__-__- = aks 1a Oy hoe oe et ee eS i ae Sn ol SE Soe 114 Distribution] 2s22as e852 5306 saa eee ete ee eee ee 126 Lanius borealis invictus: Northwestern shrike_____________________ 128 Habitss2 22522526) ee ie ee ee 128 Lanius ludovicianus ludovicianus: Loggerhead shrike_______________ 131 Pa Ditaes see eee cer a NE re a We Sy ee ge 131 MD IStTUOUCLO WS Sse Se ye aa a a ee 146 Lanius ludovicianus migrans: Migrant shrike________._____________ 148 WMabitss ose stb S ese cee Rae ee a ee ee 148 Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides: White-rumped shrike____________ 155 FET Sh TA GS ts Se ae eg a 155 Lanius ludovicianus gambeli: California shrike____________________ sep Habitasi2. 2522282 582 2 et en re ee a ae 157 Lanius ludovicianus nelsoni: Nelson’s shrike_____________________-_ 179 Habits 2: = bi2 oe 822 cos Seer See Se eee 179 Lanius ludovicianus anthonyi: Island shrike____________________-- 180 Habits Ses oo ee ce Le ee ee ee 2 2 180 amily; Ssurnidae> Starlings. =.= o> See ees. 2 ee 182 SEUTNUS VU SATIS cVUE SATIS sO GA TMT) ee ye ee ey ee ee 182 Ealbits 32S re es a = ee ee ee 182 Distributions 222 Shia hee ee Dee ae ae ee ee a eo oe 211 Aethiopsar cristatellus cristatellus: Crested mynah________________- 215 Pa bitse sea see ie Bye tre ar ee oe oe ee ee en 215 Distributions ssa ce sae ae eee ae 221 amily Vireonid aes: VireOs= =.= ss ae eee ee ee 222 Vireo atricapillus: Black-capped vireo__________-..__..-.-.-------- 222 PV abits xc s0 se ee at ee Ae iis raat pepe See 222 Distribution sss 22-8 = Sea a a 226 Vireo griseus griseus: White-eyed vireo_____________-___--__------ 227 Wablise se ea soos Se See en eh ee 227 Distributions -26. = ULE 2 oe eee a a ee 235 VEreOreTiseUs May NAT eye WiEStnVATeO meee eee 237 NGA Oy i ee eee eae eer oe Ur ee ea ne eh es eee ee pe SS 237 Vireo griseus bermudianus: Bermuda vireo___________________-__-- 239 Mabits.a- 2225225 s hes eae See eee es oe eee 239 Vireo eriseus micrus: Rio Grande vireo... - 2-2 =) = ee eee 240 Ma bitses oe a2 oe oe oe Coes eke ae Le 2 240 Wireorhuttoni buttons vElatbOm:s vie Om a ee 242 Habits _ 8 oh es Ie Bee Se ad ee 242 Distribution2e 225252522 22 anos 2. Se ee ae ee 248 Vireo huttoni stephensi: Stephens’s vireo_____________________-___-- 249 VAD IG6 oe oot ae pee ae gr the a ee 249 Vireo huttoniicopnatuss Brazen Sivire Ome ee ee 252 1S AW oy (spe yeas ae Oe Rn ce ee Ree en OG NS eres AUNT TN SO 252 Wireo) belligbelliceB ellesi vires eee 253 Est itis en ae ee Ce ee ee rr 253 Distribution] Ss - S22 2 Se 5 fees Se er pe 261 Wireoubellii me dius ex.s) vil .e 0 sees aaa a 263 Pabitees 22.8 Sein Sa tee cee eae ne en 263 Wareoupellivari zona se Ariz ONS vir Ome ae 263 CONTENTS Vv Family Vireonidae—Continued Page Vireo, bellispusilius: beasts vireo. 22> oo. 22) ee ees ee 265 DET eg ERGs eee a nye ee Or) eR iu See re ar 265 WATCORVICIINOL GTA Y WILTCOm aN Soe sas ee Pe eee eee 268 Ea i Sieee ee se Se ee ey eye ee a ee Smee CI a ee ae ea 268 DISET UCL O Tee eee ee ey ee ee ae oe 276 Vireo ftlavitrons: Vellow-throated: vireo. 22-22-45 22-22 2 ee ee 276 TB GENO NI RSI a yO Ca le I 2 ER eg) Py eee my Te 276 BE) TSS GrRS ED UN G1 © Ma ee eee ares eee eet ee rere ee ar Re eee eS 288 Vireo solitarius solitarius: Blue-headed vireo__-_---------- SOS ee 290 ARETE Sse ee ae cir ek EA ee Ps eS 290 WD iStrilow tio ape es ee ee ee Ah io NE ae a 302 Vareo solitarius alticola: Mountain vireoo=_— = -- 222-24 305 1 OY Ot AS seo Cee Si ke AL ms et DU ER eS oh ee im BE 305 Vireo solitarius plumbeus: Plumbeous vireo_--___-_------------- eae ~~ 309 Fay NGS re ey ine ee a re ce eR Nek Se Se ro Se pe Bi 309 WATCORSOLLATIOUS CASSINT == eae es ee ae er eae are 312 Wabits==-sess-2--c a= Ne a nee NYO Se et ea 312 Vireo solitarius lucasanus: San Lucas vireo____-___-------- py ve 315 JE Oy (its ol oa ae cs diye ee apices hares HE ARE Ree Pye EI, Ne OUR SPR I 315 Vireo calidris barbatulus: Black-whiskered vireo_____-_-___-_-_-_-_- 316 VS CSS] OT ESI gg te lo A eS. ia ate IE pL = Ri ey ee 316 DI SETI UGIO Meee eee oe ee ee Oe ae 321 Vireo flavoviridis flavoviridis: Yellow-green vireo__-_-_---_----_---- 321 IEA Ey 1 CS er a a ot are arr oe ere md See Mae Se a BS 321 ESET DOU ETO RNS eet ten eae re ces es ew Oe a oe Seg eae 334 Wireorolivaceus. Red-evyedVireO- = 2 22s 5 ee ee ek ee 335 TB UA OS Rey a Sa ap SR aa ae ee Sh tne tt cee rh sv ay eRe Ein 335 JO FYS{B ws OVOL CO) 0 eg wa A ae ok ae Ee ey ce ee te ee te 346 Vireo philadelphicus:Philadelphia ‘vireo=+-.-.2_-==- 3-.- 2=-===-2-. 348 10) OE aN a eek Rapa os py On pO Geese op Sl ean 348 ISG rib Ut O Messe ea Ses te See tat ls eee ey Es 360 Vireo gilvus gilvus: Eastern warbling vireo___...._.__.------------- 362 Rab itsie sae otha Mee Fe POS ket PE he ee a a 362 DISET U TION see Sey eee Pee a ee ae i Me py Lo Re Pg eT ee 370 Vireo gilvus swainsoni: Western warbling vireo____-_-------------- ote 1 BY) 0) Gs peat Cems mo) ON MO ICI ie Pe pe I eo Cea 373 Coereba bahamensis: Bahama honeycreeper--_-_--_------------------ 379 18 O55] OT espe a SN ae ea aah lye A CRE tT ie Se a ae 379 DIS tri tiOi eee ee ee es ae) On Pee Ne A Me eee 382 ICEL AE UTEy CLEC Ce melee eee re ai ee apaemeelly Ba A ope te a ee wd 383 TREY Cl anne a ete ry RP Sen ee wld ap arg aN et ML lp 401 INTRODUCTION This is the eighteenth in a series of bulletins of the United States National Museum on the life histories of North American birds. Previous numbers have been issued as follows: 107. Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, August 1, 1919. 113. Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns, August 27, 1921. 121. Life Histories of North American Petrels and Pelicans and Their Allies, October 19, 1922. 126. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl (part), May 25, 1923. 130. Life Histories of North American Wild Fowl (part), June 27, 1925. 135. Life Histories of North American Marsh Birds, March 11, 1927. 142. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds (pt. 1), December 31, 1927. 146. Life Histories of North American Shore Birds (pt. 2), March 24, 1929, 162. Life Histories of North American Gallinaceous Birds, May 25, 1982. 167. Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey (pt. 1), May 3, 1937. 170. Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey (pt. 2), August 8, 1938. 174. Life Histories of North American Woodpeckers, May 23, 1939. 176. Life Histories of North American Cuckoos, Goatsuckers, Hummingbirds, and Their Allies, July 20, 1940. 179. Life Histories of North American Flycatchers, Larks, Swallows, and Their Allies, May 8, 1942. 191. Life Histories of North American Jays, Crows, and Titmice, January 27, 1947. 195. Life Histories of North American Nuthatches, Wrens, Thrashers, and Their Allies. July 7, 1948. 196. Life Histories of North American Thrushes, Kinglets, and Their Allies, June 28, 1949. The same general plan has been followed and the same sources of information have been utilized as in previous bulletins, to which the reader is referred. As this and the previous bulletin were prepared simultaneously and were originally intended to be published as one bulletin, the list of contributors is the same for both volumes and need not be repeated here. Eighteen complete life histories were contributed especially for this volume; eight were written by Bernard W. Tucker and five by Dr. Winsor M. Tyler; Dr. Alden H. Miller, Wendell Taber, Alexander F. Skutch, Alexander Sprunt, Jr., and Robert S. Woods contributed one each. The same valued assistance was rendered by Dr. Winsor M. Tyler, in indexing, and by Wm. George F. Harris in preparing the egg data and measurements. The manuscript for this volume was completed in 1948. Contribu- tions received since then will be acknowledged later. Only informa- tion of great importance could be added. The reader is reminded again that this is a cooperative work; if he fails to find in these volumes anything that he knows about the birds, he can blame himself for not having sent the information to— Tue AUTHOR. vir Hee ft a 7 ‘4 1, Oke ‘ip thy - ' in . of 7 : i a ‘es ' _ | o a rut t ie oa & 7 to rT i LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WAG- TAILS, SHRIKES, VIREOS, AND THEIR ALLIES ORDER PASSERIFORMES (FAMILIES PRUNELLIDAE, MOTACIL- LIDAE, BOMBYCILLIDAE, PTILOGONATIDAE, LANIIDAE, STURNI- DAE, AND VIREONIDAE) By Arraur CLEVELAND BENT Taunton, Mass. Order PASSERIFORMES Family PRUNELLIDAE: Accentors PRUNELLA MONTANELLA (Pallas) MOUNTAIN ACCENTOR CONTRIBUTED BY BERNARD WILLIAM TUCKER HABITS There are two records of this Siberian bird in Alaska, the first referring to a specimen taken by C. G. Harrold on Nunivak Island on October 3, 1927, and recorded by Swarth (1928). The second is of a male taken at Camp Collier, St. Lawrence Island, on October 13, 1936, and is recorded by Olaus J. Murie (1988). It was obtained by Mrs. Murie in 1937 from an Eskimo, Jimmie Otiyohok, whose wife had learned to prepare bird skins and who had recognized this as an unusual visitor. It is only in the more southern parts of its range that this species, like a number of other Arctic forms, is confined to mountains. Far- ther north, as Seebohm (1901) has pointed out, it is essentially a bird of the Arctic willow swamps. Dybowski (in Taczanowski, 1872) states that in southeast Siberia, though it is tolerably common in spring, only a few remain to breed in the more elevated portions of the mountains. He met with old birds in company with fledged young in the forests of cedar mingled with firs at the foot of the Chamardaban Mountains at the south end of Lake Baikal. More recently Stegmann 1 2, BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (1936), writing of the Baikal Mountains, has described the species as mainly characteristic of the subalpine scrub zone and mentions meeting with it in two places in scrub of Pinus pumila. He states that the birds were shy and secretive. Nesting—Popham (1897), who found six nests in the forests of the Yenisei Valley at Yeniseisk, states that these were “sometimes placed as high as eight feet from the ground in the fork of a willow, and at others quite low down in the stump of a dead tree, and composed of small twigs and dry grass lined with moss and a few hairs.” Farther north on the Yenisei, Seebohm (1879) found the species mainly fre- quenting the willow scrub near the banks of the river and took a nest in latitude 7014°, which was built within a foot of the ground. Eggs.—The eggs are a uniform, rather deep blue and are doubtfully distinguishable from those of the European hedge-sparrow (Prunella modularis) , though they are said to tend to be rather paler and smaller. The clutch is 4-6. Jourdain (in Hartert, 1910) gives the measure- ments of 31 eggs as: average, 18.55 by 13.75; maximum, 20.6 by 14.2 and 19.1 by 14.4; minimum, 17 by 13.2 and 17.2 by 12.6 millimeters, Young.—No details are recorded. Plumages.—The plumages are described in Hartert’s great work, “Die Vogel der paliarktischen Fauna” (1910). The juvenal plumage is like the adult’s, but with colors paler and with flecks of brown on the throat and breast. Food.—The food consists of insects and other small invertebrates, together with small seeds in summer and almost exclusively in winter. Exact data seem to be almost entirely lacking, but seeds of Amaranthus are recorded. Behavior.—A quiet unobtrusive bird described as very much like its better-known relative the European hedge-sparrow in habits. Like that species it is inclined to skulk in low cover, though, at any rate in the breeding season, it will also perch in and sing from tall trees, when these are present. Seebohm seldom saw it on the wing, but in autumn Miss Haviland (1915) found that birds which were met with flitting about the bushes of the Yenisei Delta frequently took wing and flew a short distance with a jerky, pipitlike flight. Voice.—The note is a shrill triple call rendered by Seebohm (1901) as ¢éd-il-il and described by him as titlike. It has a short unpretentious but not unpleasing song, which both Seebohm and Popham (1897) describe as resembling that of the European hedge-sparrow, which is a short, high-pitched warbling strain. It may be delivered either from low cover or, within the limits of forest growth, from well up in a tree, and is at any rate of suflicient merit for the species to be kept as a cage bird by the Chinese. Field marks.—No field characters have been recorded as such, but it is a small bird of somewhat warblerlike, though fairly robust, build WHITE WAGTAIL 3 and proportions, with black-streaked brown back, conspicuous black crown and sides of head, separated by a broad pale yellow superciliary stripe, and pale yellow underparts. The striking head pattern and yellow underparts should make it easy to be recognized. Length about 6 inches. Fall and winter—David and Oustalet (1877) state that in China at the beginning of the winter cold it settles in gardens and brushwood- covered places, and La Touche (1925), quoting the experience of the Bailey Willis Expedition in 1908-4, states that in the Chili-Shansi Mountains in winter “singly or in pairs they are met in almost every gulch, flitting in and out among the boulders and rugged ledges along the brooks.” DISTRIBUTION Summer range.—Siberia from the Urals to Bering Sea, north to about 70° in the Yenisei Valley, south to the Altai, Sayansk, Baikal, and Stanovoi Mountains. Winter range.—North China and Korea. Occasional in the Ural Mountains and stated to occur on passage in the Crimea. Casual records.—Italy, Austria. Family MOTACILLIDAE: Wagtails and Pipits MOTACILLA ALBA ALBA Linnaeus WHITE WAGTAIL CONTRIBUTED BY BERNARD WILLIAM TUCKER HABITS The white wagtail is an irregular, but apparently not really very rare, visitor to east Greenland, where it has even bred occasionally, and it has been recorded once on the west coast. Winge in his “Gr¢n- lands Fugle” (1898) was able to quote three records, which include the still unique one for the west coast just mentioned. This refers to a female from Godthaab sent by Holbgll to the Copenhagen Museum in 1849. The other two refer to Angmagsalik, and it is from this locality, the site of the only considerable settlement on the east coast, that in- formation as to the status of the white wagtail in Greenland is chiefly derived. This is due in the main to the careful records of Johan Peter- sen, the colony superintendent from 1894 to 1915, which are dealt with by Helms in his account of “The Birds of Angmagsalik” (1926). Petersen first observed a white wagtail at Angmagsalik in the spring of 1895, and this constitutes one of the records quoted by Winge. “In 1899 it was seen every day during nesting time in July-August, and on August 21st Petersen saw a young bird. It appeared for the last 4 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM time on August 31st.” He observed another on June 12, 1900, and one was shot on June 10, 1915. On May 15, 1900, he was also informed by a Greenlander from Sermilik, in the same district, that three had been seen there about two days previously. It may be added that Alvin Pedersen (1930) was informed by Greenlanders that the white wagtail was often met with at Angmagsalik. F. S. Chapman (1982), orni- thologist on the British Arctic Air Route Expedition, records a nest with six eggs at Angmagsalik on June 16, 1931. He also records one identified near the expedition’s base, west of Sermilik Fjord in the Angmagsalk district, on May 10 of the same year and two on May 16, but none were seen there after May 17. Chapman remarks that the white wagtail and several other species which breed in Iceland, only a few hundred miles distant, “all appeared for a few days and then vanished, as if they had overshot their destination.” Alvin Pedersen (1926 and 1930) records white wagtails from the Scoresby Sound district, considerably farther north. One was shot at Cape Stewart on August 24, 1924, and on June 38, 1925, he saw one at Cape Hope and a little later three at a puddle of thaw water. Men working at Cape Hope knew the birds well; they had been seen daily for some days and there were thought to be two pairs. They were not seen, however, after June 9. Another was believed to have been seen and heard at Elvdal on August 15. In his 1930 paper Pedersen records that in 19238 in the second half of March young wagtails were seen in two places. “One can therefore conclude with certainty that the species has bred at Scoresby Sound.” Unfortunately, Pedersen’s statement is rather ambiguous. It seems obvious that young birds could not have been hatched in Arctic Greenland in March, which seems extraordi- narily early for any small birds except snow buntings to be present at all. If birds young in the sense of being in their first spring are meant, then it may be observed in the first place that it seems unlikely that they could have been recognized as such without shooting and secondly that they would only afford evidence of breeding if they were known to have wintered in the country. Of this there is, of course, no evidence whatever and in such a latitude it appears almost, if not quite, impos- sible. The import of Pedersen’s statement is thus obscure, and it is a pity he was not more explicit. It seems logical to suppose that his birds were early migrants. The above is, to the best of the writer’s knowledge, the sum total of published information with regard to the white wagtail in Green- land, and it has seemed desirable to deal with it fairly fully, as the status of this bird in Greenland seems never to have been adequately dealt with in American literature. The A. O. U. Check-list quotes only Godhavn (on the west coast) on the authority of a second-hand statement by Prof. Alfred Newton in the “Arctic Manual” (1875) and ignores the much more numerous records for the east coast, except WHITE WAGTAIL 5) for the rather vague statement in a footnote “said to breed on east coast (Schigler).” The Godhavn record is based on the inclusion of Motacilla alba in a list of birds obtained at that place in August 1857 by Dr. David Walker in the Ibis, 1860, p. 166, but this was an error, as Professor Newton himself subsequently showed (Yarrell’s “British Birds,” ed. 4, vol. 1, 1874, p. 549), so that the record should be deleted. Apart from its visits to Greenland the white wagtail is entitled to a place on the American list on the ground of an occurrence near Fort Chimo, northern Ungava, in August 1883. With regard to this Lucien M. Turner (1885) wrote that four individuals were seen by Alex. Brown and James Lyall, of the Hudson’s Bay Co., on August 29, 1883, at Hunting Bay, 4 miles south of Fort Chimo. He added that they described the birds accurately, stating that they were the two parents and two young of the year and that he placed the fullest reliance on their assertion. The white wagtail, or its British representative, the pied wagtail (M. alba yarrellit) , is one of the birds which an American ornithologist visiting Europe is almost sure to see, even if he has little leisure for bird observation, for it is much associated with buildings and inhab- ited places, though in no way confined to such. About farms and villages its liking for nesting in sheds and outbuildings or in crannies in walls attracts it into association with man, and it may be met with even in towns, in the more residential districts where some gardens and open ground are available. Among European small birds it is one of the species for which it is most difficult to define any clear-cut habitat or “biotope,” and so far as one can be defined at all it must be partly in negative terms. It is found in a variety of more or less open country, especially, as already noted, about farms, buildings, and cultivation, and preferably, though by no means necessarily, near ponds, streams, or other water. Large closely built-up areas, large uninhabited tracts of moor or marshland and the like, and high ele- vations in mountains are generally avoided. The same is true of closely wooded country, but here comparatively limited clearings or open ground along the banks of rivers and streams will suffice to attract it. In the high north of Europe it is found mainly near the coast, while in Iceland, according to Hantzsch (1905), it prefers the lower-lying regions especially near standing or running waters and the vicinity of the sea, and displays the same attachment to farm- steads, villages, and inhabited places that it does on the mainland of Europe. It is probable that the relatively frequent records of its occurrence at Angmagsalik are not solely due to the much more regular observation there as compared with other parts of the east coast of Greenland, but again to this liking for the haunts of man— a liking, it should be added, which, at any rate in the breeding season, 6 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM is sufficiently accounted for by the variety of suitable breeding sites they afford. The name white wagtail is too firmly established to be altered, but it is a rather absurd misnomer, for the bird has a pied pattern of gray, white, and black. The name is presumably a translation of Linnaeus’s “Alba” and has probably been the more readily accepted by English ornithologists because it does serve to express, though - in an exaggerated form, the main difference between the black-backed British race or pied wagtail and the paler, gray-backed continental bird. In fact, in this case, as in that of the white rhinoceros, it seems that it must be understood as meaning “not so black”! Courtship.—The courtship display of Motacilla alba seems more elaborate than in most small European passerines. It has been more fully described in the British form or pied wagtail than in the white wagtail proper, but there is no reason to suppose that the races differ in their behavior. The most complete account of the pied wagtail’s display is that of Boase (1926). In the early stages the female is often pursued hither and thither in a graceful, erratic, dancing flight by one, two, or more males which endeavor to induce her to pause long enough for them to posture before her with the head held high and the bill pointing upward at a sharp angle so as to display the glossy black gorget. It is somewhat curious that according to Boase’s observations this display of the throat patch appears not to occur in the display of paired birds, but only in the early stages, of courtship in the narrower sense, when males are endeavoring to attract a mate. Further observation on this point is perhaps desirable. In later stages the male frequently approaches the female in a zigzag course, posturing at the same time. Boase describes two variations of this performance. In one the head was moved with a jerky bowing action, a quick flutter of the wings accompanying each return to the normal position. In the other the bird had the head depressed and carried the wing nearest the female expanded, at the same time expanding and depressing the tail and twisting it over to the same side so as to display as much as possible of its upper surface. Displays of this general type, with variations, are not uncommon. Again, as described by Boase, the male may approach the female with wings drooping and tail spread and depressed, head held low, and the feathers of the rump raised, in a manner recalling a display posture of the European blackbird. Boase does not mention coition as following such displays, but the one just described, at any rate, is a typical preliminary to the sexual act. He does, however, describe in this connection another more striking form of posturing in which the male spreads and erects the tail vertically, with bill inclined upward WHITE WAGTAIL 7 and wings drooping or slightly spread or sometimes fluttered. The female may or may not respond but, according to Boase, is “generally inattentive, finding interest in a passing fly or in preening, and the whole business may end in a wild pursuit.” He records one case, however, where a female joined in a display. He states that he “gives the particulars as they were noted at the time, in spite of the appear- ance of an error in judging the sexes.” “The bird taken to be the male was facing the other when first seen and was bowing rapidly. In the raised position the neck was extended to its limit and the bill was held normally; in the lower position, the neck was retracted, the head being level with the back and the bill slightly uptilted. The other bird, judged to be the female, so far as the plumage gave indica- tion, crept or shuffled with wings and tail moderately expanded and head depressed around the male, which turned so as to face her.” In connection with coition the female is usually passive, merely quivering the wings and raising the tail if responsive or, if not, some- times actually dashing at and pecking the male. The above are some of the main types of behavior, but there is a good deal of variation, the displays of wagtails, like those of a good many other small passerines, being by no means stereotyped. The Rev. E. Peake (1926) describes a case, observed on April 29, thus: “The cock approached from ten feet or so away, bobbing his head straight up and down with body flattened out. Then, when he got near, he danced round with wings curved and expanded, and his tail also expanded and drooping, and singing all the time. The hen with tail raised and head lowered stood snapping her bill.” Other minor variations could be added, but the foregoing will suffice. The reader may perhaps be reminded that these observations refer entirely to the British race, since detailed observations on the white wagtail proper of continental Europe are almost entirely lacking. It so happens that the only two brief observations available differ slightly from any recorded for the pied wagtail, but the not incon- siderable variation in the latter race has already been mentioned, and it is most unlikely that there is any real or constant difference in the display behavior of the two forms. One of the two observations referred to was, it must be noted, made on captive birds. W. E. Teschemaker (1913) in an account of white wagtails which nested in an aviary writes: “The display is very characteristic and interesting. The female crouches on the ground with quivering wings and tail, and beak raised. The male standing sideways to her grovels on the ground, trailing his drooping wings; he then throws himself on that side which is farthest from the hen, the wing on this (the farthest) side drooped and quiv- ering, the other wing raised perpendicularly and also quivering.” In the “Handbook of British Birds” the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain 8 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (1988, vol. 1) has a note on a pair of white wagtails he saw in Rumania facing one another with the tails of both birds almost perpendicularly erected and appearing quite rigid, but unfortunately this somewhat fragmentary observation was all that he could make, as he was passing by in a boat. Nesting.—Where the white wagtail is a summer migrant the males usually arrive in advance of the females. In Helgoland males have. been passing for about three weeks before females begin to appear. The nest is generally built in a recess or cavity of some sort or at least in amore or Jess concealed position. It may be found in holes in walls and other masonry or in rocks or cliffs, in steep banks, inside sheds or outbuildings, under bridges, in hollow trees or among the roots of trees, in wood stacks, among ivy, and so forth. Commonly it is well above ground level, from a couple of feet or so to perhaps 9 or 10 feet, but it may be merely under a clod in a plowed field or among marram grass on sand dunes. Occasionally it is built in the nest of some other bird, such as a song thrush, blackbird, or fieldfare. The bulk varies a good deal according to the situation. It is made of dry grass, straws, roots, fine twigs, dead leaves, and moss with cup lined with hair, feathers, or bits of wool. It is built by the female only, with the cock accompanying her. It is evident that the female is also mainly concerned in the actual selection of the site, but C. and D. Nethersole- Thompson (1948) state that the male of the pied wagtail also examines possible sites and may “suggest” sites to the female, which she thor- oughly tests. Eqgs.—The ground color of the eggs is a slightly grayish or biuish white, closely freckled with gray or brownish, with underlying pale- gray markings often more or less distinct and sometimes with a few hairlike dark-brown streaks. White eggs occur and an erythristic variety has been recorded once. Jourdain (1988, vol. 1) gives the num- ber as four or five to seven as a rule, rarely eight, and he gives the following measurement of 100 eggs: Average, 20.4 by 15.1; maximum, 21.5 by 15 and 20 by 16.2; minimum 18 by 15 millimeters. The breed- ing season is given by the same authority as from the end of April to early in July, exceptionally later in central Europe, but in Iceland and north Europe often not before June. Eggs may sometimes be found in Iceland by the end of May. It may be recalled that the nest in Greenland recorded by Chapman and already mentioned contained eggs on June 16, but is not known when they were laid. Young.—Incubation is performed chiefly by the female, though ac- cording to Jourdain the male may take some share. The incubation period is 12-14 days. Teschemaker (1913) observed that eggshells were carried away from the nest by birds in captivity. Both parents feed the young. In the case of the pied wagtail the feces of the nestlings are carried away by the parents, at least in the WHITE WAGTAIL 9 later stages (Blair and Tucker, 1941), and it is safe to assume that this is true also of the present race. The fledging period is 14-15 days. Plumages.—The plumages are fully described by H. F. Witherby in the “Handbook of British Birds” (19388, vol. 1). The nestling (de- scribed under the pied wagtail, M. a. yarrellii, and doubtless not differ- ing in the present race) has smoke-gray down distributed on the inner and outer supraorbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, femoral, crural, and ventral tracts, but very scanty on the last two. The mouth is orange-yellow inside, with no spots, and externally the flanges are very pale yellow. In the juvenal plumage the upperparts are brownish gray, lores and ear coverts dingy, buffish white, breast band dark, smoky brown, rest of breast and flanks buffish gray, throat and belly dull white with a yellowish tinge, wings and tail much as in adult. In the first winter the male is like the adult female, except for having usually rather more black on crown, and the female is also like the adult of that sex but does not show any white on forehead or black on crown as the adult may do. The gray crown has also usually an olivaceous tinge. Food.—The food consists mainly of insects, principally Diptera, but Jourdain (19388, vol. 1) mentions also Neuroptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, etc., as well as small snails. Behavior.—Several of the chief features of behavior are mentioned later under “Field marks.” ‘The incessant up-and-down tail motion is one of the bird’s most noticeable characteristics. Though largely terrestrial, wagtails perch readily on buildings, fences, and so forth, and somewhat less freely on trees. The mainly insect food is secured chiefly on the ground or in shallow water or in little aerial excursions after flies or gnats. The birds are much attached to the neighborhood of water and may often be seen wading in the shallows of pond, lake, or stream. This association is, however, by no means obligatory, and they may be regularly met with far from water. Farmyards are a popular resort, and the birds will follow the plow in the fields, search- ing for small worms and burrowing larvae. In the high north they have naturally less opportunity of benefiting by agriculture and cul- tivation as an extra source of food supply. In Arctic Norway they are mainly coastal birds and may often be seen, as indeed they may be in the other parts of their range, foraging for flies and other arthropods among the debris about high-water mark on the seashore. Voice-——The principal note, used both in flight and when settled, but especially in flight, is a rather shrill ¢tschizeik. There is also a rather more musical tz7-wirrp (the érr to be pronounced as in chirrup) with variants, and the alarm note of breeding birds is an incisive chick. The song is a simple, but lively, warbling twitter, consisting largely of slurred repetitions of call notes with variants and modulations. It is delivered on the wing or from a perch or while the bird is running 843290—50-—2 10 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM about on the ground and is quite often heard from birds on passage- Indeed, it has very little if any sexual or territorial significance, and ene of the major functions served by the song of most birds, that of advertisement to possible mates in spring, seems here to be discharged by the tschizzik note, which is uttered persistently from such points ot vantage as roofs, walls, or rocks. Field marks.—The white wagtail and the other races of Motacilla . alba are very easily recognized, though the separation of the races may be difficult or in some plumages impossible in the field. They are small, slim, long-tailed birds (total length about 7 inches), with a pied pattern of gray, white, and black, spending much of their time on the ground, where they walk and run actively, constantly moving the tail up and down in a very characteristic manner, and the head back- ward and forward. The flight is equally characteristic, strongly un- dulating, in a succession of long curves with the wings closed at brief intervals for perceptibly longer than in the case of most small passer- ines of similar size. The note ¢schizzik, which is freely used in flight, is also distinctive. In the white wagtail the mantle and rump are clear pale gray, nape and hind part of crown black, forehead, front of crown, sides of face, and belly white. In summer the whole throat and breast are black, but in winter plumage the throat is white bounded by a horse- shoe-shaped black bib. The wings and tail are blackish, with double white wing bar and white outer tail feathers. In the female the gray is rather duller than in the male, and young birds in the juvenal plumage are altogether duller and more uniformly grayish without the strong blacks and whites, as described under “Plumages.” Differences from /. a. ocularis and M. a. lugens, the other two races on the American list, are mentioned in the accounts of those forms. Enemies.—The white wagtail falls a victim at times to various hawks, and in the northern regions the merlin (pigeon hawk) is evidently its chief avian enemy. Greaves (1941) mentions (European) sparrow hawks and peregrine falcons attacking birds at roosts in Egypt. Four- footed marauders, such as rats and weasels, sometimes take toll of the nestlings, and owing to the association with human habitations which has already been stressed the domestic cat must be accounted an im- portant enemy. Hantzsch (1905) particularly mentions prowling cats as special enemies about the farms and settlements of Iceland. In continental Europe the cuckoo frequently lays its eggs in nests of the white wagtail, and as this means that the wagtails can rear no brood of their own, since the rightful young ones are ejected from the nest by the young cuckoo, the cuckoo must be included in the list of enemies. A list of invertebrate parasites is given by Niethammer (1937), and the same author states that not a few nestlings appear to succumb to the attacks of the larvae of the fly Protocalliphora caerulea. WHITE WAGTAIL Ala Fall and winter.—The white wagtail is a migrant in the northern parts of its range, and in fall there is a southward movement to the Mediterranean region and Africa. In the British Isles there is a reg- ular passage down the west coast of Great Britain and both east and west coasts of Ireland, consisting, no doubt, mainly of birds from Ice- land. It has been shown in Germany (e. g.,in Helgoland) that the first arrivals are young birds. Later old and young pass together (Weigold, 1926). In winter quarters, according to most observers, it seems generally to frequent the vicinity of water and may be found either singly or in small parties or in flocks, which may reach very large dimensions. It may, however, also be found well away from water. It is at roosting time that gregarious tendencies are most pronounced, for in regions where many winter, as in Egypt, hundreds and sometimes even thousands will assemble to roost together, and similar gregarious roosting takes place during migration. Reed beds and areas of tangled swamp vegetation are the sites most favored, but buildings and trees (sometimes even in towns), bushes, ivy on walls, and other sites are also made use of. Greaves (1941) has given an interesting account of roosting habits in Egypt, where enormous numbers roost in sugarcane by the Nile. He says: “The birds circle round and up and down, con- stantly changing directions and calling. It was not clear whether those already down called, but it seemed obvious that the leaders of the flocks were trying to find out the places where others were already roosting, and when the leaders went down the majority followed at once or after making another short flight. Generally, they dropped like stones, with closed wings, until just above the cane, sometimes from a height of forty feet or more. It was exceedingly difficult to assess numbers, but there was no doubt that on favourable occasions a single observer might see as many as 2000. Once down they rarely took to wing again unless disturbed.” This wasin January. The same kind of thing can be observed on a much smaller scale in Europe. Greaves further states that white wagtails wintering in Egypt “exercised a territorial habit in feeding, and regularly frequented the same garden. A male would dispute his right with another male but generally tolerate a female on his territory, sometimes two, but as observations continued it seemed clear that the association was a loose one. The female for most of the season was in close attendance on the male, and often fol- lowed him, but at other times fed alone.” DISTRIBUTION Breeding range.—Iceland, Faeroes, and practically all Europe from the Arctic Ocean to the Mediterranean and from Portugal to the Urals, but excluding the British Isles, where the form is replaced by the pied wagtail (M. a. yarrellii). Also Kolguev, Corsica, Asia Mi- nor, and Syria. 12 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Winter range.—Southern Europe and Africa south to Kenya and Uganda, Belgian Congo (Uele River), Ubangi Shari, Sierra Leone, and Liberia; also Madeira, Palestine, southern Arabia, and Iraq. Spring migration.—Leaves Equatorial Africa in March. Present in Kgypt until early April (late date, May 2). Passage through Brit- ish Isles mid-March to early in June. Passage of males begins March in Helgoland, that of females from April 9. Reaches breeding grounds in Germany and Holland in March-April, southern Finland begin- ning of April, and far north of Europe early in May (first arrivals recorded at Vads6, northern Norway, May 4, and at Ust Zylma, north- ern Russia, May 12). Arrives southern coastal districts of Iceland at the end of April and beginning of May (early date, April 15). Fall migration—Leaves Iceland in August and September (re- corded Westmann Islands until October 10). Passage in British Isles mid-August to early in October, in north and central Europe August to October. Even as far north as south Finland some are still passing even in November. Arrives Egypt early October (earliest date, October 7). Reaches Equatorial Africa October. Casual records.—Jan Mayen, Azores. MOTACILLA ALBA OCULARIS Swinhoe SWINHOE’S WAGTAIL HABITS This is a northern Siberian race of the common white wagtail of Europe, from which it differs in having a black or dusty streak through the eye and having much more white on the wing coverts. Its known breeding range in northern Siberia seems to extend from the Yenisei and Lena Rivers eastward to Plover Bay on the Chukotski Peninsula, the nearest point to Alaska, and southward in the interior to Lake Baikal. It is an extremely rare bird in Alaska, and some of the published sight records are open to doubt. Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) writes: “Although this bird has been taken repeatedly at Plover Bay, Siberia, and thence throughout a large portion of Northeastern Asia, including China and Formosa, to the Lake Baikal region, it appears to be almost unknown in Alaska. In fact its claim as a bird of the Terri- tory rests upon the capture of a single specimen, a young bird in sum- mer plumage, by Captain Kellett and Lieutenant Wood in ‘Northwest America’, as recorded in the Brit. Mus. Cat. Birds, X, 473.” The 1931 Check-list gives two Alaska records, Attu Island and mouth of the Yukon, both sight records. The former is based on the following statement by Lucien M. Turner (1886) : I was looking out of my window on the morning of May 14, 1881, watching the vessel, which was to take me to Unalashka Island, enter the harbor. I saw a bird SWINHOE’S WAGTAIL 13 just beneath the window and on the ground, not more than seven feet from my eyes. At the first glance I supposed the bird to be Plectrophanaz nivalis. A mo- ment sufficed to convince me that it was not. I ran to get my gun; and, as I opened the door, of the entry-way, to get out, the door opened directly on the bird, which, with a chirp precisely like that of Budytes flavus leucostriatus, flew off to a distance of 75 yards and alighted. I approached as nearly as I dared and fired at it, but failed to obtain it, as the gun was loaded with No. 3 shot. It flew off beyond the hills and was not seen again. This may, of course, have been ocularis, but it seems much more likely that it was dwgens, which is common on the nearby Commander Islands. The record for the mouth of the Yukon is based on the following statement by Dr. Louis B. Bishop (1900) : “On the morning of August 28 the Robert Kerr, on which I was a passenger, was hindered from proceeding by a gale and low water on the bar, and was made fast to the bank at the Aphoon mouth of the Yukon. As I came on deck I saw half a dozen white wagtails fly about the vessel and settle in the grass close by. While I returned for my gun they left, but a thorough ac- quaintance with Motacilla alba in Egypt, where it is abundant during the winter, leaves me no doubt that these birds were wagtails.” These probably were Swinhoe’s wagtails, but no specimens were taken. The most remarkable American record, which is supported by a specimen and so not open to question, is Lyman Belding’s (1883) Lower California record ; he reports “a single specimen shot January 9, 1882, during a cold gale from the north. It was found on a drift of sea-weed on the beach.” His specimen was an adult in winter plumage and was taken at La Paz, near the southern extremity of the peninsula. It seems hardly likely that this wandering waif could have crossed the broad expanse of the Pacific Ocean, unless it had been transported on some ship from southern Asia. It may, of course, have wandered across Bering Strait and then followed the Pacific coastline southward, but it is strange that no other specimen has ever been taken or seen anywhere along this coast south of Alaska. I’. Seymour Hersey (1916), who made two trips to northern Alaska to gather material for this work, published the following report on his experience with Swinhoe’s wagtail: “Although this bird has been considered merely a straggler to Alaska, there are reasons for believing that the species is slowly extending its range and becoming established on our coast. During the northern cruise a number of individuals were seen between Kotzebue Sound and Cape Lisburne. “At Chamisso Island, on August 1, a pair of birds were carrying food into a crevice in the rocks at an inaccessible point on the cliff. One or two were also seen at other points, and at Cape Lisburne I succeeded in shooting a bird which, unfortunately, fell on the farther side of a creek where it could not be found.” Alfred M. Bailey (1926), who spent parts of two seasons in northern 14 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Alaska, says of this wagtail: “Only one specimen was seen on the Alaska side and that at Wales on June 23. While travelling down the coast by dog sled I found a mud nest in an abandoned igloo. The native with me told me it was the nest of a little bird ‘all same snow- bird, little longer’. It was similar to the nest which I found in the cliff along Providence Bay, but I was unable to carry it with me for possible identification.” N. G. Buxton (J. A. Allen, 1905) found Swinhoe’s wagtail abundant around Gichiga and Marcova, in northeastern Siberia, where 17 speci- mens were collected; he says in his notes: “The first birds arrive the middle of May, but they do not become common before June1. Before and after the nesting time they are seen in twos and threes about the houses and along the river banks and seacoast, but they never collect in flocks like the Yellow Wagtails, and are seldom seen far back on the tundra. They nest in the crevices in the banks of the streams and along the seacoast and on the ground in the grassy places along the streams. They are good songsters, singing especially while on the wing. They begin to depart the latter part of August and are seldom seen after the middle of September.” Migration.—Swinhoe’s wagtail is evidently a common migrant through China. Tsen-Hwang Shaw (1936) records it as passing through Hopei Province in April and again in September and the first part of October. “A few of these birds winter in some warm places within the territory of Hopei province.” Vaughan and Jones (1918) write: The Streak-eyed Wagtail is an exceedingly common bird of passage at Hong Kong, Macao, and on the Kwang Tung coast generally. Although appearing as early as August 9 on migration, the latter part of September or early October is the more usual time for their advent, when immense numbers may be seen on the cricket-ground and in the Naval dockyard and elsewhere on the island of Hong Kong. The birds on their passage usually roost in the trees, and as many as fifty were observed to crowd themselves, with much bickering, into a small tree in the Naval dockyard. They leave again on the spring migration in April, and probably only breed in the far north of Asia; they do not occur inland, so that their migration is along the coast-line. Johan Koren, collecting for Thayer and Bangs (1914), reported that “Swinhoe’s wagtail arrived at Nijni Kolymsk, on May 15, 1912, and in the autumn of 1911 was observed as late as Sept. 21.” Nesting—Aside from the probable nests mentioned by Messrs. Hersey and Bailey, no nest seems to have been found in Alaska, but several have been found in Siberia. Thayer and Bangs (1914) say that “a nest with a set of six eggs was taken at Nijni Kolymsk, June 11,1912. It was built under the roof of a log cabin in the village.” Mr. Bailey (1926) writes: “A nest was found July 5 with five badly incubated eggs, in a little crevice in a crumbling rock cliff SWINHOE’S WAGTAIL 15 facing Providence Bay, about twenty feet from the ground. The nest was of grasses, plastered together with mud and lined with a few feathers, as in a robin’s nest. It was fastened rather firmly into the nesting cranny. Unfortunately, I fell with the nest, breaking the eggs. The parent birds hovered overhead all the time I was attempt- ing to climb the rotten walls, one of them having flushed from the nest when I first discovered it.” Theodore Pleske (1928) mentions a nest and six eggs of Swinhoe’s wagtail, taken on June 19, 1902, at the mouth of the Elijdep River, of which he says: “The nest is large, solidly built and thick-walled; it is made of dry grass blades of the preceding year interwoven with twigs, sometimes fairly thick, of a small shrub, probably Betula mana, and tufts of moss or lichen. The inner layer of the nest is formed of finer grass so arranged that the material becomes finer and finer toward the lining. The cavity itself is abundantly furnished with hair of the wild reindeer very skilfully selected from the finest tufts and in addition a feather of the Snowy Owl (Vyctea nyctea).” A set of five eggs in the Wilson C. Hanna collection was taken near Lake Baikal on May 30, 1898, from a nest situated on the ground, composed of roots and moss and lined with fur. Eggs.—Five or six eggs generally constitute the full set for the Swinhoe’s wagtail. Mr. Pleske (1928) describes the eggs referred to above as follows: “The eggs have a white ground color covered with small spots of a drab brown (Ridgway, Pl. 46, drab) uniformly disposed over the surface and forming a wreath at the large end and a small number of black lines on the large ends of some of the eggs.” Mr. Hanna describes his eggs as ovate in shape, slightly glossy white, and thickly marked, more heavily on the large ends, with fine markings of “buffy brown,” “buffy olive,” and “light brownish olive.” The measurements of 26 eggs average 20.1 by 15.0 millimeters; the eggs showing the 4 extremes measure 22.0 by 15.8, 17.3 by 14.5, and 19.9 by 14.1 millimeters. Plumages.—As Swinhoe’s wagtail is considered to be only a sub- species of the common white wagtail, its molts and plumages probably follow the same sequence, as fully described in Witherby’s Hand- book (1919). In Nelson’s “The Birds of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean” (1883), facing page 63, there is a fine colored plate of an adult male in full spring plumage, which shows the characters of the subspecies very clearly. And in Turner’s “Contributions to the Natural History of Alaska” (1886), facing page 178, there is a good colored plate of the adult and young in winter. La Touche (1930) says of the immature plumages: “Young birds are entirely dull grey on the upper parts, the forehead grey of a 16 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM lighter tint, a white eyebrow and a blackish trans-ocular stripe; the sides of the head are mottled with grey, the throat feathers are edged with black and the breast has a blackish crescent-shaped patch. The face and throat are generally suffused with yellow. After the autumn moult the young bird has the forehead and the forecrown white, but the hind crown is grey like the rest of the upper parts. The black begins to appear on the head during the first winter.” Food.—Mr. Shaw (1936) says: “This bird, like several other wag- tails, is insectivorous. Its food consists of spiders, beetles, and some other insects and their larvae.” Behavior.—Mr. Hersey writes (1916) : “My failure to secure speci- mens was due to the excessively restless habits of the birds. When on the ground they were largely concealed by intervening clumps of moss and the general character of the tundra, while they were liable to take wing at a moment’s notice and usually flew long distances. Their flight was so erratic that it was exceedingly difficult to shoot them on the wing.” DISTRIBUTION CoNTRIBUTED BY BrerRNAaRD WILLIAM TUCKER Data on winter and summer ranges and migrations are summarized by Paludan (1932), whose paper should be consulted for fuller particulars. Breeding range.—Northeast Siberia from the Tchuktchi Peninsula west to the Yenisei (Turukhansk) and south to the Stanovoi Mountains. Winter range—South China, Formosa, Hainan, Indochina, Tenas- serim, Burma, Assam, West Bengal, Philippines. Spring migration —Leaves winter quarters in April; last recorded north Kansu May 8, North Chihli May 10, Amurland May 10; arrival at Nijni Kolymsk, northeast Siberia, May 15. Recorded Bering Island from May 9. Fall migration—Recorded Nijni Kolymsk as late at September 21; Chihli, September 15 to October 10; Szechwan, September—November ; Kwangtung, September. MOTACILLA ALBA LUGENS Kittlitz BLACK-BACKED WAGTAIL CONTRIBUTED BY WINSOR MARRETT TYLER HABITS A black-backed wagtail was taken on Attic, now called Attu, Island on May 4, 1913, apparently the first and so far the only record of the BLACK-BACKED WAGTAIL iv occurrence of the species in North America. John E. Thayer and Outram Bangs (1921) published the record of its capture: During the course of the expedition to the Arctic coasts of Hast Siberia and Northern Alaska in 1913 and 1914, upon which Messrs. Joseph Dixon and W. Sprague Brooks went as zoological collectors, their power schooner, the ‘Polar Bear,” put into the harbor at Attic Island, the outermost of the Aleutian chain, in early May, 1913. From the deck of the vessel here several black and white Wagtails, recognized as Motacilla lugens Kittlitz, were seen flitting about the beaches, and on May 4, one adult male was secured. This specimen, now No. 21590 collection of John H. Thayer, is the first, we believe to be recorded from North America. J. D. D. La Touche (1930) in his handbook of the birds of eastern China gives the range of the black-backed wagtail thus: This fine Wagtail summers in “Kamtschatka, Commander Is., Kurile Is., Askold Is., Hokkaido and N. Hondo (Awomori), and on the Aleutian Is. [7], and its extra-Chinese winter range includes South Japan, the Riu Kiu Is., and Formosa.’ * * * The Kamtschatkan Wagtail is quite common at Swatow during the winter, but it does not appear to have been noticed by Mell in the interior of Kwangtung or by Vaughan and Jones on the West River. At Foochow it is common enough on passage and a fair number may be seen there in winter as well. * * * At Chinkiang I saw a good many, but chiefly in spring. At Shaweishan it was observed from the 8th March to the 8th May, and in October. This Wagtalil is found on wet fields, marshy ground, and mud-fiats. I never saw it in the valley of the Min above Foochow, nor in the mountains. Sten Bergman (1935) gives the following account (freely trans- lated from the German) of the black-backed wagtail in Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands: The form of white wagtail that breeds in Kamchatka is Motacilla alba lugens. It is very common inland as well as on the seacoast, but commoner on the latter. I met it in all parts of the peninsula that I visited during the summer. The first acquaintance that I made with it was on Cape Lopatka, where our ship had a mishap. Here it was everywhere on the seashore, especially on the eastern side, on the rocky shores, where the white wings of the birds contrasted with the dark stones. On the coast of the Pacific Ocean I found it breeding in all the creekS near my camp between Cape Lopatka and Petropawlowsk. Farther north on the same coast Malaise found the black-backed wagtail breeding at Cape Olga, and I found it myself at Ust Kamchatsk. On the Okhotsk Sea I found it in family parties from Cape Lopatka to Bolsheretsk between August 20 and September 2. Malaise found it in the fall of 1921 on Kronoki Lake. In the dry woods the black-backed wagtail is naturally absent. It needs water in order to prosper, and I have never seen one on Kamchatka far from a stream or Jake. Its call seems to me identical to that of the white wagtail. Next to the iark, it is the earliest of the small migrants to arrive in Kamchatka. In 1921 I saw the first example in Petropawlowsk on April 22, but sometimes they come even earlier. They generally leave the country at the end of Sep- tember, but some remain even longer, and I saw a wagtail in Petropawlowsk on October 22. Motacilla alba lugens builds its nest in many different kinds of places. The normal one is on the shore of the sea or a river, on the ground, not far from water. but the wagtail is also fond of human society and sometimes builds its 18 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM nest about houses. Building begins in the first half of May. I found a pair on May 14th that were already busy with their nest under the projection of the roof of a house in Petropawlowsk. In Klutschi I found a nest on the roof of a native hut, another on a balagan (a drying rack for salmon), and a third on a boat drawn up on the shore of a river. The nests are large and firm, and are similar to those of the white wagtail. I collected three nests which are now in the Swedish National Museum. The three are almost entirely lined with animal hair, generally from reindeer. Scarcely a feather occurs in any of the nests. The eggs are laid at the end of May. I found two nests with freshly laid eggs ~ on the 30th and 31st of May near Klutschi. The first pair, whose nest was col- lected on the 30th of May, immediately began to build a new one about 20 meters from the site of the earlier one in a drawn-up skiff, and had on June 12th a complete nest with five eggs. The building consumed 9 days. The eggs agree in color and size with those of the white wagtail. The wagtail, except Hirundo rustica tytleri, is the only small bird in Kam- chatka that seeks human companionship, and nests in houses. This form breeds commonly on all the Kurile Islands, according to Yama- shina. The wagtail is the first of all the birds to arrive in the Kuriles in the spring. After the young have flown, the wagtails are found in family groups along the seashore. Field marks.—According to Bernard W. Tucker the male in breed- ing plumage differs from Jf. a. alba and ocularis in having a black back. He says that it is much like the pied wagtail (J. a. yarrellit) of the British Isles but differs in having the secondaries wholly or largely white and a black streak through the eye as in ocularis and that the female and the male in winter have gray backs, or largely gray, and could not be distinguished from ocularis in the field; indeed many specimens in the hand appear to him to be separable only with difficulty. Winter.—The habits are similar to those of other races of J/. alba. La Touche (1930) states that in China it is found on wet fields, marshy ground, and mud flats. DISTRIBUTION Breeding range-—Kamchatka, Kurile Islands, Sakhalin, Yezzo, and north Hondo. Westerly limits somewhat uncertain; recorded from Askold Island and the Amur; but “apparently not on the Amur,” according to Hartert and Steinbacher (19388). Winter range-—Southeast China (Lower Yangtse, Fokhien, and Kwangtung), south Japan, Riu-Kiu Islands, and Formosa. Spring migration.—Data on migration are summarized by Paludan (1932). Noted passing at Shaweishan, off the mouth of the Yangtse, from March 8 to May 8; arrives Kuriles from early March, but said not to do so in Kamchatka until April—May. Fall migration.—Gone from Kuriles by end October; recorded at Ussuria and Shaweishan in October and Lower Yangtse in November. ALASKA YELLOW WAGTAIL 19 MOTACILLA FLAVA ALASCENSIS (Ridgway) ALASKA YELLOW WAGTAIL HABITS This pretty little bird is our American representative of a wide- ranging species of northern Europe and Asia, from Norway and Sweden to northeastern Siberia. It is one of the few Asiatic species that have wandered across Bering Strait and become more or less firmly established in Alaska, but the yellow wagtail has become more firmly established than the others and is now really abundant in its limited range on this continent, from Point Barrow and Kotzebue Sound to the mouth of the Nushagak River, on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska. It probably breeds also on St. Matthew Island and per- haps on other islands in Bering Sea. On the tundra back of Nome, in July 1911, we were surprised to find the yellow wagtail to be one of the most characteristic and most conspicuous of the small land birds of the region. The young were on the wing then and were much in evidence everywhere, especially in the willow patches and around the small ponds on the tundra, but also on the outskirts of the town. Except near the town they were quite shy, especially when on the ground, but they were constantly flitting about over us, with their peculiar, buoyant, billowy flight and continuous twittering notes. Dr. Nelson (1887) says that “in the vicinity of Saint Michaels it is one of the most familiar and common land birds, and as one walks over the open tundra its familiar clinking, metallic note strikes pleas- antly on the ear. It usually has a preference for the boggy, moss- grown portions of the country.” Dr. Grinnell (1900) found it to be “an abundant summer bird of the coast region of Kotzebue Sound.” The first specimen he secured “was flushed from the weedy border of a dwarf alder thicket near a pond.” Our Alaska race of this species was once supposed to be identical with the form found in eastern Siberia, W/. 7. lewcostriatus, which is decidedly duller in coloration than the brightly colored, olive-and- yellow type form that is found in northern Europe. Our bird is now regarded as distinct from the Siberian race, and is even duller in coloration; Mr. Ridgway (1904) describes alascensis as similar to M. f. leucostriatus, “but slightly smaller, especially the bill; colora- tion duller, the yellow of the under parts paler and less pure, the chest more distinctly clouded or blotched with grayish, the olive- green of rump, etc., less pronounced.” Spring.—By just what route the Alaska yellow wagtail reaches its summer home on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska does not seem to be definitely known; and it never will be known until enough specimens 20 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM have been collected on migration in eastern Asia to separate our bird~ from the form breeding in northeastern Siberia. It probably fol- lows the same route by which the species originally invaded this continent. Dr. Nelson (1888) says that it “makes its appearance the last of May or the first of June, according to the season.” And Lucien M. Turner (1886) says: “This bird arrives about the 12th of June; a few days earlier or later, depending on the opening of the spring.” Herbert Brandt (1948) writes: “We did not observe this Palaearctic species as a transient about Hooper Bay during the migration, and it does not seem likely that such a conspicuous bird could escape us had it passed through our region in anything like the numbers that congregated in the mountains a little farther north. It seems prob- able that this wagtail arrives either from the north or directly across Bering Sea from its Asiatic winter haunts.” Courtship.—Dr. Nelson (1887) writes: When the male pays his addresses to the female in spring a peculiar perform- ance takes place, somewhat like that of the Yellow Chat. The male starts up from a bank or clump of bushes, and, rising for 20 or 80 yards at a sharp angle, suddenly stiffens and decurves his wings, at the same time slowly spreading and elevating his tail nearly perpendicularly to his body, and in this curious position he floats slowly down until within a foot or two of the ground, uttering a low, clear, and rapid medley of jingling notes which can only be compared to the sound made by lightly rattling together the links of a small steel chain. This performance is very commonly executed over a large snow-bank, as if the bird appreciated the contrast afforded by such a background. As he approaches the ground in his descent he suddenly glides away to a neighboring bush or knoll, whence he repeats the maneuver. Nesting.—Dr. Nelson (1887) says: Their nests are usually placed under the edge of a tussock or slightly over- hanging bank, bunch of grass, or in fact of any similar shelter, under which they can partially or wholly conceal the nest. Their preference, however, is for grassy borders of a rather steeply sloping bank, along the brow of which they place their nests. As one walks over the grass-covered places frequented by these birds, during the breeding season, he is likely to see a female flutter off her eggs at his feet, and, flying away a few yards, alight and glide away, mouse-like, among the grass with such rapidity that, unless closely watched, she quickly disappears. In some cases she will lie thus concealed for some time, and other times she joins the male at once and circles about overhead. He says that no two of his seven nests are exactly alike: The outer portion is usually composed of bits of grass and moss, pretty com- pactly arranged, with the central cavity well lined with some warm material, such as the hair of dogs and man, or Ptarmigan feathers, or a combination of the three. One nest is built mainly of fine grass lined with a closely felted layer of dogs’ hair. The second nest has a thin layer of moss and grass followed by one of feathers, and the six eggs it contains rest upon a layer of silky-brown club-mosses. The third is composed of a felted layer of dogs’ hair at the bottom, followed by a thin layer of feathers; this is succeeded by a still thinner layer of club-moss, and the eggs rest upon a felted layer of dogs’ hair. The fourth nest is composed of a uniform loosely joined structure of feathers and pieces of grass all mingled into a heterogeneous mass. ALASKA YELLOW WAGTAIL 21 Wilson C. Hanna has sent me the data for six sets of eggs of the Alaska yellow wagtail that came to him with the parent birds, five from the Meade River, 100 miles southeast of Barrow, and one from Wales, Alaska. Three nests were in the roots of small willows on the bank of the river, one was in long grass on the river bank, one was on a grassy knoll near some willow roots, and the nest at Wales was “sit- uated at mound at old dwelling place.” ‘The nests were made mainly of grasses and fine plant stems, with sometimes a few dead leaves, root- lets, mosses, or feathers. The three nests that he has in his collection are of “rather compact construction”; one has only the finer material for a lining, and another has a good lining of reindeer hair, mouse hair, moss, and a few feathers. The measurements of these nests vary in outside diameter from 4 to 4.5 inches, in inside diameter from 2 to 2.3, in outside depth from 2.5 to 3, and in inside depth from 1.7 to 1.8 inches. Dr. Lawrence H. Walkinshaw (1948) gives a somewhat simi- lar account of the nesting of this species near Bethel, Alaska. #'ggs.—The Alaska yellow wagtail lays four to seven eggs to a set, five and six being the commonest. Mr. Hanna gives me the follow- ing description of the 17 eggs in his collection: “The eggs are ovate to short-ovate and are without gloss. At first glance they look like some eges of the horned lark, but smaller in size. The ground color is ‘deep olive-buff’ to ‘dark olive-buff.’ The markings are fine and rather uni- form over the entire surface of the eggs, but in at least a few cases heavier on the larger end. The markings are ‘light brownish olive’ to ‘buffy olive’.” Dr. Nelson’s description (1887) is somewhat different; of a series of 37 eggs, he says: “The ground color of the eggs varies from a pale- greenish clay to a clayey white, over which extends a profuse confluent mottling, varying from slaty to reddish brown, which, in some cases, almost hides the ground color; in others the spots are large and less numerous, and do not cover the shells so completely. The eggs of the same set usually are of a similar shade and markings, and in but one set can the slightest traces of zigzag markings be found about the larger ends.” The measurements of 50 eggs average 19.1 by 14.4 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 20.9 by 15.3, 19.5 by 15.6, ‘18, 0 by 14.4, and 18.5 by 13.2 millimeters. Young.—Mr. Turner (1886) says that “incubation lasts ten to thir- teen days. The young birds are fed exclusively on insect food. They are able to fly in fifteen to eighteen days after hatching. The earliest birds sometimes hatch two broods of young in a season, as young just able to fly have been observed as late as August 18th.” When we were at Nome, around the middle of July, the young were fully fledged and on the wing; small parties were often seen about the houses on the out- 22 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM skirts of the town and on the beaches, where they evidently found an abundance of food. Plumages.—Ridgway (1904) notes no sexual difference in the juvenal plumage, which he describes as “above olive-brown, the wings and tail as in the autumnal plumage; superciliary stripe, malar stripe, and under parts pale yellowish buff, relieved by a conspicuous crescentic patch on chest of sooty black, connected laterally with a submalar stripe . of the same color along each side of the throat; bill, legs, and feet brownish.” The postjuvenal molt takes place between July and September. This involves some wing coverts and all the contour plumage, but not the rest of the wings or the tail. It produces a first-winter plumage, which is practically like that of the adult. Ridgway (1904) describes the young male in this plumage as “above plain olive, more grayish on head and rump; wings and tail as in adults; superciliary stripe, chin, and throat pale straw yellow, the first two paler, nearly white; rest of under parts pale buffy yellow or yellowish buff, paler (nearly white) on un- der tail-coverts ; chest tinged with brown, and with a distinct crescentic patch of darker brown; sides and flanks light grayish brown or olive.” He describes the young female as similar, but “chest less strongly tinged with brown and with only a few spots of darker brown.” As with some of the Eurasian races, there is probably quite an extensive prenuptial molt in birds of all ages, which involves all the contour plumage, most of the wing coverts and the central tail feathers, though we have not the material to show it in our subspecies. Adults have a complete postnuptial molt, beginning late in July and sometimes lasting through September. There seem to be no winter specimens available that are definitely known to belong to this subspecies, but the winter plumages are probably similar to those of closely allied races, which are fully described in Witherby’s Handbook (1919). Food.—Not much is known about the food of the Alaska yellow wagtail, which probably does not differ materially from that of the species elsewhere. Witherby’s Handbook (1919) says that the food of the European race consists “almost entirely of insects (coleoptera and larvae, diptera, orthoptera, larvae of lepidoptera, rhynchota, etc.). Saxby records small worms, larvae, aquatic insects, and small univalves, but these are probably exceptional and diptera constitute bulk of food.” Dr. Grinnell (1900) saw some of these wagtails feeding on salmon- berries, which grew plentifully near the alder thickets. He says also: “Several came around our tents at Mission Inlet daily for crumbs, and if I kept quiet they would come quite close. A wagtail would approach from the nearest grass-patch, sidling along, hopping daintily with ever- changing attitude and canting its head from one side to the other. At every step or two the bird would hesitate a moment before again ad- vancing, its tail nervously twitching up and down. If it spied a crumb, ALASKA YELLOW WAGTAIL 23 a quick dart and away the bird would fly to a safer rendezvous. The wagtails would also snap up lots of flies.” Behavior.—On July 18, 1911, I was exploring the tundra back of Nome, Alaska. From the top of a low hill I could see a small pond about a mile away and walked over to it, where I found three or four small ponds with wet meadows and marshy ground about them. On the way down over the tundra, as I approached a patch of low willows, I noticed a small bird, which at first I thought was a pipit, flying back and forth in front of me, going over the same space again and again until I became tired watching it and waiting for it to alight. It had a peculiar, billowy, fluttering flight, was twittering constantly, and seemed to be tied to one spot just in front of me, swinging back and forth like a pendulum. I soon saw that it was not a pipit, for I could recognize the bright yellow breast and the conspicuous white tail feathers of the Alaska yellow wagtail. It was my first experience with this lovely little bird, which was really abundant about the willow patches and around edges of the swampy ponds. The peculiar be- havior of this individual was probably due to the presence of young in that particular spot. There were plenty of fully fledged young on the wing, but there were probably others in the nests, for we saw adults with food in their bills. At low tide these birds, especially the young, resorted to the beaches to pick up bits of food left by the receding waves; here they flitted gracefully among the rocks or walked daintily over the wet ground, nodding their heads and flirting their tails after the manner of pipits or the other wagtails. They were always shy on the ground but, if flushed, would come back and circle overhead, where their restless and erratic flight made them difficult to shoot. Dr. Nelson (1887) writes: “Even during the breeding season they are ever on the alert, and the approach of a stranger to their haunts is sure to bring several of them from bush or flat to protest against the right-of-way. They may be distinguished, while yet far away, by their long, easy, swinging flight, undulating in their course like Spinus tristis, or a Woodpecker; drawing near, they circle slowly overhead, constantly uttering the sharp plé-plé-plé, or alighting for a moment upon a small bush or hummock, flirting their tails and moving rest- lessly about, apparently consumed with nervous impatience, and scarcely have they touched the ground ere they are again on the wing.” Votce.—The courtship flight song is referred to under that heading, and the call note is described above by Dr. Nelson. Dr. Grinnell (1900) referred to the latter note as a faint pe-weet, uttered at fre- quent intervals. These are the notes that I recorded as twittering notes; I never heard any very musical notes, nor anything that could be called a song. 24: BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Dr. Lawrence H. Walkinshaw (1948) observed that the “song was usually a high tzee-zee-zee, or a ter-ewee—ter-zwee—ewee-zwee. The regular rate of singing was about seven times per minute on warmer days during the morning. The birds sang periodically throughout the day, but not continuously.” Field marks.—The yellow wagtails can be recognized by their yellow or yellowish breasts, white throats, and dark cheek patches. Other- wise they closely resemble pipits in appearance and behavior. Fall.—Dr. Nelson (1887) says that “early in August the old birds commence to disappear, and by the middle of the month are seen only occasionally, although on the 18th of August they have been noted on Saint Lawrence Island. The young remain longer and are found in scattered parties all about the settlements and native houses in the same localities favored by the common Water Wagtail, which occurs sparingly along the coast at this season. The Yellow Wagtail trips daintly along the grassy margins of the muddy spots, its vibrating tail and slender form distinguishing it among the motley crowd of Savanna Sparrows, Lapland Longspurs, and common Wagtails which keep it company.” Mr. Turner (1886), probably referring to the young birds, says: By the 1st of September the birds of this species collect into small flocks, of eight to twenty in number, and remain as late as September 21st, at which date they have about all disappeared. They generally signalize their readiness to depart by assembling on the low banks, bordering the beach, and dart high into the air to return to the same, or similar, place after a few minutes time. At this particular season of the year they are extremely wary and difficult of approach. * * * JI once observed the bird on Attu Island (the westernmost of the Aleutian Chain) on Sunday, October 8, 1880. I chased the bird up and down for two hours, but was not able to get near enough for a shot, as it was very wild. It was evidently on the fall migration, and none were seen after that day. It does not remain on the Aleutian Islands during the breeding season. Like some other representatives of Asiatic species that breed in Alaska, this wagtail does not migrate down the Pacific coast of North America but prefers to retrace its steps over the ancestral route and migrate down the eastern coast of Asia to its winter haunts in south- eastern Asia and the islands beyond, perhaps across Bering Strait or through the western Aleutians. DISTRIBUTION Range.—According to the A. O. U. Check-list (1931) the Alaska yellow wagtail: “Breeds in the Arctic Zone in extreme northeastern Siberia and western Alaska from Point Barrow and Kotzebue Sound to Nushagak River; migrates through the western Aleutian Islands to eastern Asia.” AMERICAN PIPIT 25 ANTHUS SPINOLETTA RUBESCENS (Tunstall) AMERICAN PIPIT HABITS The pipit, apparently a frail but really a hardy bird, seeks its sum- mer home in regions that would seem to us most unattractive and forbidding, among the moss-covered, rocky hills on the bleak coast of Labrador, along the Arctic tundra to northern Alaska, up to 70° on the west coast of Greenland, and then far southward in the Rocky Mountains to Colorado and New Mexico, where it breeds only above tree limits on the wind-swept mountaintops. In the far north and in Labrador it breeds on low hills not far above sea level, but in the mountains its summer haunts become gradually higher as the tree limit rises; on Mount McKinley, Alaska, it breeds from 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude, in Oregon it is recorded as breeding above 8,500 feet, in Wyoming above 11,000, in Colorado above 12,000, and in New Mexico, at the southern limit of its breeding range, we may find it above 13,000 feet. On the Labrador coast we found pipits very common all along the coastal strip from Battle Harbor to Cape Mugford, on most of the rocky islands and on the inland hilltops above tree growth. In that region the only tree growth is found in the sheltered hollows back from the coast and in the inland valleys. Elsewhere the coastal strip is mostly bare rock, with a luxuriant growth of reindeer moss, other mosses and lichens clothing the hollows; in the more sheltered places a few small shrubs and dwarfed deciduous trees struggle for exist- ence. Insect life is abundant here during the long days of the short summer, so that the pipits have an ample food supply; they seem to thrive in even the most exposed places. Spring.—The pipit, although abundant in fall, seems to avoid New England to a large extent on the spring migration, for it is compara- tively rare and quite irregular here at that season. Its northward migration seems to be mainly west of the Alleghenies. This point is well illustrated in Milton B. Trautman’s (1940) account of the migration at Buckeye Lake, Ohio. “The first migrating American Pipits,” he says, “arrived between March 1 and 25. Flocks of mod- erate or large size, 15 to 500 birds, appeared to be dominant in spring, and only during the very last part of migration were groups of less than 10 birds often observed. The peak of migration occurred from the last of March until mid-April. Then it was possible to record as many as 800 individuals ina day. * * * Throughout spring the species was found principally in recently plowed fields, in wheat fields where the plants averaged less than 5 inches in height, in short-grass pastures, and on the larger mud flats about ‘sky ponds’ or overflow puddles.” 848290—50-——3 26 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Courtship —The song flight of the pipit is the most conspicuous part of the courtship performance. This is very well described by Joseph Dixon (1938), who observed it on Mount McKinley, as follows: “On May 20, 1926, high up among the vanishing snowfields on a rocky barren ridge at 4,000 feet, we watched a male pipit in full nuptial flight. It perched on a rock, then flew almost vertically into the sky for a distance of from 50 to 150 feet, singing a single note which was repeated constantly. Then with legs extended, feet spread out, and tail sticking upwards at a sharp angle, this male bird sang steadily as he fluttered his wings and floated down like a falling leaf, usually landing near the place from whence he began his flight.” Dr. Charles W. Townsend (Townsend and Allen, 1907) observed a similar flight-song in Labrador and gives the following information about it: As he went up he sang repeatedly a simple refrain, che-whée, che-whée with a vibratory resonance on the whée. Attaining an eminence of * * * per- haps 200 feet from the ground, he checked himself and at once began the descent. He went down faster and faster, repeating his song at the same time faster and faster. Long before he reached the ground he set his wings and tipped from side to side to break his descent. After remaining quiet on the ground for a few moments he repeated the performance and we watched him go up four or five times. On one occasion he was twenty seconds going up, emitting his refrain forty-eight times. In the descent he was quicker, accom- plishing it in ten seconds and singing thirty-two bars of his song. Gayle Pickwell (1947) noticed, on Mount Rainier, Wash., that two males in the vicinity of a female “were battling violently. One of the males was on the near-by snow. The other male plunged down from above with a determination rarely to be observed in avian bat- tles. * * * These pipits fought on the ground as well as in the air. One stayed largely on the snow while the other dashed upon him from above and there was no denying the seriousness of their struggles.” Nesting.—The two nests of the American pipit that I saw on the coast of Labrador in 1912 were probably typical of the species, in that locality at least. The first nest was shown to me on July 6, in the bare, rocky hills of Battle Island, by two of Dr. Grenfell’s nurses, Miss Coates and Miss Thompkins, whom I had met in Newfoundland. The nest was very prettily located on the side of a little moss-covered ridge or hummock, in a little valley near the top of the moss- and lichen- covered island; it was sunk deeply into the soft mosses that overhung the entrance on the side of the little cavity ; the nest seemed to be made entirely of fine, dry grasses. It contained five eggs, which I did not disturb. The incubating bird was quite tame and, if quietly ap- proached, could almost be touched on the nest. The other nest (pl. 2) was shown me by an Eskimo, on July 21, near Hopedale. It was similarly located, near the top of a bare, rocky hill, AMERICAN PIPIT Dak under the overhanging edge of a moss-covered hummock; it was a larger nest than the other and was made of fine twigs and coarse grasses and lined with finer grass; the four eggs that it contained were nearly ready to hatch. There is little to be said about the nests in other localities, except that they are always placed on the ground in decidedly open situations, but they are almost always more or less sheltered under some outcrop- ping rock or projecting stones, or under the overhang of some eminence. Some dried moss may be placed in the hollow to protect the eggs against the moisture from the ground, but the nests seem to be made almost entirely of dried grasses and to have no other warm lining. A nest mentioned in some notes sent to me by O. J. Murie was “placed in the moss at the edge of a rock, back under a willow root.” Of two nests observed by Gayle Pickwell (1947), “one was in a clump of yellow heather and another beneath the leaves of a purple aster.” Eggs—tThe American pipit lays four to seven eggs; four and five seem to be the commonest numbers. They are ovate and have very little gloss. The ground color is grayish white or dull white, some- times buffy white, but it is often so thickly covered with the markings that it is hardly visible and the egg appears to be of a dark chocolate color, indistinctly marked with small black lines. In the less heavily marked eggs the spots are more distinct and are in various shades of bright or dull browns, from chocolate to hair brown, or in some shades of drab or gray. Sometimes these markings are concentrated into solid color at the larger end. The measurements of 50 eggs in the United States National Museum average 19.9 by 14.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 21.8 by 15.5, 17.8 by 14.2, and 19.8 by 13.7 millimeters. Young.—The period of incubation does not seem to have been defi- nitely determined, but it probably does not differ materially from that of closely related European species, 15 or 14 days. According to the observations of Hazel S. Johnson (1933), at Wolf Bay, Labrador, the young leave the nest about 13 days after hatching. The brooding is done entirely by the female, but both sexes assist in feeding the young. “While in the nest the young were fed at quite regular intervals throughout the long July days. My notes show that they were fed as early as 4:30 a. m. (I believe that feeding started even earlier) and continued as late as 8:55 p.m. Rain and fog did not seem to retard feeding activities of the parent birds.” Her table indicates that the interval between feedings varied from 5 to 19 minutes; the number of feedings for a 2-hour period varied from 5 to 19; both of these periods were late in the day. She continues: As the female spent the greater part of her time on the nest, the male brought most of the food during the first six days. Flies and small larvae were the main 28 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM diet. One large larva or from two to four smaller ones were brought at one time so that each trip represented a fairly constant quantity of food. * * * Sometimes one parent did all the feeding but more often the food was divided and both fed, placing all of it in the mouth of one young bird then removing bits which they gave to others. Very rarely did the female eat any of the food brought by her mate. After feeding both birds would look expectantly at the nest. When a mass of excreta appeared it was promptly seized and consumed or carried away. In most eases the female secured it but evidently there was some competition between the parents for this privilege. During the last few days of the nesting period excreta were carried off and the nature of its disposal is unknown. The six young hatched on July 2; the growth of the young was uni- form; on July 6 pinfeathers were through the skin, and on the 11th the feathers were out of the sheaths. They were last seen in the nest in the late afternoon of the 15th. That evening they were out of the nest but nearby. Next morning a hawk was shot near the nest site and was reported to have been attacking young birds. ‘This may account for the fact that but three of the brood were seen on the 17th, with the two parent birds. Between July 16 and August 3 the family of three young with one or both parents was often seen about the woodpile and house of a local family about 300 yards from the nest site. * * * During the first two weeks out of the nest the young birds seemed to make little effort to find food for themselves but waited until the parent birds brought food and placed it in their mouths. Sometimes the old birds would utter a twittering chirp when food was found, whereupon one or more young would go to the parent to receive it. Plumages.—Dr. Dwight (1900) describes the juvenal plumage main- ly as follows: “Above, hair-brown streaked with black, the edgings of the back pale grayish wood-brown. * * * Below, creamy buff, palest anteriorly, streaked on the throat and breast rather broadly and on the sides faintly with clovebrown. Indistinct superciliary line and orbital ring buffy white; auriculars wood-brown.” An incomplete postjuvenal molt, which involves the contour plum- age but not the wings or the tail, occurs mainly in August. This pro- duces a first-winter plumage, which is practically indistinguishable from that of the adult. Dr. Dwight describes this as similar to the juvenal plumage, but “darker above with less obvious streaking and deeper pinkish buff below, the streaking heavier, forming a pectoral band and extending to the flanks; an immaculate pale buff chin. The superciliary line extends behind the eye as a whitish band.” Ridgway (1904) says that the young in the first autumn and winter are “similar to winter adults, but upper parts decidedly brown and superciliary stripe and under parts rather deeper brownish buff, with streaks on chest, etc., less sharply defined.” Dr. Dwight (1900) says that the first nuptial plumage is “acquired by a partial prenuptial moult, in April, involving most of the body plumage which has suffered much from wear and become darker above AMERICAN PIPIT 29 with the buff tints nearly lost below. The extent of the fading is sur- prising. The new plumage is buff tinged, but wear during the breeding season produces a black and white streaked bird, the buffs being wholly lost through fading.” Ridgway (1904) says of this first nuptial plum- age: “The species breeds in this plumage, which is very different from the fully adult summer dress, * * * upper parts grayish, as in summer adults, but superciliary stripe and under parts paler (dull pale buffy or dull buffy white) than in winter adults, the chest, sides, and flanks conspicuously streaked with dusky.” Adults have a complete postnuptial molt late in summer, mainly in August, and a partial prenuptial molt, mainly in April, involving most of the contour plumage. Fall birds in fresh plumage are browner above and more buffy below, and spring birds are grayer above and paler below, the spring female being less grayish above, more brownish, and more heavily spotted below than the male; but the two sexes are very much alike in all plumages. Food.—Forbush’s (1929) account of the food seems to cover the subject quite satisfactorily, as follows: The food of the Pipit consists largely of insects, small molluscs and crustaceans, small seeds and wild berries. More than 77 percent of its food has been found to consist of insects, of which over 64 percent are injurious. The seeds are chiefly weed seeds and waste grain. Professor Aughey found an average of 47 locusts and 4 other insects in the stomachs of some Nebraska specimens. The Pipit takes weevils, bugs, grasshoppers, crickets, plant-lice and spiders. It renders valuable service to the cotton growers of the South by destroying boll weevils. Exami- nation of the stomachs of 68 birds taken in cotton fields showed that half of them had eaten 120 boll weevils. Mr. A. H. Howell says that Pipits pick up weevils throughout the winter, and in the spring they follow the plowman and capture both weevils and grubs. During an outbreak of grain aphids, these destructive insects constituted more than 70 per cent of the food of a Pipit. Mr. McAtee estimated that a flock of these birds then present must have destroyed at least a million of these pests daily. According to Preble and McAtee (1923), “this species is reported by Hanna to feed during its stay on the [Pribilof] islands in fall migra- tion almost exclusively on maggots on the killing fields. However, the contents of two stomachs, collected August 31, 1914, and September 20, 1916, contained no trace of such maggots. The food in these gizzards consisted of 10 per cent vegetable matter (seeds of a violet, Viola langs- dorfiz) and 90 percent animal matter. The components of the animal food were beetles (ground beetles, Pterostichus sp.; and weevils, Lophalophus inquinatus) , 87 per cent ; caterpillars, 33.5 per cent; plant bugs (/rbisia sericans), 8 per cent; spiders, 7.5 per cent; flies, 2.5 per cent; and Hymenoptera, 1.5 per cent.” Dr. George F. Knowlton writes to me: “On October 5, 1942, W. E. Peay and I encountered a large flock of the American pipit, extending from the Petersboro foothills in Cache Valley to Collinston, Utah. 30 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The birds were very abundant along the road, feeding among Russian thistle. Hundreds also were feeding in alfalfa and in the wheat stubble, many alighting in plowed fields. Eighteen were collected and an examination of their stomachs revealed: 1 thysanuran; 19 collem- bolans; 102 Homoptera, 76 being aphids (of which 14 were pea aphids) and 13 leafhoppers. Hemiptera constituted the largest group with 1,527 recognizable specimens, of which 986 were adult and 291 nymphal false chinch bugs and 39 mirids. The 183 beetles included 46 weevils of which 8 were alfalfa weevils, 1 a clover leaf weevil and 19 adult clover root curculios. Ten of the 29 Hymenoptera were ants; most of the 14 Diptera were adults. In addition to the insects there were 8 spiders and mites, 92 seeds and a number of stomachs contained vary- ing amounts of plant fragments.” Practically all the pipit’s food is obtained on the ground, in short grass or low-growing herbage, on bare ground or open mud flats, on drifted sea wrack along the coast, and on the salt or brackish marshes along tidal streams. On its alpine breeding ground it has been seen picking up insects on the snowbanks, where they had been blown by the wind. In all such places it walks along daintily on its long legs, pick- ing up seeds or insects from the ground or herbage, sometimes running rapidly in pursuit of an escaping insect. Mr. Cogswell writes to me: “On January 11, 1942, at Dominguez Lagoon, south of Los Angeles, I observed pipits varying their usual ground foraging procedure by perching on the branches of tall weeds growing in the shallow water and reaching for insects (?) among heads of the plants.” Mr. Trautman (1940) reports an interesting feeding reaction: “I saw some 20 individuals of this species on a peat island near the east end of Cranberry marsh. They faced a moderate breeze, and indi- viduals from the group were flying into the air 3 or 4 feet, capturing moderate-sized flying beetles, and then dropping upon the island again. Usually 4 or 5 birds were in the air at once. The continual bobbing up and down was a strange sight, and somewhat resembled that of trout in a pool rising after insects.” Lucien M. Turner says in his unpublished notes that about the whal- ing stations in northern Ungava, where the carcasses of the white whales are left to rot, incredible numbers of flies are attracted and their maggots “fairly make the earth creep.” Great numbers of pipits resort to these places to feast on these larvae. He also saw these birds wading in the shallow pools on the tidal flats, searching for aquatic worms and larvae. Behavior.—Pipits are essentially terrestrial birds and spend most of their time on the ground, in the fields, meadows, marshes, mud flats, beaches, or on the bare rocks of their summer haunts. Some writers have stated that they never alight anywhere else, but such is certainly not so. In Labrador we frequently saw them walking on AMERICAN PIPIT 31 the roofs of tilts, where codfish was drying, or alighting on the roofs of the fish houses and even on the roofs of the dwelling houses and on the rocks around them. On migrations, we often see them perched in trees, on wire fences or fence posts, on the ridge poles of houses, and on telephone or telegraph wires. Dr. Knowlton writes to me that, in the locality where he collected the birds referred to above, “thou- sands of pipits were present over an area 6 to 15 miles wide. The birds would fly ahead of the car, alighting on fence posts and fence wires near the approaching vehicle. However, when disturbed by a man walking along the road, large numbers would sometimes fly away and alight in the field at some distance from the collector. They seldom were much disturbed by the firing of a .22 rifle or a small 44x1 bird gun.” When on the ground the pipit walks gracefully and prettily, with a nodding motion of the head, like a dove, and with the body swaying slightly from side to side as he moves quietly along; sometimes he runs more rapidly. His colors, soft grays and browns, match his sur- roundings so well, and he moves so quietly with an easy gliding mo- tion, that before we realize that he is there he rises with a large flock of his fellows, as if exploding from nowhere, and they go flying off to some safer spot, twittering as they fly. Francis H. Allen contributes the following note: “At one time I found the grass fairly ‘swarming’ with them at a fence corner, and one might have gone within two or three rods without seeing them, so closely did they creep along the ground. Here one of them stood on a large stone, spread his tail prettily, and scratched his right ear deftly with his right foot. The books seem to say that when on the ground they wag their tails constantly, but this is not literally true, for the tail is sometimes quiet as the bird walks, and extended straight behind, the whole slender bird presenting a peculiarly flat appear- ance as he steps daintily along. I thought that the tail was more constantly wagged when the bird was standing than when he walked.” Observers differ as to the amount of tail wagging and when it oc- curs, but the pipit belongs to the wagtail family and must indulge in a certain amount of it. Audubon (1841) stated that the pipit wags its tail when it stops walking; Forbush (1929) says “almost con- stantly moving the tail”; and others have referred to it as a constant habit. Probably there is some individual variation in the habit between different birds, or at different times in the same individual. Milton P. Skinner (1928) watched particularly for this habit in North Carolina and found that it was not a constant one. He noted that “their bodies and tails swung from side to side in time with each step,” and says: In every case this sidewise movement of the tail was an accompaniment of the body movement, and I did not see a single Pipit move its tail sidewise inde- 32 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM pendently of the body. But I found there was another movement of the tail, up and down, that was sometimes made. Of one hundred and forty birds watched on January 28, 1927, some tipped their tails up and down rapidly while walking and while resting on the ground but many of them did not. Ten days later, I noted that only a few of these pipits moved their tails up and down, and that even these movements were noticeable only when the birds alighted after flight, and then there were only two to five movements. On March 1, 1927, I observed that when these birds stopped walking they moved their tails more or less regularly, but the motion was not noticeable while they walked, and: disappeared altogether when they ran. The pipit’s flight is buoyant and undulating, powerful and swift, but rather erratic, as if the bird were undecided where to go or to stop. A large flock of pipits in flight is an interesting sight; they rise sud- denly and unexpectedly from almost underfoot, those nearest first and then rank after rank progressively, as if bursting out of the earth; all join into one big flock before our astonished eyes and go sweeping off in a loose, undulating bunch, some rising and some falling in a confusing mass, like so many swirling snowflakes. They swing in a wide circle over the field and back again, swoop downward as if about to alight, then off again as if undecided, and finally drop out of sight on the brown earth in the distance, or perhaps return again and settle near the spot from which they started. Dr. Witmer Stone (1937) thus describes the actions of a large flock of pipits on a burnt-over area: After circling in a large arc they came drifting back and settled down near where they were before. Several times later they flushed but always returned to the burnt area. By watching exactly where they alighted I was able to detect them scattered all over the ground, about one bird to each square foot, where thickest. Their backs had a distinct olive cast in the strong light but the streaks on the under parts were only seen clearly when the birds were breast on. They all walked deliberately or sometimes took half a dozen steps in rapid succession, almost a run, though less regular. They all moved in the same general direction and as I moved parallel with them I could see them pressing straight ahead through the grassy spots and between the grass tufts and the stems of the bushes that had escaped the fire. They kept their heads pretty well down on the shoul- ders and leaned forward, dabbing at the ground with the bill, to one side or the other, apparently picking up scattered seeds of grasses and sedges. The tail was carried parallel with the ground or tilted up a trifle while the tips of the wings hung just below its base. The tail moved a little as the bird advanced but there was no distinct tilting as in the Palm Warbler or the Water-Thrush. Voice—The American pipit is not a gifted songster, but the full song as heard on the breeding grounds is rather pleasing. It sometimes sings a weaker suggestion of this song during its spring migration in April and May. Dr. Harrison F. Lewis has sent me the following note on this song: “Pipits sing a good deal when passing Quebec, P. Q., in the spring migration. Here the song is commonly uttered while the birds are on the ground, but I have heard them sing from a tree, in which they perched freely. I do not appear to have any record of AMERICAN PIPIT 33 this species singing while in flight. The song is simple, but pleasant and attractive. It sounds like ke-tsée, ke-tsée, ke-tsée, ke-tsée, ke-tsée, tr-r-r-r-7-7-1, ke-tsée, ke-tsée, ke-tsée, tr-r-r-r-r-r-r, ke-tsée, etc., and is apparently of indefinite duration. Sometimes the little trills are introduced into it frequently, at other times sparingly. The song is not thin, like that of the black and white warbler, but pretty and tinkling, though rather weak.” The song-jlight has been described under courtship, and the flight- song, as heard on the breeding grounds, is described in the following notes from O. J. Murie: “The pipits were generally shy. When I ap- proached one he would fly off with a sharp ¢see-seep, tsee-seep, tsee-see- seep, then the impulse to sing would come over him and he would flutter his wings and go through his performance. The song was usually a repetition of syllables, see-see-see-see-see — —, a peculiar resonant kr accompanying and barely preceding each see, a quality impossible to describe adequately. This appeared to be the commonest form of the song. Sometimes it was varied, the notes being almost 2- syllabled, as ¢s7-ee, tsr-ee, tsr-ee, tsr-ee — —, and again sounding like ter-ee-a, ter-ee-a, ter-ce-a — —. Often it was a quite different form, a clear gliding sw7t-swit-swit-swit — —, or a little more prolonged swee-swee-swee-swee — — — —. Frequently a bird would break off on one form of the song and finish on another. The song was usually given on the wing, soaring upward to a height of about a hundred feet, then fluttering downward, finally sailing down to a rock with wings set and raised, and tail elevated. All this time the bird would sing his repetition of the same note, sometimes keeping it up after alighting.” The note that we hear on the fall migration, or in winter, is very short and simple, suggesting the name pipit. F. H. Allen (MS.) says of the flock he was watching: “The birds got up a few at a time generally, uttering as they arose a musical wét-wit, or wit-wit-wit-wit, with the accent, I should say, on the last syllable. When they were well a-wing, their note was a single, short prodt, very pleasing to the ear.” Mr. Cogswell contributes the following comparison of the notes of two species that are found along our shores and are likely to be confused: “The usual flight call note of the pipit is distinctive of this species, and helpful in separating a distant flying flock from horned larks inhabiting similar areas and with somewhat similar calls. The pipit’s note is a sharp tsip tsip, tspt-et, or just tstp— tsip-it; the lark’s is lower in pitch and much more rolling, not given so sharply—thus, sleek, slik-seeezik, or slik-sleestk, or just a sleek, sslik, slik.” Field marks.—The American pipit is a plainly colored, gray and brownish bird with no conspicuous markings, except the white outer tail feathers; and even these are not distinctive, for several other 34 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM birds have them, notably the juncos, the vesper sparrow, and, to-a less extent, the longspurs. The juncos are not often seen in the haunts of the pipit, and if they were, the color patterns of the different juncos are quite distinctive. The sparrow and longspurs are not so slender as the pipit; they have short, conical bills, and they hop rather than run. The white tail feathers of the pipit show only in flight, but its slender form and sharp bill, together with its habit of walking or running, the nodding of its head, and the frequent up-and-down mo- tion of its comparatively long tail should distinguish it from the others. Fall.—As soon as the young are able to care for themselves the pipits gather into flocks and begin to drift away from their breeding grounds before the end of August. We begin to see them in New England in September, in flocks of varying sizes from a dozen to a hundred or more, mainly coastwise on the salt marshes, on the mud flats, or along the beaches, but often farther inland along tidal streams, in open fields, and on wind-swept hills. They are commoner here in fall than in spring and usually remain to enliven the brown and dreary landscape until the frosts of late November drive them farther south. By this time the eastern birds have entirely deserted their northern breeding grounds. In the meantime the western birds have drifted down from their alpine heights, above timberline, and are spread out over the plains and lowlands. Migrating birds are often seen in enormous flocks, as some continue their migration beyond our borders into Mexico and beyond. Winter—Although the American pipit extends its winter range as far south as Guatemala, most of them spend the winter within the limits of the United States, fairly commonly as far north as Cali- fornia and Ohio; farther north it is rarely seen in winter. Dr. Stone (1937) draws the following pen picture of winter pipits in New Jersey : On some day of midwinter when there has been no blanket of snow such as sometimes covers the landscape, even at such a supposed ‘semi-tropic’ region as Cape May, we gaze over the broad monotonous expanses of plowed fields and conclude that here at least bird life is absent. We contrast these silent brown stretches with the swamp edges and their bursts of sparrow conversation or with the old pasture fields where Meadowlarks are sputtering. But let us start to cross these apparently deserted fields and immediately with a weak dee-dee, dee-dee, a small brown bird flushes from almost beneath our feet, then another and another, displaying a flash of white feathers in the tail as they rise. In a moment they have settled again farther on and are lost to sight against the brown background as suddenly as they appeared. We advance again and now the ground before us seems fairly to belch forth birds, as with one accord, the whole flock takes wing, and with light, airy, undulating and irregular flight, courses away over the fields, now clearly defined against the sky, now swallowed up in the all pervading brown of the landscape. AMERICAN PIPIT 35 In the sand hills of North Carolina Mr. Skinner (1928) saw pipits “only in the largest hay fields, winter-wheat fields, old cornfields where the stalks are all down, and in old cowpea fields.” He did not find them in plowed fields. In Florida it is a common winter resident, abundant in the more northern parts; we found it on the Kissimmee Prairie and on old fields and marshes elsewhere; A. H. Howell (1932) says that it is occasionally seen on sand dunes and sea beaches. M. G. Vaiden tells me that it occurs in Mississippi as a migrant in both spring and fall, and “occasionally in winter in great numbers. They are usually found on the slopes of the levee; I have noted flocks of at least 200 feeding on the levee.” Mr. Cogswell (MS.) says of the winter status of the pipit in southern California: “This species is a common winter visitant in all suitable localities below snow level; I have found it most abundantly on wet pasturelands and in the fields bordering coastal marshes, but they are also present in any fields with short or no vegetation. On Febru- ary 10, 1940, they were particularly abundant in the Chino Creek Valley and all over the nearby rolling hills, where flocks of hundreds foraged on the ground between the rows of growing grain, which completely hid them from view until they flew.” DISTRIBUTION Range.—The species is circumpolar, breeding in Europe, Asia, and northern North America and wintering south to northern Africa, southern Asia, and Central America. Breeding range.—The breeding range of the American races of the pipit is in the Arctic-Alpine regions north to northern Alaska (Meade River, about 100 miles south of Point Barrow, and Collison Point) ; northern Yukon (Herschel Island) ; northern Mackenzie (Kittigazuit, Franklin Bay, and Coronation Gulf) ; southern Somerset Island (Fort Ross) ; northern Baffin Island (Arctic Bay and Ponds Inlet) ; and about 75° north latitude on the west coast of Greenland (Devils Thumb Island). East to west coast of Greenland (Devils Thumb Island and Upernivik) ; eastern Baffin Island (Eglinton Fjord, Cumberland Sound, and Frobisher Bay) ; Labrador (Port Burwell, Hebron, Okkak, and Battle Harbor) ; Newfoundland (Cape Norman, Twillingate, and Cape Bonavista). South to Newfoundland (Cape Bonavista and the Lewis Hills), southeastern Quebec (Grosse Isle, Magdalen Islands rarely; Mount Albert and Tabletop, Gaspé Peninsula); northern Maine (summit of Mount Katahdin) ; northern Ontario (Moose Fac- tory) ; northern Manitoba (Churchill) ; central Mackenzie (Artillery Lake and Fort Providence) ; southwestern Alberta (Banff National Park) ; western Montana (Glacier National Park, Big Snowy Moun- 36 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM tains, and Bear Tooth Mountains) ; Wyoming (Big Horn Mountains, Wind River Mountains, and the Medicine Bow Mountains) ; Colo- rado (Longs Peak, Mount Audubon, Seven Lakes, Pikes Peak, and Medano Creek) ; central northern New Mexico (Taos Mountains and Pecos Baldy) ; northeastern Utah (Uintah Mountains) ; central Idaho (Salmon River Mountains) ; and northern Oregon (Wallowa Moun- tains and, possibly, Mount Hood); has also been found in summer near the summit of Mount Shasta and Mount Lassen, Calif., but not surely breeding. West to Oregon (Mount Hood) ; the Cascades of Washington (Mount St. Helens, Mount Adams, and Mount Rai- nier) ; British Columbia (mountains near Princeton, near Doch-da-on Creek, Summit, and Atlin; southwestern Yukon (Burwash Landing and Tecpee Lake); and the Aleutian Islands and western Alaska (Frosty Peak, Unalaska, the Near Islands, Nunivak Island, Wales, Kobuk River, and Meade River) ; has been found also on St. Law- rence Island. Winter range.—The pipit occurs in winter north to southwestern British Columbia (southern Vancouver Island, occasionally) ; western Washington (Tacoma, Nisqually Flats, and Vancouver); Oregon (Portland, Corvallis, and along the Malheur River); Utah (Ogden Valley, Utah Lake, and St. George) ; central to southern Arizona (Fort Whipple, Fort Verde, and Tucson) ; southern New Mexico (San An- tonio and Carlsbad) ; southern and eastern Texas (Fort Clark, Kerr- ville, Austin, Waco, and Commerce) ; occasionally central Arkansas (Van Buren); northern Louisiana (Shreveport and Monroe) ; Tennessee, uncommon (Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville, and Johnson City); and southern Virginia (Blacksburg, Naruna, and Virginia Beach) ; occasionally north to northern Ohio (Huron and Painesville) ; New Jersey (Seaside Park) ; Long Island (Long Beach and Orient) ; Connecticut (Saybrook) ; and Massachusetts (Newburyport). East to the Atlantic Coast States from southern Virginia (Virginia Beach) to southern Florida (Fernandina, St. Augustine, and Daytona Beach, Kissimmee, and Key West rarely). South to Florida (Key West, Fort Myers, and St. Marks) ; the Gulf coast to southern Texas (Rockport and Brownsville) ; eastern Mexico (Rodriguez, Nuevo Leon; Puebla; and Huajuapam, Oaxaca); Guatemala; and northern El Salvador (Volein de Santa Ana), the southernmost place that it has been re- corded. West to Guatemala (Duenas); Oaxaca (Tehuantepec) ; Sinaloa (Mazatlin) ; Lower California (a Paz and San Quintin) ; the valleys and coast of California (La Jolla, Santa Barbara, San Francisco, Napa, and Eureka); western Oregon (Coos Bay and Netarts) ; western Washington (Nisqually Flats) ; and southern Van- couver Island, British Columbia. The range as outlined applies to all the North American races, of which three are now recognized. The western pipit (A. s. pacificus) AMERICAN PIPIT oi, breeds from southeastern Alaska through the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia and in the Cascades to Oregon; the Rocky Mountain pipit (A. s. alticola) breeds in the Rocky Mountain region from Mon- tana to New Mexico; the eastern pipit (A. s. rubescens) breeds from Alaska to Greenland south to southern Yukon and Mackenzie to Quebec, Newfoundland, and Mount Katahdin, Maine. In winter the races are mingled. Migration—Late dates of spring departure are: EK! Salvador— Volean de Santa Ana, April 16. Lower California—San José del Cabo, May 8. Sonora—Granados, May 6. Florida—Pensacola, April 27. Georgia—Athens, May 9. South Carolina—Charleston, April 22. North Carolina—Pea Island, May 16. District of Columbia— Washington, May 14. Pennsylvania—Erie, May 12. New York— Potter, May 16. Mississippi—Biloxi, April 29. Louisiana—Lobdell, May2. Arkansas—Lake City, April29. Kentucky—Bowling Green, May 8. Oberlin, May 24. Michigan—McMillan, May 28. Ontario— Rossport, May 29. Missouri—St. Louis, May 2. Minnesota—Lake Vermillion, May 27. Texas—Somerset, May 1. Kansas—Onaga, May 23. Alberta—Genevis, May 26. British Columbia—Okanagan Landing, May 17. Early dates of spring arrival are: District of Columbia—Washing- ton, February 16. Pennsylvania—State College, February 28. New York—Ithaca, March 15. Massachusetts—Amherst, March 27. Maine—Auburn, May 2. New Brunswick—Chatham, May 6. Que- bec—Kamouraska, May 6. Ohio—Oberlin, March 4. Ontario— London, May 1. Michigan—Detroit, March 81. Wisconsin—Mil- waukee, April 20. Kansas—Lawrence, March 12. Nebraska— Hastings, March 10. South Dakota—Sioux Falls, March 27. North Dakota—Charlson, April 238. Manitoba—Aweme, April 15; Churchill, May 25. Saskatchewan—EKastend, April 21. Wyoming— Laramie, April 9. Utah—Brigham, April 4. Montana—Helena, April9. Alberta—Stony Plain, April 8. Mackenzie—Simpson, May 2. British Columbia—Chilliwack, April 6. Alaska—Ketchikan, April 26; Fort Kenai, May 6. Late dates of fall departure are: Alaska—Wainwright, September 28. British Columbia—Comox, November 9. Mackenzie—Simpson, October 16. Alberta—Glenevis, October 4. Saskatchewan—Eastend, October 16. Montana—Fortine, October 27. Wyoming—Laramie, November 6. Manitoba—Aweme, October 28. North Dakota—Ar- gusville, October 28. South Dakota—Lake Poinsett, November 2. Nebraska—Gresham, November 1. Kansas—Onaga, November 25. Minnesota—Minneapolis, October 31. Wisconsin—North Freedom, November 1. Illinois—Chicago, November 3. Michigan—Sault Ste. Marie, November 8. Ontario—Toronto, November 13. Ohio— Youngstown, November 22. Quebec—Montreal, November 4. 38 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Maine—Machias, November 2. Massachusetts—Harvard, Novembér 9. New York—New York, November 27. District of Columbia— Washington, December 23. Early dates of fall arrival are: Alberta—Glenevis, August 19. Mon- tana—Missoula, September 4. Minnesota—Hallock, September 4. Wisconsin—Madison, September 19. Ontario—Ottawa, September 9. Michigan—Blaney, September 19. Illinois—Hinsdale, Septem- ber 14. Kentucky—Lexington, October 10. 'Tennessee—Memphis, October 10. Mississippi—Ellisville, October 19. Louisiana—New Orleans, October 10. Massachusetts—Danvers, September 14. New York—Orient, September 2. Pennsylvania—Doylestown, September 9. District of Columbia—Washington, September 23. Virginia— Wytheville, October 24. North Carolina—Greensboro, October 17. South Carolina—Sullivans Island, September 10. Georgia—Round Oak, October 16. Florida—Fort Myers, September 26. Texas— Somerset, October 7. Chihuahua—Chihuahua, October 9; Lower Cal- ifornia, San Andrés, September 21. Very few pipits have been banded, and the 10 recovery records are all of birds retrapped at the place of banding one or two years later. Casual records.—In November 1848 a flock visited Bermuda, from which two birds were shot, the date of one specimen being given as November 26. The American pipit has been twice collected on the island of Helgoland, an immature on November 11, 1851, and an adult on May 17, 1870. An immature bird was collected on Septem- ber 30, 1910, on the island of St. Kilda, Outer Hebrides, Scotland. Egg dates—WLabrador : 21 records, June 10 to July 23; 12 records, June 18 to 30, indicating the height of the season. Alaska: 10 records, June 8 to 28. Colorado: 12 records, June 22 to July 26; 9 records, June 25 to 30. ANTHUS SPINOLETTA JAPONICUS Temminck and Schlegel JAPANESE PIPIT CONTRIBUTED BY WINSOR MARRETT TYLER HABITS A single specimen of the Japanese pipit, the only individual known to have occurred in the Western Hemisphere, was taken on Nunivak Island, Alaska, on September 10, 1947. Harry S. Swarth (1934) de- scribes the event of its capture thus: Harrold’s [the collector’s] note-book contains the following entry : “September 10, 1927, Cape Etolin, Nunivak Island. A pipit with bold spotting on a cream (rather than buff) breast and belly taken on the rocky shore of the Cape. It struck me that its flight and actions were not quite typical of the American Pipit, but its note was not heard. It is nearly one-half inch shorter by measure- ment than the average American Pipit.” The capture of this bird (C. A. S. No. JAPANESE PIPIT 39 30778, an immature female), the first in North America, has already been recorded (Swarth, 1928, p. 250). Upper mandible brown; lower mandible brown, basal half brownish yellow; iris brown; tarsus and toes yellowish brown. Swarth (1928), in an earlier paper, reports the taking of this speci- men and points out that a previous published record of the Japanese pipit in the Western Hemisphere is erroneous. He says: “There is a prior record for this bird in North America, based upon the capture of one on St. Paul Island, in the Pribilof group, on August 29, 1916. That specimen is in the United States National Museum, and being examined by Dr. Wetmore and Mr. Riley during their scrutiny of the bird here recorded, it proved to be not japonicus but a somewhat unusu- ally colored example of Anthus spinoletta rubescens. The present is therefore the first recorded occurrence of the Japanese Pipit within the confines of the A. O. U. Check-List.” Swarth refers to the record of the St. Paul Island bird (G. Dallas Hanna, 1920) and to its refutation (Riley and Wetmore, 1928). The Japanese pipit breeds far to the north in the Eastern Hemi- sphere—eastern Siberia, Kamchatka, and the Kurile Islands. It is closely related in appearance and habits to the American pipit. Its breeding grounds lie farther westward than our bird’s, extending in Siberia as far west as the Lena River, while the western limit of the breeding range of the American pipit reaches only the northeast corner of Siberia. Little has been published concerning the Japanese pipit. J. D. D. La Touche (1930), writing of the bird in eastern China, says: This is a much smaller and darker bird than Blakiston’s Pipit. It has a loud double note of alarm, different from the single ‘pee’ of the Red-throated Pipit. It occurs in flocks in winter on the marshes and wet fields of South-Hast China of the Lower Yangtse, and in spring is found in green corn at Chinkiang. It moults in April in the latter locality, and may be seen there until about the middle of May and until the end of that month at Chinwangtao. It is purely a marsh and wet-field or meadow bird. * * * This Pipit appears to only straggle down to India in winter, but it is common in the Shan States and other parts of Burma and has also, according to Baker, been taken in other Indo-Burmese countries. * * * The bird was originally described from Japan, and Dr. Hartert gives Kamtschatka, East Siberia, and the Kirile Is. as breeding-range, Japan being only part of the winter-quarters. The nidification is apparently unknown. La Touche (1920) remarks further: “It migrates in autumn in company with the Wagtails and Swallows, many flocks of which fly by in late August and September. I have seen it in the marshes in Octo- ber until the 25th of that month. The first arrivals in spring are still in winter dress but soon assume the summer plumage, dark ashy- grey, upper parts obscurely spotted, and buffish vinous under parts with a few drop-like spots on the breast and flanks.” A handlist of Japanese birds (Ornithological Society of Japan, 1932) gives the island of Sakhalin as a breeding ground of the Japanese pipit. 40 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Riley and Wetmore (1928) point out the distinguishing characters in the plumage of the Japanese pipit as compared to the American pipit. They say: “It is paler below, with heavier markings, duller, less buffy above, has the wing bars more prominently white, and differs in the coloration of the sides of the head.” Austin Hobart Clark (1910), in his report of the cruise of the steamer Albatross in the North Pacific Ocean, says: “I found this bird common in the grassy lowlands near Milne Bay, Simushir, but very shy and hard to get. The males were in full song at the time of our visit, June 23.” Nesting—Bernard W. Tucker contributes the following note: “The nesting of this race, which was originally described from winter birds in Japan, was long unknown, but in recent years many eggs have been obtained by the Japanese in the Kurile Islands, as noted by Yama- shina (1931). In this connection Yamashina gives a reference to a paper by him, ‘On a Collection of Birds from Paramushiru Island, North Kuriles’, in the Japanese journal Tori, but as this is entirely in Japanese I am unable to state what particulars about nest or eggs are there given. Again, Hartert and Steinbacher (1938) state that in recent years it has also been studied on its breeding grounds by Rus- sian ornithologists, but I have not had access to any Russian data, and the authors quoted give no references.” DISTRIBUTION CONTRIBUTED BY BERNARD WILLIAM TUCKER Breeding range.—FKast Siberia westward at least to the Lena, Kam- chatka, and the Kurile Islands. The Sakhalin bird has been distin- guished as A. s. borealis Hesse, but Hartert and Steinbacher (1938) do not consider this separable. Winter range—Japan, Yangtse Valley, Fohkien and Kwantung, Formosa; occasionally in Turkestan. ANTHUS PRATENSIS (Linnaeus) MEADOW PIPIT CONTRIBUTED BY BERNARD WILLIAM TUCKER HABITS The meadow pipit is a common European species breeding regularly in Iceland and occurring casually, but evidently not very rarely, on the east coast of Greenland, where it seems certain that it breeds oc- casionally, though the actual finding of a nest with eggs or young has not been recorded. The earliest record from Greenland is of one re- MEADOW PIPIT 4] ceived by J. H. Paulsen (1846) taken in 1844 and recorded by him in a footnote to his German translation of Holbgll’s “Ornithologiske Bidrag til den grénlandske Fauna.” This was the record referred to by Prof. Alfred Newton in the Arctic Manual (1875), which the A. O. U. Check-list quotes. Johan Petersen, who was superintendent of the east-coast colony of Angmagsalik from 1894 to 1915 and whose careful bird observations are quoted by Helms (1926), met with the species repeatedly in that district, though by no means every year. He first observed it in 1903, when four or five were seen by houses in the colony on May 21 and one was shot and sent home to Denmark for identification. The birds remained about in May and June and were seen with young in July. Birds were also seen on a trip to Sermilik Fjord, west of Angmagsalik, at the beginning of June. Petersen records that they were in pairs “and to all appearances they had nests in the vicinity.” After this his notes do not mention the species until 1908, when one was seen on May 9 and 12 and was heard singing. In 1912 one was seen on May 5 and one was singing on the mountains on June 11. The latter bird was seen again on July 13, carrying food and behaving in such a way that it obviously had young. On August 10 old and young birds were seen near the colony. In 1913 one was seen on May 12, and finally, on a return visit to Angmagsalik in later years, Petersen again met with the species in August and again on October 10, 1923. F. S. Chapman (1932), the ornithologist of the British Arctic Air Route Expedition of 1930-31, also met with meadow pipits in the Angmagsalik district. The species was first recorded on May 24, 1931. After this none reappeared till May 28, when, in the observer’s words, “a pair started nesting.” It is a pity that Chapman was not more ex- plicit on this point and does not state his evidence, since although Petersen’s observations leave no reasonable doubt that the species does sometimes breed, it appears, as has already been noticed, that no actual nest has yet been recorded. Considerably farther north, at Cape Dalton, Bertram, Lack, and Reberts (1934) on August 20, 1933, saw a meadow pipit that was probably breeding on rocky ground well cov- ered with vegetation. Just previous to flushing the bird a nest was found composed of grass on the ground in a site typical for this species. H¢rning (1939) has recently added two more autumn records, a male shot at Kingmiut, north of Angmagsalik, on September 6, 1933, and a juvenile female at sea off Cape I. A. D. Jensen on Blosseville coast on August 28 of the same year. The meadow pipit, a somewhat smaller and more boldly marked species than the American pipit, is a bird of rough grasslands, moors, heaths, sand dunes, and other open country in the breeding season. Though it may be found frequently enough breeding on suitable rough ground in the lowlands, it is more especially a bird of hill country and 843290—50——4 42 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM upland moors. In many parts of the British Isles and Continentai Europe there are large tracts of country where the meadow pipit is not only the dominant small bird but almost the only one to be met with at all commonly. As one walks over the moors one may often traverse large areas that are saved from almost complete birdlessness only by the meadow pipits, which from time to time rise ahead of one with their shrill alarm notes, fly a little way with a flitting, jerky . action, and drop to the ground again. From about April to June these same moors are enlivened by the dancing forms of the male birds in the air, as each flutters up with his tinkling, feeble, yet cheery little song, which is completed as he glides to the ground again with wings some- what raised and tail spread. On the heathy barrens of the high north of Europe beyond the tree limit, the meadow pipit is just as prominent a member of the bird population as on the moors of Great Britain, and it is common, too, in Iceland, whence came, no doubt, the birds that have reached the American Continent. In Iceland, writes Hantzsch (1905), it is characteristic of the hilly grasslands, upland moors, and heathy tracts, and in the mountains ascends as high as it can find a continuous ground vegetation. The bleak lands of the far north are deserted in winter, and even from temperate regions like the British Isles many emigrate, though many remain. The high ground is, however, mostly deserted, and the species becomes common in the lowlands in places where it does not breed. In the more southern parts of its breeding range it is met with chiefly on grasslands in the mountains. Courtship.—The meadow pipit is one of those small passerines that seem to have no very well defined or regular pattern of display. Miss 8. M. Butlin (1940) has recorded the behavior of a male which ran four or possibly five times in front of the female “with stiff, very upright gait, wings slightly away from body and head held rigid and rather bowed while he sang quietly.” The female was crouching in the solicitation posture, but the male finished the performance by flying off to a heather clump a few yards away, and coition did not take place although the birds were not disturbed. Miss A. Morley (1940) has witnessed a type of display which has not been recorded by any other observer. She describes how a male which had been moving round the female with slightly drooped wings and cocked-up tail “picked up a large piece of flowering grass and flew with it in his bill for a short way low over the grasses, with a rather slow flight and rapid quivering wings,” and this behavior was twice repeated. Droop- ing of the wings by the male, a common action in sexually excited birds, has also been noted by Caroline and Desmond Nethersole-Thompson (1940), who add that by a dipping action he displays the white beneath the tail. These observers also find that “courtship feeding” of the female by the male is regularly practiced during incubation either on MEADOW PIPIT 43 or just off the nest. Whether this behavior also occurs, as in some birds, before incubation begins, when it can be regarded as solely and un- equivocally a courtship action, since the utilitarian element entailed in the feeding of the female while she is sitting is lacking, does not appear to have been established. The same observers note that during the pairing period sex chases, although less sustained than those of many passerines, are frequently seen. Nesting.—The nest of the meadow pipit is built in the open in a depression in the ground—which appears to be often a scrape made by the birds themselves—among grass or in a tuft of rushes or heather, and may be very well concealed or fairly open. It is a cup built of dry grasses and bents lined with finer material and some horsehair. The nest is built chiefly by the female, though the male assists her; she has been seen examining possible nest places some days before beginning to build, but site selection and building may occur on the same day (C. and D. Nethersole-Thompson, 1943). E'ggs.—The eggs are thus described by Jourdain in the Handbook of British Birds (1938, vol. 1): “Ordinary types brown or grey in general appearance, finely mottled or more boldly marbled with vary- ing shades of brown and ashy grey; others are almost uniform ochre- ous or pale leaden-grey, with dark hair-streaks, and some sparsely or unmarked on pale blue ground. An erythristic type recorded. Average of 100 British eggs: 19.77 x 14.63. Max.:21.4x 15.7. Min.: 18.7 x 14.5 and 19.1x 14mm.” The usual number of eggs in Britain is four or five, sometimes only three and seldom six. But in more northern regions clutches average larger; Blair (1936) found six the usual number in the far north of Norway, and clutches of seven were found on several occasions. In Iceland Hantzsch (1905) found no complete clutch of less than five, a number of six, and one of seven. The experience of other observers in northern regions is similar. In England the season for eggs is from the latter part of April on, though clutches may rarely be found earlier in the month. In Ger- many it averages rather later; according to Niethammer (1937) it extends from the beginning, or often only from the middle, of May, or not infrequently even from the end of April, to the end of June or occasionally even July. In northern Norway Blair found that the first eggs in a large series of nests examined were laid between June 2and 19. In Iceland also the first eggs are usually laid at the end of June, though rarely they may be laid at the end of May (Hantzsch). These data are selected as representative from a large amount avail- able with regard to this common European bird. In temperate re- gions the species is double-brooded, and this appears to be at least sometimes the case even in Iceland, as Congreve and Freme (1930) found fresh eggs on May 28 and also on July 5. Young.—Only the female incubates. She is regularly fed on or near 44 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM the nest by the male, though she may occasionally get some food for herself. Incubation begins, according to the Nethersole-Thompsons (1948), with the penultimate or antepenultimate egg, and the period is 138-14 days. When the young hatch the shells are removed, and large fragments have been found away from the nest from which they are presumed to have come (C. and D. Nethersole-Thompson, 1942). Both parents feed the young ones, and the feces are carried away by - the parents and dropped in flight or after the bird settles. The latter observation we owe to Lt. Col. B. M. Ryves, an indefatigable observer of the details of the breeding economy of British birds, and Dr. H. J. Moon, whose notes are quoted in a paper on nest sanitation by R. H. Blair and the present writer (1941). Jourdain gives the fledgling period as 13-14 days, but the young are often not fully capable of flight when they leave the nest. Plumages.—The plumages are fully described by H. F. Witherby in the Handbook of British Birds (1938, vol. 1). ‘The brownish-gray down of the nestling is fairly long and plentiful, distributed on the in- ner and outer supraorbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, femoral, and ventral tracts, but is very scanty on the last two. The mouth in- side is carmine, and the flanges of the bill are pale yellow externally. There are no tongue spots, but the tongue spurs are whitish. The juvenal plumage is much like that of the adult, but the dark central streaks of the feathers of the upperparts are more distinct and the brown edgings smaller. The first-winter plumage is like the adult’s. Food.—The food consists almost exclusively of insects and other small invertebrates obtained on the ground. Jourdain (1938, vol. 1) mentions: “Coleoptera (Byrrhus, Athous, Cercyon, Longitarsus, Oxy- telus, Tachyporus, Limnobius, etc., and larvae), small Orthoptera, Diptera (Tipula, Fristalis, Calliphora, and larvae), Hemiptera, Hy- menoptera, and larvae of Lepidoptera. Also earthworms (Saxby), spiders, and occasionally seeds.” Behavior.—Something has been said about general behavior on the breeding ground in the introductory remarks. This is a terrestrial species, the ordinary gait, as in other pipits, being a fairly deliberate walk, though it can also run on occasions. The tail tends to be moved slightly up and down as it walks. It has often been alleged that it seldom or only exceptionally perches in trees, but this is altogether too sweeping a statement. ‘Though admittedly it perches in trees much less regularly than its European relative, the tree pipit, it is not particularly unusual for it to do so in places where trees are pres- ent, and this is especially true on migration. It would, however, be fair to say that when the meadow pipit settles in trees it is more often than not only a passing expedient adopted because something [) MEADOW PIPIT 4 has disturbed it on the ground. And, true to its characteristic love of the open, it rarely if ever perches in the cover of foliage. The flight as a rule is rather flitting and jerky, rising and falling in a somewhat erratic fashion rather than regularly undulating as with a good many small birds. Outside the breeding season the species is inclined to be gregarious, though the members of a party or flock generally maintain only a somewhat loose contact. V oice.—The note when the bird is flushed is a feeble, thin, squeaky tseep or tsiip, or in point of fact more usually an unbroken string of these shrill notes uttered in quick succession. The call note, heard chiefly on the breeding ground, is a more sibilant and slightly fuller, but still shrill tisstp or tésp, the disyllabic form being typical though not invariable. The opening notes of the song have much the same quality. The tinkling sequence of simple notes gathers speed as the bird flutters up from the ground to, at most, a hundred feet or so and as it planes down again passes into a succession of slightly more mus!- cal notes finally becoming a trill, which continues till the singer reaches the ground. On the descent the bird glides down with wings partly spread and inclined somewhat upward and the tail fanned, but there are minor variations in this song flight. At the top of the ascent it may fly a little way more or less level before beginning to drop, or it may even sink a little and rise again, prolonging the song accordingly. The length of the song and the relative duration of the two parts, the rise and fall, vary a good deal. Timings of the total length quoted by EK. M. Nicholson (1936) range from 12 to 25 seconds. Shorter, more imperfect versions may be given from bushes, fences, or other low perches or even from the ground. In the south and midland parts of England the period of regular song is from about mid-March to early in July. Occasional song may be heard from mid-February and after the regular song period is over until the beginning of August. As an exceptional occurrence it has been noted as late as mid-September and even October. Field marks.—An obvious pipit, but rather smaller than the Ameri- can species, and much more strongly marked, both back and breast being boldly streaked with black. The exact coloring of the upper- parts varies from olive or greenish gray to browner shades and the white outer tail feathers are conspicuous when the bird is flushed. It is a bird of open country, little given to perching on trees, though it will do so at times. In Europe it requires to be distinguished from the very similar tree pipit (Anthus trivialis), which, as the common name suggests, perches in trees habitually and has a different song. However, as this species has not occurred in America and does not appear likely to do so, it need not detain us further. In the nonbreed- ing plumage the red-throated pipit also much resembles the present 46 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM species. The distinctions are given under the field marks of the former bird. Enemies.—As a bird of open country and a common one at that the meadow pipit is largely preyed upon by hawks. Reference to Jour- dain’s account of British birds in the Handbook of British Birds (1939, vol. 3) shows that it has been definitely recorded in the dietary of every British-breeding bird of prey that takes birds at all, with the. exception of the marsh harrier and the kite. Even the bold peregrine (duck hawk) and the stately golden eagle will condescend to take a meadow pipit on occasions, while it may be said to constitute the main food in the breeding season of the merlin (pigeon hawk), which fre- quents similar country. It is also largely taken by the hen and Mon- tagu’s harriers, near relatives of the marsh hawk of America, also birds of open country, and it quite frequently falls a victim to the European sparrow hawk, which though primarily a woodland bird regularly hunts over open ground. The meadow pipit is one of the species most commonly parasitized by the European cuckoo. A list of invertebrate parasites of the species is given by Niethammer (1987). Fall and winter.—F all is a time of active movement among meadow pipits, and the movements in the British Islands illustrate on a smaller scale those that take place over the general range of the species. Birds from the northern and more elevated regions abandon these for the winter, and, though many emigrate, some are contented to spread over the lower ground at no very great distance from their breeding haunts, so that the species becomes common in many places where it does not nest or does so only sparingly. It is evident, how- ever, that many of these wintering birds are migrants that have come in from abroad. They are now to be found in flocks and parties on open fields and rough grasslands of all sorts and on waste or culti- vated land, with a noticeable liking for wet or partially flooded ground, which also attracts them to the borders of lakes and inland waters and to coastal salt or other marshes. They are also often found feed- ing on arable land among root crops such as rutabagas or turnips and may be observed picking over debris along tide marks on the seashore. The flocks are largest at the migration period in fall. Later, partly no doubt because many of those in the fall flocks were birds of pas- sage that have passed on, but also as the result of a general tendency to dispersal, the parties are generally smaller. They do not main- tain any close coherence; the birds scatter rather widely over their feeding grounds and when approached rise in ones and twos or little groups rather than as a body. At night they roost on the ground, making use of such shelter as offers. It may be provided by the over- hanging leaves in a turnip field or by other broad-leaved plants in a MEADOW PIPIT 47 marsh or piece of waste ground, by tussocky grass or rushes in the open, or by a young plantation of conifers. Again, birds may some- times be found roosting off the ground in hedges, but this appears generally to happen in severe or snowy weather. In the Mediterranean countries, where the species breeds only spar- ingly on high ground or not at all, meadow pipits are common in winter on essentially the same types of ground described above, and I recall particularly watching many of them, with a sprinkling of water pipits—the European racial form of the pipit of America from the neighboring mountains—feeding on partially flooded land in the precise area north of Naples where at the moment of penning these words the Anglo-American armies are fighting. In North Africa it occurs also in the hills in winter. DISTRIBUTION Breeding range.—Iceland, Faeroes, British Isles, and Continental Europe south to the Pyrenees, central France, northern Italy, Yugo- slavia, Rumania, and south Russia, east through northern Siberia to the Yenisei. Winter range.—F ar north deserted and range extends to all Euro- pean Mediterranean countries and North Africa and to southwest and west-central Asia. Spring migration —The return passage of birds that have wintered farther south is recorded from mid-March to mid-April on the south coast of England and from as early as mid-February on that of Ireland (Ticehurst, 1988, vol. 1). In Germany passage is described as tak- ing place from March to May, but on Helgoland Giitke (1895) records it as beginning as early as February 24. On the Arctic coast of Norway the first arrivals were not noted by Blair (1936) until May 15, but the first birds reach the south coastal districts of Iceland by the end of April, though the inland regions are not occupied until well into May (Hantzsch). Meinertzhagen’s (1930) latest record for Egypt is March 20, but on the north side of the Mediterranean birds are present in some numbers until much later. Alexander’s (1927) last date for the Rome district of central Italy is April 13, and this agrees closely with the present writer’s for the Naples dis- trict, April 12. Fall migration —Southward movement of northern birds in Britain from about mid-August to late in October. Emigratory movements from late in September to late in November. From early in September to late in October or November large numbers of immigrants arrive from abroad, some to winter, others to pass on (Ticehurst). In Ger- many the passage is described as lasting from September to Novem- ber (Niethammer). Most leave Iceland by the middle or end of Sep- 48 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM tember (Hantzsch). Earliest dates in Rome district of Italy, October 4 (Alexander), Naples district, October 5 (B. W. T.), Egypt, end of October, but once September 29 (Meinertzhagen). Casual records—Madeira, Canaries. ANTHUS CERVINUS (Pallas) RED-THROATED PIPIT CONTRIBUTED BY BERNARD WILLIAM TUCKER HABITS The red-throated pipit is a mainly Siberian species that has occurred accidentally on the west side of the American Continent. The earli- est authority for its occurrence quoted by the authors of the A. O. U. Check-list, namely Zander (1854) in the Journal fiir Ornithologie for 1853, says no more than that its range extends through Asia as far as the islands near America (“bis zu den Inselin bei Amerika”), and although it may be assumed that such a statement was based on actual specimens no other particulars are given, nor has the present writer been able to trace any. Turner (1886), however, records a specimen taken at St. Michael, Western Alaska, in 1867, and Ridg- way (1883) another taken at San José del Cabo, Lower California, on January 26, 1883, a rather surprising time of year. Recently Fried- mann (1937) has added a third record, of a bird taken on St. Law- rence Island, Alaska, in July 1936, by an Eskimo collector. The range of the species extends west from Siberia into northern Russia and northern Scandinavia, where it overlaps with that of the meadow pipit, previously described. But whereas the meadow pipit is a widely distributed species in Europe, extending northward to the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, the red-throated pipit is exclusively an Arctic species whose range barely overlaps the northern limits of the forest belt, but on the other hand extends north of Continental Europe to embrace the Arctic islands of Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya, and Waigatz, which the meadow pipit does not reach. In Arctic Norway, though the habitats of the two species are not rigidly separated, the red-throated pipit appears on the whole to like somewhat bushier and damper ground than does the meadow pipit. In the south of its range it is found on high fells above the tree limit, but in the north it is confined to lower levels, especially near the sea. As described by Blair (1936), “swamps overgrown with dwarf birch and willow and damp grassy flats are the favourite haunts of this pipit,” but it also, as he mentions, has a marked predeliction for cul- tivation and the neighborhood of farmsteads and habitations, where such are available. Thus at Vadso in Arctic Norway it is common RED-THROATED PIPIT 49 about the little cultivated meadows and damp patches with scrubby growth of Saliw and birch close to the little towns. I have, however, found it plentiful in a quite different type of habitat from those above mentioned, on the island of Vard6, off the same coast. Here its chosen terrain consisted of a certain amount of grass pasture, a cer- tain amount of heathy ground with the usual Arctic heath association dominated by crowberry (Z’mpetrum nigrum), and considerable out- crops of rock with no scrub at all. Nesting.—The nest is built on the ground in a recess in the side of a hummock in marshy localities, often sheltered by scrub growth of dwarf birch, willow, or other plants or sometimes, as I have seen it, on the grassy verge of a roadside or near the borders of a meadow near small farmsteads or villages. It is built of dry grass and bents lined with similar but finer material, with occasionally some hair, but without feathers. The owners tend to show up more than in the case of the meadow pipit and, Maj. W. M. Congreve (1936) describes the male as noisy and conspicuous, always giving away the fact that he has a nest in the vicinity. Eggs.—The eggs are described by Jourdain in the Handbook of British Birds (1938) as variable, ranging from types with evenly freckled markings on a blue-gray ground to an almost uniform ochreous with a dark hair line, or with rich mahogany-red cloudings or bold sepia markings on an olive-gray ground. He gives the fol- lowing measurements of 100 eggs: average, 19.2 by 14.2; maximum, 21 by 14.3 and 18.1 by 15.1; minimum, 17.1 by 138.9 and 18 by 13.4 minimum. Congreve (1936) considers them less variable than those of the meadow pipit and states that they commonly have blackish spots sometimes with a “penumbra” and to a limited extent bunting- hike streaks. According to Jourdain the clutch is usually six, some- times five, rarely four or seven, and the season is from about mid- June to early in July. Congreve in Arctic Norway found the earliest nest in 1985 (c/7, fresh) on June 20, and fresh or slightly incubated eggs until the end of the month, and Blair (1936) in the same region records full clutches from June 16 to 24, while Williams (1941) ina late season found no full sets until early in July. The experiences of other observers, to much the same effect, are summarized by Pleske (1928). Young.—Only the hen has been found incubating, and Congreve states that she is fed by the male both on and off the nest. Both parents feed the young, of which, in the short Arctic summer, only one brood isreared. “Injury-feigning” by a bird off a nest is recorded by Williams (1941). An exact fledging period is not recorded. Plumages.—The plumages are fully described by H. F. Witherby (1938, vol. 1) in the Handbook of British Birds. The nestling has 50 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM fairly long and plentiful down of a dark gray-brown color distributed on the inner and outer supraorbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, femoral, and crural tracts. The inside of its mouth, as I have myself noted in northern Norway, is colored a raw-flesh red without spots and the flanges externally are very pale yellow. The juvenal plu- mage much resembles that of the adult female in winter, but the pale edgings of the feathers of the upperparts are rather smaller and more. buffish and the buff of the underparts more yellowish. The chin is buffish white. In the first winter the male is much like the adult fe- male in winter but may have the chin and throat tinged with buflish pink. Food.—Like other pipits the species is mainly insectivorous. Exact data are not extensive, but Jourdain (1938, vol. 1) mentions Diptera, Coleoptera, etc., small worms, and in winter also fresh-water mollusks and grass seeds. Haviland (1915) mentions especially mosquitoes, and indeed it is difficult to see how these pests could fail to figure largely in the diet of any insectivorous bird on the tundra in summer. Behavior. —The carriage, gait, and general behavior are those of a typical pipit. It perches freely on bushes and fences or, where they exist on telegraph wires and buildings and on trees. Miss Maud Haviland (1915) in Siberia found it a quarrelsome bird. In winter it is found in large parties and flocks, which scatter rather widely over the feeding grounds. Voice.—The distinctive character of the call note has already been mentioned. It is a comparatively full, quite musical, and rather abrupt chiip (the “ii” sound to be pronounced like the French “u”), quite different from the thin, shrill notes of the other pipits. It is used both in flight or when flushed and while perched, and habitually by migrants as well as on the breeding ground. A note used by breeding birds which seems to be more definitely an alarm is a rather hoarse, shrill tsweerp, and from birds chasing one another I have heard a more rippling tsrrrrrup. The species has a pleasing song superior to that of most pipits. In Lapland I found it to be built up of three main types of component, which, so far as such sounds can be represented crudely by words, might be rendered as twee (repeated about four times, shrill and prolonged), irrrrrrrrr (a little bubbling trill) , and ¢wize-wize-wizz-wize (more sib- ilant and usually repeated several times, thus: twee-twee-twee-twee, trrrrrrrrr, twi22-wize-wize-wiz2, twize-wiee-wize-wize, twize-wiz2- wize-wize. When the song is given from a post or bush it may consist of a single such sequence, but the fullest and best song is given in the air, as the bird rises and then parachutes down again with wings half spread and tail fanned. It is then more prolonged, consisting of much the same sequence of three main phrases or types of note repeated two or RED-THROATED PIPIT 51 more times, with variations, and sometimes linked up with minor warblings or twittering passages. While it is useful to attempt such a necessarily rather prosaic analysis for descriptive and comparative purposes, it conveys little of the general quality of the song. Miss Haviland’s description of the bird’s “glorious parachute from the upper air to the accompaniment of a rain of melody” seems to the writer rather highly colored, but the song of a good performer is musi- cal, lively, and pleasing, with some rich and rather canarylike notes, and these qualities tend to be enhanced for the hearer in the solitudes where the song is often heard. Field marks.—The red-throated pipit resembles the meadow pipit, previously described, much more than it does the American pipit; that is to say, it is a distinctly smaller and much more boldly marked bird, with broad black centers to the feathers of the upperparts and prominent black streaks on the breast and flanks. To an experienced European observer it is perhaps even more like the tree pipit (Anthus trivialis), but as that species and the meadow pipit are themselves very much alike this refinement need not concern us here. The red- throated pipit, then, is a rather small pipit with the characteristics just mentioned and in spring and summer is easily distinguished from any other by the feature that gives it its name. It must be stressed, however, that this is neither a sharply defined bib nor of a strong red. It is a pale rusty red or rufous tint over the throat and face, generally distinctive enough at fairly close range but varying in its intensity and least developed in some females. In autumn and winter this coloring is lost or much reduced, and there is then little to dif- ferentiate it from the meadow pipit except that it is rather more boldly marked above and that the ground color of the upperparts is a warmer brown without the tendency to grayish or greenish shades that so many, but not all, meadow pipits show. About the only really clear-cut difference is that the broad black streaking of the back ex- tends over the rump and upper tail coverts, whereas these parts are practically uniform and unstreaked in the meadow pipit. Obviously this is a difficult character to be sure of in the field, though not im- possible if a really good and close view can be obtained. Fortunately, however, a far better field character is provided by the note, which is quite different from that of any of the other pipits, Anthus spinoletta included, and should at once attract the attention of anyone with a fair ear for bird calls. It is described under “Voice.” Fall and winter.—In winter quarters the species shows a marked attachment to wet localities, such as damp or partially flooded grass- lands, borders of rivers and lakes, marshes, and wet cultivation, though it may be observed more rarely ondry and even arid ground, includ- ing coastal sand dunes and the borders of deserts. As a migrant it is generally gregarious in habits. 52 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM DISTRIBUTION Breeding range.—North Scandinavia, north Finland, north Russia (Archangel government), Kolguev, Waigatz and Novaya Zemlya, and across Siberia to Kamchatka, but not the Tchuktche Peninsula. Winter range.—Africa south to Lake Chad and Lagos in the west, but principally east Africa, south to Kenya and northern Tanganyika; . southern Asia, including northwest India, Assam, Burma, the Indo- Chinese countries, South China, and a few even to the Malay islands. Spring migration Leaves Kenya and Uganda from end of March to third week April (latest date April 19). Passage in Egypt from late March till at least April 18 and a few till late in the month (ex- ceptionally late date May 6), and at the mouth of the Yangtse, China, from beginning of April to mid-May. Arrival recorded: Vadsd, northern Norway, June 2; Murman coast, May 20-27; Arctic Circle in Yenisei Valley, June 6. Arrival on western shore of Taimyr Strait on April 18 (Pleske, 1928) presumably abnormal. Fall migration.—Departure recorded from Golchika at the mouth of the Yenisei, August 15. Passage at mouth of the Yangtse in Octo- ber. First arrivals noted: Egypt, October 23; Sudan (Darfur) October 25. Early date: Nairobi, Kenya, August 28. ANTHUS SPRAGUEI (Audubon) SPRAGUE’S PIPIT HABITS Sprague’s pipit, or the Missouri skylark, was discovered by Audubon on the Upper Missouri and named for one of his companions, Isaac Sprague, who shot the first specimen near Fort Union on June 19, 1843. Audubon (1844) described and figured it near the end of his great work, and remarks: “On several occasions my friend Edward Harris sought for these birds on the ground, deceived by the sound of their music, appearing as if issuing from the prairies which they constantly inhabit; and after having travelled to many distant places on the prairie, we at last looked upwards, and there saw several of these beautiful creatures singing in a continuous manner, and soaring at such an elevation, as to render them more or less difficult to discover with the eye, and at times some of them actually disappearing from our sight, in the clear thin air of that country.” Audubon’s type specimen remained unique until Captain Blakiston, 16 years later, found this species to be quite common on the plains of Saskatchewan and published an account of it in The Ibis for 1863. One of his specimens and Audubon’s type were deposited in the Smith- sonian Institution. These two specimens were the only ones known to Dr. Coues (1874) until he discovered it while on the survey of the in- SPRAGUE’S PIPIT Bs ternational boundary in 1878, of which he wrote at that time: “It is one of the most abundant birds of all the region along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, from just west of the Pembina Mountains to as far as the survey progressed this year—about four hundred miles; I had no difficulty in taking as many specimens as J desired. They were particularly numerous at various points along the Souris or Mouse River, where, during our marches or while we were encamped, they were almost continually hovering about us.” The 1931 Check-list gives its breeding range as “from west-central Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba south to western Montana and North Dakota,” but it has been reported in recent years as breeding in some localities outside of thisrange. In 1942, A. D. Henderson told me that Sprague’s pipit was then “a rather scarce breeder at Belvedere,” Alberta. About the same time, Frank L. Farley, of Camrose, wrote to me: “This splendid aerial songster is a regular summer resident of the open prairies of central Alberta, and in recent years it has ap- peared in fair numbers in scattered parkland areas that have been cleared and brought under cultivation. It also delights in the open, short-grass plains that surround many of our alkaline lakes and sloughs. The most northerly point at which I have found this pipit was on the south side of Lesser Slave Lake, approximately in latitude 55° N., where a pair was undoubtedly nesting.” Dr. Thomas S. Roberts (1932) states that Sprague’s pipit “was once a nesting bird in the southwestern and westcentral parts of Minne- sota, but the breaking up of the prairies probably caused it to leave that region many years ago.” It is now probably restricted in that State to the Red River Valley, in the northern half of the western border. Dr. Roberts visited that valley in 1928 and says that “it was something of a surprise to find that Sprague’s Pipit was one of the common birds of the Valley, its tinkling song being heard high overhead everywhere.” An interesting Michigan record is published by Trautman and Van Tyne (1935), who collected a singing male in Crawford County on June 26, 1935: “On the three days it was observed the bird occupied a territory about a quarter of a mile square of barren ‘jack pine plain,’ sparsely covered with coarse grasses, sweet fern, and a few small pine and oak saplings.” This habitat, if I understand it correctly, seems to be quite different from the normal haunts of the species, such as the open prairies and the short-grass, rolling plains of Saskatchewan where we found it. Perhaps, with the gradual breaking up and cultivation, as well as the extensive burning, of the virgin prairies, which is rapidly reducing the ranges of all the prairie birds, Sprague’s pipit, like the upland plover, is learning to adapt itself to the next-best type of country, such as the above and the parkland areas mentioned by Mr. Farley. When I visited the prairies around Quill Lake, Saskatchewan, in 1915, 54 BULLETIN 197, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM I found that the grassy plains had been thoroughly burned over to improve them for grazing purposes; the long-billed curlew, formerly abundant there, had entirely disappeared, and the beautiful little chestnut-collared longspurs were nearly gone. The prairies and their fascinating bird life will soon be merely a delightful memory! Sprague’s pipit, therefore, is probably disappearing from most of its former habitat. William Youngworth, of Sioux City, Iowa, tells. me that he spent a few days during the summer of 1939 near Cando, N. Dak., to learn something about this pipit. He says that, although Dr. Roberts (1932) found it so common in the Red River Valley a few years ago, it is not common any more. “One can drive now for hundreds of miles in North and South Dakota and never hear or see a pipit.” Nesting.—¥ rank L. Farley says in his notes: “For years I tried to find the nest of this bird by careful searching but was never success- ful. Later, however, I stumbled onto several nests by accident.