ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA KIJCVENTH BDIT1ON. VOL. XXVUI ; TO ZYM THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE ' All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY • OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVIII VETCH to ZYMOTIC DISEASES Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 EL Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the 1 Westphalia, Treaty of. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / WotKter Jnhn See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. A. D. Mo. ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D. Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -j Whig Party. College, 1877-1908. A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D. Sc., F.R.S. f Wasp (in Hart)- Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. -\ „,*,,. , / \ Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. ( weevil (tn part). A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f Wool, Worsted and Woollen Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \ Manufactures. A. F. B.* ARCHIBALD FRANK BECKE. Captain, Royal Field Artillery. Author of Introduction to the History of Tactics, -j Waterloo Campaign. 1740-1905; &c. A. F. H. A. F. HUTCHISON, M.A. f Wailace Sir u/iiiiam Sometime Rector of the High School, Stirling. \ W 'ce> • A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [ Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I Waynflete, William; Formerly Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of AH Souls ] vVilliara of Wykeham College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. I" «.,_,-,.„_,,,. , 5i, ,._... Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University wal [g"*m, • Francis, of London. Assistant-Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.-^ Wishart, George; Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; Henry Wolsey, Cardinal. VIII. ;&c. I A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M. \ Vulture; Wagtail; Warbler; Waxwing; Weaver-bird; A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Wheatear; Whitethroat; Wigeon; Woodcock; Woodpecker; Wren; • Wryneck; Zosterops. A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, Bureau of Mines, J Yukon Territory. Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario. A. Sy. ARTHUR SYMONS. f Vllliers de 1'Isle-Adam, See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. \ Comte de. A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. [ Formerly Assistant-Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of J llr ,41 i -j A i Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian 1 Weaving. Archaeology and Art. Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. ( Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Weber's Law; Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Wolff, Christian (i« part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. L A. v. 0. ALOYS VON ORELLI. Formerly Professor of Law in the University of Zttrich. Author of Das Staatsrecht < Veto. der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschafl. I 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v i 1997 VI A. W. H.* A. W. Hu. A. W. R. B. E. S. B. H.-S. C. El. C. F. A. C. P. K. C. H. Ha. C. H. T.* C. K. W. C. L. K. C. R. B. C. W. R. D. B. M. D. F. T. D. G. H. D. H. D. H. S. D. R.-M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. . f Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Widukind; Witan. REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. r Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National „,. „ _j. Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives of the} Wiseman, Cardinal. English Saints ; &c. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. of England. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Waste. Whitney, William Dwight. BENJAMIN ELI SMITH, A.M. Editor of the Century Dictionary. Formerly Instructor in Mathematics at Amherst . College, Mass., and in Psychology at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Editor of the Century Cyclopaedia of Names; Century Atlas; &c. <- B. HECKSTALL-SMITH. (" Associate of the Institute of Naval Architects. Secretary of the International J Yachting Yacht Racing Union ; Secretary of the Yacht Racing Association. Yachting 1 Editor of The Field. I SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa -j Yue-chi. Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal -{ Wilderness: Grant's Campaign. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. CHARLES FRANCIS KEARY, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Norway and the Norwegians ; &c. The Vikings in Western Christendom ; -j Viking. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of the American Historical Association. CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Victor HI. and IV. (Popes); Visconti (Family). Whewell Scholar, 1907. f Wisdom, Book of; i Wisdom Literature. | Vienna, Congress of. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.Hisx.Soc., F.S.A. Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor . of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Warwick, Richard Beau- champ, Earl of; Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of; Whittington, Richard; Worcester, John Tiptoft, Earl of; York, Richard, Duke of. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, -j Zemarchus. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, '1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of I Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. f Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, J Vitoria. 1890-1892. Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-] 1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lirr.D. See the biographical article: MONRO, DAVID BINNING. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. | Wolf, Friedrich August. Victoria, Tommasso L. da; Wagner: Biography (in part) and Critical Appreciation; Weber: Critical Appreciation. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy ; Life of Emilia Caslelar ; &c. DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. L DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. f Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester -! Zimbabwe. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. I. Xanthus; Zeitun. Villeneuve; Zumalaearregui. Williamson, William Crawford. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn E. Ar.* B.C.* E. Cu. E. C. B. E. C. S. REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A. f Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, ^ Zwineli Bradford. ERNEST CLARKE, M.D., F.R.C.S. Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital, and Consulting Ophthalmic J Vision: Errors of Refraction, Surgeon to the Miller General Hospital. Vice- President of the Ophthalmological ] &c. Society. Author of Refraction of the Eye ; &c. L | William I. and II. of Sicily. EDMUND CURTIS, M.A. Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " \ Wadding, Luke, in Cambridge Texts and Studies. L EDMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN. See the biographical article: STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE. E.G. Ed. M. E. M. W. E.G.* E. O'H. E. Pr. E. P. W. E. R. L. \ Whittier, John Greenleaf . Villanelle; Virelay; Vosmaer, Carel; Waller, Edmund; Walloons: Literature; Watson, Thomas; Wells, Charles Jeremiah; Wennerberg, Gunnar; Winther, Christian; Wordsworth, Dorothy. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr., LL.D. f Vologaeses- Vonones I -II • Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des i Y«r •• Va', Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I Aer' es> Iazae8era- EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. J Xenophon (in part). EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Wart; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Whitlow. A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. O. O'NEILL). Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. Vicar. Webster, Daniel (in part). E.T. F. A. C. P. C. C. F. G. M. B. F. J. H. F. Ke. EDGAR PRESTAGE. r Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J |D^' **"» mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 Vieira, Antonio. Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. L EVERETT PEPPERRELL WHEELER, A.M. f Formerly Chairman of the Commission on International Law, American Bar Association, and other similar Commissions. Author of Daniel Webster; Modern' Law of Carriers ; Wages and the Tariff. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L. . Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. -| Zoology. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice- President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., D.Sc., PH.D. Inventor of Electric Welding. Electrician to the Thomson-Houston and General Electric Companies. Professor of Chemistry and Mechanics, Central High School, J Welding* Electric Philadelphia, 1870-1880. President of the International Electro-technical Com- mission, 1908. I FRANKLYN ARDEN CRALLAN. Formerly Director of Wood-carving, Gloucester County Council. Author of Gothic \ Wood-Carving. Woodcarving. [ FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. f Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and' Morals; &c. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. r Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brase- nose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church. J Waiting Street. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Mono- I graphs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. FRANK KEIPER, A.M., B.L., M.E. Manager of the United States Voting Machine Company. Examiner, United States Patent Office. L Wessex. [ Voting Machines. Formerly Assistant -\ viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Zaria. F. H. H. COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. f Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the-\ Worth. World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I r Victoria Falls; F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J victoria Nyanza (in tart)- Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union'. [ Zambezi' ZuliUand F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f _ . * , Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Editor of the "Great Writers" Series. \ ^OIa' K F. We. FREDERICK WEDMORE. f whistler. See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK. L F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER I.S 10, F.G.S. J Volcano; Wolframite; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. 1 7jrpnn President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. L m F. Y. P. FREDERICK YORK POWELL, D.C.L., LL.D. J !«„«,•.„ r,-,jv,« See the biographical article : POWELL, FREDERICK YORK. \ Vigfusson, Gudbrandr. G. LORD GRIMTHORPE. tf See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON. \ Watch (in part). G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, I 7 . . and Fellow of Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's | *'en°Dla- Cathedral, Edinburgh. Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. L G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. r Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal J Commission to the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887."] Victoria (Australia): History. Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Com- missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia I and Melbourne. William II., King of the G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. . Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign Member, Netherlands Association of Literature. Netherlands; William III., King of the Netherlands; William the Silent; William II., Prince of Orange. G. PI. GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S. Formerly Principal Veterinary Surgeon, War Office, London. Author of Animal 4 Veterinary Science (in part). Plagues: their History, Nature and Prevention. [_ G. F. D. GEORGE FREDERICK DEACON, LL.D., M.INST.M.E., F.R.M.S. (1843-1909). r Formerly Engineer-in-Chief for the Liverpool Water Supply (Vyrnwy Scheme), and Member of the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Borough and Water 4 Water Supply. Engineer of Liverpool, 1871-1879. Consulting Civil Engineer, 1879-1909. Author [ of addresses and papers on Engineering, &c. G. F. R. H. GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT HENDERSON. f w See the biographical article: HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT. "\ w G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. f wraMt r«« Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. \ * G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER. f ™ , . Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J wasp (t their Structure and Life. [ Weevil (in part). G. J. GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A. r Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, -j Yangtsze-Kiang. Shanghai. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. Barrister-at-law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Wapentake. Society. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L, LL.D. { ™gV' A"r ° and Fellow of King's College. Author of On Holy Scripture and Criticism; &c. &c. L HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A. Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office, London. Vice-President, Institute of J Watch (in Part). Electrical Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting, &c. REV. HENRY HERBERT WILLIAMS, M.A. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Philosophy, Hertford College, Oxford. Examining -| Will: Philosophy. Chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff. HENRY JACKSON, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D., O.M. f Xenocrates; Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity J Xenophanes of Colophon; College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History of -. ' f _. Greek Philosophy from Tholes to Aristotle. HENRY JAMES CHANEY, I.S.O. (1842-1906). Formerly Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, I Weights and Measures: and Secretary to the Royal Commission on Standards. Represented Great Britain 1 Scientific and Commercial at the International Conference on the Metric System, 1901. Author of Treatise on Weights and Measures. f . •< L Viper. Formerly Fellow and J the Royal ^ * >»6. Woden. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Mathematics in the University of Manchester. Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics ; &c. HENRY LEWIS JONES, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Medical officer in charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lecturer on J X-Ray Treatment Medical Electricity at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Medical Electricity; &c. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in i ' Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. HERBERT MURRAY VAUGHAN, M.A., F.S.A. J Wales: Geography and Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici i Statistics and History Popes; The Last Stuart Queen. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. HENRY STURT, M.A. Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. HENRY SWEET, M.A., Pn.D., LL.D. University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford University. Corresponding Member of the J Academies of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author cf A History } i of English Sounds since the Earliest Period; A Primer of Phonetics; &c. Wood, Anthony a. -[ Vischer, Friedrich Theodor. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, - 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, I Oxford, 1901. Author of " Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropo- | logy " in Mansfield College Essays; &c. I ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. [ Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Shorts History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. \_ ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. f Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the J Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Satte and *«] Companions; &c. L Volapuk. Wace, Robert; Walter of Coventry; William I., King of England; William II., King of England; William of Malmesbury; William of Newburgh. Zechariah (in part). Wise, Isaac Mayer; Zunz, Leopold. Wilkinson, James. X J. A. E. J. A. P. J. A. H. J. Bt. J. Bu. J. E. O. J. F.-K. J. F. M'L. J. Ga. J. G. H. J. G. M. J. G. R. J. G. Sc. J. H. F. J. H. H. J. J. L.* J. L. W. J. Mac. J. Mu.* J. M. G. J. M. J. J. M. M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Watt, James. Wall-coverings. | Whitman, Walt. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E. Director of (British) Naval Education. Hon. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, 1890-1903. Author of The Strength of Materials; &c. i JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of Voltmeter- Wattmeter- TT • /-* 11 T^ i ?• 11 f cj. T 1. » r* 11 /-• i_ • i J vuiiuicier, wuiimeier, University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John s College, Cambridge, 1 «ri,oafe*nn > n -j and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets o.nd Electric s BnQge. Currents. [ JOHN ALLEN HOWE. f Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of ~\ Wealden; Wenlock Group. The Geology of Building Stones. I JAMES BARTLETT. f Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's. College, London. Member of the Society of Architects. Member of the Institute of Junior Engineers. JOHN BURROUGHS. See the biographical article: BURROUGHS, JOHN. JULIUS EMIL OLSON, B.L. f Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature at the University of Wisconsin. -< Vinland. Author of Norwegian Grammar and Reader. [ JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HisT.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Vlllamediana, Count de; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. T Villena, Enrique de; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Zorrilla V Moral Jose Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. (_ JOHN FERGUSSON M'LENNAN. See the biographical article: M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSSON. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. | Werwolf (in part). 4 York, House of. j Welding (in part). j Vision; Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J ™. , , _. . Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after] Wieland, Chnstopn Martin. Modern Language Journal, a Century; &c. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. JOHN HENRY FREESE. M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L Author of Burma ; 1 Wa. •j Xenophon (in part}. Wolfram von Eschenbach. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director VltrUVlUSJ of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South -j Wren, Sir Christopher; Kensington Museum, 1892—1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Zuccaro I.-II. Times ; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediceval Times. [_ REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. r Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and Lady J w j wii-am r OnrMAS WILLIAM tox. | Weaving- Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of \ ,, Weaving. \ Yarn- Villani, Giovanni. COUNT UGO BALZANI, LITT.D. Member of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Sometime President of the Reale Societa Romana di Storia Patria. Corresponding Member Of the British Academy ; Author of The Popes and the Hohenstaufen ; &c. i WILFRID AIRY, M.lNST.C.E. Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical Adviser to the Standards"! Weighing Machines. Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy ; &c. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BEEVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE FORD. Sometime Scholar of King's College, Cambridge. College of Music, London. Vevey; Vienne: Town; Vorarlberg; Walensee; Winkelried, Arnold von; Winterthur; Zug: Canton; Zug: Town; Zug, Lake of; Zurich: Canton; Zurich: Town; Zurich, Lake of. Teacher of Singing at the Royal -I. Wolf, Hugo. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. Walther von der Vogelweide; Wyeliffe (in part). WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain, "j Wedgwood, Josiah. Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. Windmill. WILLIAM CAWTHORNE UNWIN, F.R.S., LL.D., M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. Emeritus Professor, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs; Treatise on Hydraulics; &c. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f British Government Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General oH Victoria Nyanza (in part). Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. I WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). WILLIAM HENRY. Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the - Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ; &c. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly . Beit Lecturer on Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Canadian Series). WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. I Wager; Warrant; [ Witness. Water Polo. Walrus (in part); Whale (in part); Wolf (in part) ; Zebra (in part). Wilson, Sir Daniel. -I Wordsworth, William (in part). WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. Formerly Professor of History and Political Science, Bowdoin. Member of the American -< Washington, George. Historical Association, &c. Author of History and Government of Maine; &c. Editor of Select Charters and other documents illustrative of American History. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LITT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. WILLIAM OSCAR SCROGGS, Pn.t). Assistant Professor of History and Economics at Louisiana State University. Formerly Goodwin and Austin Fellow, Harvard University. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. See the biographical article: COURTNEY, L. H. BARON. f Weights and Measures: \ Ancient Historical. f Vivarini; \ Zurbaran, Francisco. Walker, William. f Walpole, Horatio; \ Wilkes, John. WILLIAM PRICE JAMES. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Romantic Professions ; &c. High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of \ Watson, William (poet) INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xv W. P. R. W. Ri. HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. Director of the London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Com- missioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, •{ Voeel Sir Julius New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; &c. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LiTT.D. f Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University I of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British T Villanova. Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece ; &c. WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Present Period; &c. Wagner: Biography (in part); Weber. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. f Water-flea; Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Ji Wood-louse Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. I WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- 1 Winthrop, John (1588-1649). tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c. I. WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J Vulcan. Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; 1- The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Pn.D. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. | Westminster, Synods of. | Virgil (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Vicksburg. Vienna. Vine. Vinegar. Vingt-et-Un. 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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVIII VETCH, in botany, the English name for Vicia saliva, also known as tare, a leguminous annual herb with trailing or climb- ing stems, compound leaves with five or six pairs of leaflets, reddish-purple flowers borne singly or in pairs in the leaf-axis, and a silky pod containing four to ten smooth seeds. The wild form, sometimes regarded as a distinct species, V. angusti- folia, is common in dry soils. There are two races of the cultivated vetch, winter and spring vetches: the former, a hardy form, capable of enduring frost, has smoother, more cylindrical pods with smaller seeds than the summer variety, and gives less bulk of stem and leaves. The spring vetch is a more delicate plant and grows more rapidly and luxuriantly than the winter variety. The name vetch is applied to other species of the genus Vicia. Vicia orobus, bitter vetch, and V. sylvatica, wood vetch, are British plants. Another British plant, Hippocrepis, is known as horseshoe vetch from the fact of its pod breaking into several horseshoe-shaped joints. Anthyttis vulneraria is kidney-vetch, a herb with heads of usually yellow flowers, found on dry banks. Astragalus is another genus of Legumi- nosae, and is known as milk-vetch. Vetches are a very valuable forage crop. Being indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil, they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor soils. By combining the winter and spring varieties, and making several sowings of each in its season at intervals of two or three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use from May till October, and thus to carry out a system of soiling by means of vetches alone. But it is usually more expedient to use them in combination with grass and clover, beginning with the first cutting of the latter in May, taking the winter vetches in June, recurring to the Italian ryegrass or clover as the second cutting is ready, and afterwards bringing the spring vetches into use. Each crop can thus be used when in its best state for cattle food, and so as gratefully to vary their dietary. Winter Vetches. — There is no botanical difference between winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being identical in appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed to get it of xxvm. i the right sort. Seed grown in England is found the most suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates more quickly, and produces a more vigorous plant than that which is home- grown. As the great inducement to cultivate this crop is the obtaining of a supply of nutritious green food which shall be ready for use about the ist of May, so as to fill up the gap which is apt to occur betwixt the root crops of the previous autumn and the ordinary summer food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is of the utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may be ready for use by the time mentioned. To secure this, winter tares should be sown in August if possible, but always as soon as the land can be cleared of the preceding crop. They may yield a good crop though sown in October, but in this case will probably be very little in advance of early-sown spring vetches, and possess little, if any, advantage over them in any respect. The land on which they are sown should be dry and well sheltered, clean and in good heart, and be further enriched by farmyard manure. Not less than 3$ bushels of seed per acre should be sown, to which some think it beneficial to add half a bushel of wheat. Rye is frequently used for this purpose, but it gets reedy in the stems, and is rejected by the stock. Winter beans are better than either. The land having been ploughed rather deeply, and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to deposit the seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine or by ribbing. The latter is the best practice, and the ribs should be at least a foot apart and rather deep, that the roots may be well developed before top-growth takes place. As soon in spring as the state of the land and weather admits of it, the crop should be hoed betwixt the drills, a top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels of soot or 2 cwt. of guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast, and the roller then used for the double purpose of smoothing the surface so as to admit of the free use of the scythe and of pressing down the plants which may have been loosened by frost. It is thus by early sowing, thick seeding and liberal manuring that this crop is to be forced to an early and abundant maturity. May and June are the months in which winter vetches are used to advantage. A second growth will be produced from the roots if the crop is allowed to stand; but it is much better practice to plough up the land as the crop is 5 VETERAN— VETERINARY SCIENCE cleared, and to sow turnips upon it. After a full crop of vetches, land is usually in a good state for a succeeding crop. When the whole process has been well managed, the gross amount of cattle food yielded by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop by which it is followed in the same summer, will be found considerably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest crop of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same quantity of manure. It is useless to sow this crop where game abounds. Spring vetches, if sown about the ist of March, will be ready for use by the ist of July, when the winter vetches are just cleared off. To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the land on which it is sown must be clean, and to keep it so a much fuller allowance of seed is required than is usually given in Scotland. When the crop is as thick set as it should be, the tendrils intertwine, and the ground is covered by a solid mass of herbage, under which no weed can live. To secure this, not less than 4 bushels of seed per acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in drills. The latter plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly the best; for if the weeds are kept in check until the crop is fairly established, they have no chance of getting up afterwards. With a thin crop of vetches, on the other hand, the land is so certain to get foul, that they should at once be ploughed down, and something else put in their place. As vetches are in the best state for use when the seeds begin to form in the pods, repeated sowings are made at intervals of three weeks, beginning by the end of February, or as early in March as the season admits, and continuing till May. The usual practice in Scotland has been to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed from lea. Sometimes this does very well, but a far better plan is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part of the land occupied by wheat or barley after a crop of turnips, and having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it with vetches, putting them instead of " seeds " for one revolution of the course. When vetches are grown on poor soils, the most profitable way of using them is by folding sheep upon them, a practice very suitable also for clays, upon which a root crop cannot safely be consumed in this way. A different course must, however, be adopted from that followed when turnips are so disposed of. When sheep are turned in upon a piece of tares, a large portion of the food is trodden down and wasted. Cutting the vetches and putting- them into racks does not much mend the matter, as much is still pulled out and wasted, and the manure unequally distributed over the land. To avoid those evils, hurdles with vertical spars, betwixt which the sheep can reach with head and neck, are now used. These are set close up to the growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted forward as the sheep eat up what is within their reach. This requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but the labour is repaid by the saving of the food, which being always fresh and clean, does the sheep more good. A modification of this plan is to use the same kind of hurdles, but instead of shifting them as. just described, to mow a swathe parallel to them, and fork this forward within reach of the sheep as required, repeating this as often during the day as is found necessary, and at night moving the sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may lie for the next twenty-four hours on the space which has yielded food for the past day. During the night they have such pickings as have been left on the recently mown space and so much of the growing crop as they can get at through the spars. There is less labour by this last mode than the other, and having piactised it for many years, we know that it answers well. This folding upon vetches is suitable either for finishing off for market sheep that are in forward condition, or for recently weaned lambs, which, after five or six weeks' folding on this clean, nutritious herbage, are found to take on more readily to eat turnips, and to thrive better upon them, than if they had been kept upon the pastures all the autumn. Sheep folded upon vetches must have water always at command, otherwise they will not prosper. As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season when pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common practice is to cart them on to grass land and spread them out in wisps, to be eaten by the sheep or cattle. It is, however, much better either to have them eaten by sheep where they grow, or to cart them to the homestead. VETERAN, old, tried, experienced, particularly used of a soldier who has seen much -service. The Latin veteranus (vetus, old), as applied to a soldier, had, beside its general application in opposition to tiro, recruit, a specific technical meaning in the Roman army. Under the republic the full term of service with the legion was twenty years; those who served this period and gained their discharge (missid) were termed emeriti, If they chose to remain in service with the legion, they were then called I'eierani. Sometimes a special invitation was issued to the emeriti to rejoin; they were then styled evocati. The base of Lat. vetus meant a year, as seen in the Gr. ih-os (for F(TOS) and Sanskrit vatsa ; from the same base comes vitulus, a calf, properly a yearling, vitellus, a young calf, whence O. Fr. veel, modern, vetiu, English " veal," the flesh of the calf. The Teutonic cognate of vitulus is probably seen in Goth, withrus, lamb, English " wether," a castrated ram. VETERINARY SCIENCE (Lat. veterinarius, an adjective meaning " connected with beasts of burden and draught," from veterinus, " pertaining to yearlings," and vitulus, " a calf "),' the science, generally, that deals with the conformation and structure of the domesticated animals, especially the horse; their physiology and special racial characteristics; their breed- ing, feeding and general hygienic management; their pathology, and the preventive and curative, medical and surgical, treat- ment of the diseases and injuries to which they are exposed; their amelioration and improvement; their relations to the human family with regard to communicable maladies; and the supply of food and other products derived from them for the use of mankind. In this article it is only necessary to deal mainly with veterinary science in its relation with medicine, as other aspects are treated under the headings for the par- ticular animals, &c. In the present edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica the various anatomical articles (see ANATOMY for a list of these) are based on the comparative method, and the anatomy of the lower animals is dealt with there and in the separate articles on the animals. History. There is evidence that the Egyptians practised veterinary medicine and surgery in very remote times; but it is not until we turn to the Greeks that we obtain any very definite informa- tion with regard to the state of veterinary as well as human medicine in antiquity. The writings of Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) afford evidence of excellent investigations in comparative pathology. Diocles of Carystus, who was nearly a contem- porary, was one of the first to occupy himself with anatomy, which he studied in animals. Aristotle, too, wrote on physiology and comparative anatomy, and on the maladies of animals, while many other Greek writers on veterinary medicine are cited or copied from by Varro, Columella and Galen. And we must not overlook Mago of Carthage (200 B.C.), whose work in twenty-eight books was translated into Greek and was largely used by Varro and Columella. 1 Regarding the origin of the word " veterinary," the following occurs in D'Arboval's Dictionnaire de m&decine et de chirurgie veterinaires, edited by Zundel (1877), iii. 814: "Les mots veterinaria et veterinarius 4taient employe's par les Remains pour designer: le premier, la me'decine des b£tes de somme; le second, pour indiquer celui qui la pratiquait; le mot veterinae indiquait les b6tes de somme, et etait la contraction de veheterinae, du verbe vehere, porter, tirer, trainer. L'e'tymologie reelle du rr.ot vet&rinaire, ou plut6t du mot veterinarius des Remains, serait d'apres Lenglet encore plus ancienne; elle viendrait du celtique, d'oti le mot serait passd chez les Remains; cet auteur fait venir le mot de vee, betail (d'ou 1'allemand Vieh), teeren, 6tre malade (d'oft 1'allemand Zehren, consomption), aerts ou arts, artiste, mddecin (d'oti 1'allemand Arzt)." VETERINARY SCIENCE Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear to have known much of veterinary medicine. Varro (116-28 B.C.) may be considered the first Roman writer who deals with Amongst an;mai medicine in a scientific spirit in his De Re Rustica, in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers. Celsus is supposed to have written on animal medicine, and Columella (ist century) is credited with having utilized those relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his Di- Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times; it treats not only of medicine and surgery, but also of sanitary ures for the suppression of contagious diseases. From the }nl century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own and regular practitioners, especially in the service of the Roman armies (mulomedici, veterinarii) . Perhaps the most renowned veterinarian of the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sar- matians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a high and well-deserved reputation in his time. He was a keen observer; he distinguished and described a number of diseases which were badly defined by his predecessors, recognized the contagious nature of glanders, farcy and anthrax, and prescribed isolation for their suppression ; he also made interesting observations on accidents and diseases of horses' limbs, and waged war against certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment of disease, indicating rational methods, some of which are still successfully employed in veterinary therapeutics, such as splints for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of prolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c. Not less eminent was Hierocles, the successor of Apsyrtus, whose writings he larjgely copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially in the hygiene and training of horses. Pelagonius, again, was a writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general was most irrational. Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military art) was a popular author of the end of the 5th century, though less distin- guished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great extent indebted in the preparation of his Mulomedicina si'je Ars Veterinaria. He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than a veterinary practitioner, and knew next to nothing of anatomy, which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period. He was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and sorcerers; nevertheless, he gives some interesting observations de- rived from his travels. He had also a good idea of aerial infection, recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpa- tion of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse's foot. Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors, the Mulomedicina of Vegetius maintained its popularity through many centuries. Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century. It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary art during the middle ages. Towards the close of the medieval period the subject was much cultivated in the cavalry schools of Italy; and Spain also had an organized system of good practitioners in the 15th century, who have left many books still extant. Ger- many was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist until the end of the I5th century, when in 1492 there was published anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibuchlein. In the following century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest, and the works of Fugger and Fayser mark the commencement of a new era. Fayser's treatises, Von der Gestuterei and Von der Zucht der Kriegs- und Burger-Pferde- (1529-97), are remarkable for originality and good sense. In Great Britain animal medicine was perhaps in a more advanced condition than in Germany, if we accept the evidence of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London, 1841); yet it was largely made up of the grossest super- stitions. * Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special privileges. * The earliest known works in English appeared anonymously towards the commencement of the i6th century, viz. Propertees and Medcynesfor a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges, Dogges. The word " mascal " shows that the latter work was in its origin Italian. There is no doubt that in the I5th century the increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian nding- masters and farriers into England; and it is recorded that Henry VIII. brought over two of these men who had been trained by Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school. The knowledge so intro- duced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blunde- ville's Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a compilation, is yet enriched with original observations. In the 1 See Leechdoms, Wortcunningand Starcraft of Early England (3 vols. 8vo, London, 1864). 1 See Fleming, Horse-shoes and Horse-Shoeing (London, 1869). France and Con- tinental Europe. isth century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention. A work on comparative anatomy by Vplcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg in i£73 ; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig, in which were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hippo- Osteologie. But by far the most notable work, and one which main- tained its popularity for a century and a half, was that of Carlo Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published in 1598 in that city, and entitled Dell' Anotomia e dell' Infirmita del Cavallo, e suoi Remedii. Passing through many editions, and translated into French and German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable one for the time in which it was composed, the anatomical portion being especially praiseworthy. English books of the I7th century exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary medicine and surgery, especially as regards the horse. This is even more notable in the writings of the i8th century, among which may be particularized Gibson's Farrier's New Guide (1719), Method oj Dieting Homes (1721) and (best of all) his New Treatise on the Diseases of Horses, besides Braken's, Burdon's, Bridge's and Bartlet's treatises. Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the A natomy of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Charles II., illustrated with copperplates, and by the still more complete and original work of Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked a new era in this line of study. Of foreign works it may suffice to mention that of Solleysel, Veritable parfait mareschal (1664), which passed through many editions, was translated into several languages, and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers. Sir W. Hope's Compleat Horseman (1696) is a translation from Solleysel by a pupil. Modern Schools and Colleges. — The most important era in the history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution of veterinary schools. France was the first to take the great initiative step in this direction. 1 in If on had recom- mended the formation of veterinary schools, but his recommendations were not attended to. Claude Bourgelat (1712— 1799), an advocate at Lyons and a talented hippolo- gist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis XV., was the first to induce the government to establish a veterinary school and school of equitation at Lyons, in 1761. This school he himself directed for only a few years, during which the great benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching to other parts of Fiance. Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became, and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced veterinary schools in the world. At Lyons he was replaced by the Abbe Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was killed at the siege of Lyons after a very successful period of school management, during which he had added largely to agricultural and physical knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours d' Agriculture. Twenty years later the Alfort school added to its teaching staff several distinguished professors whose names still adorn the annals of science, such as Dauberton, who taught rural economy; Vic d'Azyr, who lectured on comparative anatomy; Fourcroy, who undertook instruction in chemistry; and Gilbert, one of its most brilliant pupils, who had veterinary medicine and surgery for his department. The last-named was also a distinguished agriculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural as well as veterinary subjects. The position he had acquired, added to his profound and varied knowledge, made him most useful to France during the period of the Revolution. It is chiefly to him that it is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet flock of Merino sheep, for the conservation of the Tuileries and Versailles parks, and for the creation of the fine experimental agricultural estab- lishment organized in the ancient domain of Sceaux. The Alfort school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the source whence all similar institutions obtained their first teachers and their guidance. A third government school was founded in 1825 at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands of thoroughly educated veterinary surgeons and many professors of high scientific repute, among whom may be named Bouley, Chauveau, Colin, Toussaint, St Cyr, Goubaux, Arloing, Galtier, Nocard, Trasbot, Neumann, Cadiot and Leclainche. The opening of the Alfort school was followed by the establishment of national schools in Italy (Turin, 1769), Denmark (Copenhagen, 1773), Austria (Vienna, 1775), Saxony (Dresden, 1776), Prussia (Hanover, 1778: Berlin, 1790), Bavaria (Munich, 1790), Hungary (Budapest, 1787) and Spain (Madrid, 1793); and soon government veterinary schools were founded in nearly every European country, except Great Britain and Greece, mostly on a munificent scale. Probably all, but especially those of France and Germany, were established as much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the army as for the requirements of civil life. In 1907 France possessed three national veterinary schools, Germany had six, Russia four (Kharkov, Dorpat, Kazan and Warsaw), Italy six, Spain five, Austria-Hungary three (Vienna, Budapest and Lemberg), Switzerland two (Zurich and Bern), Sweden two (Skara and Stockholm), Denmark, Holland, Belgium and Portugal one each. In 1849 r- government veterinary VETERINARY SCIENCE school was established at Constantinople, and in 1861 the govern- ment of Rumania founded a school at Bucharest. The veterinary schools of Berlin, Hanover and Vienna have been raised to the position of universities. In 1790 St Bel (whose real name was Vial, St Bel being a village near Lyons, where was his paternal estate), after studying at the Lyons school and teaching both at Alfort and Lyons, came to England and published proposals for founding a school g ' in which to instruct pupils in veterinary medicine and surgery. The Agricultural Society of Odiham, which had been meditating sending two young men to the Alfort school, elected him an honorary member, and delegated a committee to consult with him respecting his scheme. Some time afterwards this committee detached themselves from the Odiham Society and formed an institution styled the Veterinary College of London, of which St Bel was appointed professor. The school was to be commenced and maintained by private subscription. In March 1792 arrange- ments were made for building temporary stabling for fifty horses and a forge for shoeing at St Pancras. The college made rapid progress in public estimation, notwithstanding considerable pecuniary embarrassments. As soon as the building was ready for the recep- tion of animal patients, pupils began to be enrolled ; and among the earliest were some who afterwards gained celebrity as veterinarians, as Bloxam, Elaine, R. Lawrence, Field and Bracy Clark. On the death of St Bel in August 1793 there appears to have been some difficulty in procuring a suitable successor; but at length, on the recommendation of John Hunter and Cline, two medical men were appointed, Coleman and Moorcroft, the latter then practising as a veterinary surgeon in London. The first taught anatomy and physiology, and Moorcroft, after visiting the French schools, directed the practical portion of the teaching. Unfortunately, neither of these teachers had much experience among animals, nor were they well acquainted with their diseases; but Coleman (1765-1839) had as a student, in conjunction with a fellow-student (afterwards Sir Astley Cooper), performed many experiments on animals under the direction of Cline. Moorcroft, who remained only a short time at the college, afterwards went to India, and during a journey in 1819 was murdered in Tibet. Coleman, by his scientific researches and energetic management, in a few years raised the college to a high standard of usefulness ; under his care the progress of the veterinary art was such as to qualify its practitioners to hold commissions in the army; and he himself was appointed veterinary surgeon- general to the British cavalry. In 1831 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Owing to the lack of funds, the teaching at the college must have been very meagre, and had it not been for the liberality of several medical men in throwing open the doors of their theatres to its pupils for instruction without fee or reward, their professional knowledge would have been sadly deficient. The board of examiners was for many years chiefly composed of eminent members of the medical profession. Coleman died in 1839, and with him disappeared much of the interest the medical profession of London took in the progress of veterinary medicine. Vet the Royal Veterinary College (first styled " Royal " during the presidentship of the duke of Kent) continued to do good work in a purely veterinary direction, and received such public financial support that it was soon able to dispense with the small annual grant given to it by the government. In the early years of the institution the horse was the only animal to which much attention was given. But at the instigation of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, which gave £200 per annum for the purpose, an addi- tional professor was appointed to investigate and teach the treatment of the diseases of cattle, sheep and other animals; outbreaks of disease among these were also to be inquired into by the officers of the college. This help to the institution was withdrawn in 1875, but renewed and augmented in 1886. For fifteen years the Royal Agricultural Society annually voted a sum of £500 towards the expenses of the department of comparative pathology, but in 1902 this grant was reduced to £200. As the result of representations made to the senate of the uni- versity of London by the governors of the Royal Veterinary College, the university in 1906 instituted a degree in veterinary science (B.Sc.). The possession of this degree does not of itself entitle the holder to practise as a veterinary surgeon, but it was hoped that an increasing number of students would, while studying for the diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, also adopt the curriculum which is necessary to qualify for the university examina- tions and obtain the degree of bachelor of science. To provide equipment for the higher studies required for the university degree, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906 made a grant to the college of £800 per annum. At this school post-graduate instruc- tion is given on the principles of bacteriological research, vaccination and protective inoculation, the preparation of toxins and vaccines and the bacteriology of the specific diseases of animals. The London Veterinary School has been the parent of other schools in Great Britain, one of which, the first in Scotland, was founded by Professor Dick, a student under Coleman, and a man of great per- severance and ability. Beginning at Edinburgh in 1819-20 with only one student, in three years he gained the patronage of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which placed a small sum of money at the disposal of a committee appointed by itself to take charge of a department of veterinary surgery it had formed. This patronage, and very much in the way of material assistance and encouragement, were continued to the time of Dick's death in 1866. During the long period in which he presided over the school considerable progress was made in diffusing a sound knowledge of veterinary medicine in Scotland and beyond it For many years his examining board, which gave certificates of proficiency under the auspices of the Highland and Agricultural Sodety, was composed of the most distinguished medical men in Scotland, such as Goodsir, Syme, Lizars, Ballingall, Simpson and Knox. By his will Dick vested the college in the lord provost and town council of Edinburgh as trustees, and left a large portion of the fortune he had made to maintain it for the purposes for which it was founded. In 1859 another veterinary school was established in Edinburgh by John Gamgee, and the Veterinary College, Glasgow, was founded in 1863 by James McCall. Gamgee's school was discontinued in 1865; and William Williams established in 1873 the " New Veterinary College," Edinburgh. This school was transferred in 1904 to the university, Liverpool. In 1900 a veterinary school was founded in Dublin. In 1844 the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (to be carefully distinguished from the Royal Veterinary College) obtained its charter of incorporation. The functions of this body were until 1 88 1 limited almost entirely to examining students taught in the veterinary schools, and bestowing diplomas of membership on those who successfully passed the examinations conducted by the boards which sat in London and Edinburgh. Soon after the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons obtained its charter of incorporation, a difference arose between the college and Dick, which resulted in the latter seceding altogether from the union that had been established, and forming an independent examining board, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland granting certificates of proficiency to those students who were deemed competent. This schism operated very injuriously on the progress of veterinary education and on professional advancement, as the competition engendered was of a rather deteriorating nature. After the death of Dick in 1866, the dualism in veterinary licensing was suppressed and the Highland Society ceased to grant certificates. Now there is only one portal of entry into the profession, and the veterinary students of England, Ireland and Scotland must satisfy the examiners appointed by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons before they can practise their profession. Before beginning their professional studies students of veterinary medicine must pass an examination in general education equivalent in every respect to that required of students of human medicine. The minimum length of the professional training is four years of three terms each, and during that course four searching examinations must be passed before the student obtains his diploma or licence to practise as a veterinary surgeon. The subjects taught in the schools have been increased in numbers conformably with the requirements of ever extending science, and the teaching is more thorough and practical. During the four years' curriculum, besides the pre- liminary technical training essential to every scientist, the student must study the anatomy and physiology of the domesticated animals, the pathology and bacteriology of the diseases to which these animals are exposed, medicine, surgery, hygiene, dietetics and meat inspec- tion, and learn to know the results of disease as seen post mortem or in the slaughter-house. In 1881 an act of parliament was obtained protecting the title of the graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons and conferring other advantages, not the least of which is the power granted to the college to remove the names of unworthy members from its register. In some respects the Veterinary Surgeons Act is superior to the Medical Act, while it places the profession on the same level as other learned bodies, and prevents the public being misled by empirics and imposters. In 1876 the college instituted a higher degree than membership — that of fellow (F.R.C.V.S.), which can only be obtained after the graduate has been five years in practice, and by furnishing a thesis and passing a severe written and oral examination on pathology and bacteriology, hygiene and sanitary science, and veterinary medicine and surgery. Only fellows can be elected members of the examining boards for the membership and fellowship diplomas. The graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons registered from its foundation in 1844 until 1907 numbered about 6000. In the British army a veterinary service was first instituted at the beginning of the igth century, when veterinary surgeons with the relative rank of lieutenant were appointed to regiments of cavalry, the royal artillery and the royal wagon train. After the Crimean War, and consequent on the abolition of the East India Company (which then possessed its own veterinary service), the number of veterinary surgeons employed was increased, and in 1878 they were constituted a " department, " with distinctive uniform, instead of being regimental officers as was previously the case. At the same time they were all brought on to a general roster for foreign service, so that every one in turn has to serve abroad. In 1903 the officers of the department were given substantive rank, and in 1904 were constituted a " corps, " with a small number of non-commissioned officers and men under their command and specially trained by them. In 1907 the Army Veterinary Corps consisted of 167 officers and 220 VETERINARY SCIENCE non-commissioned officers and men. The men are stationed at the veterinary hospitals, Woolwich depot, Aldershot, Bulford and the Curragh, but when trained are available for duty under veterinary officers at any station, and a proportion of them are employed at the various hospitals in South Africa. Owing to their liability to service abroad in rotation, it follows that every officer spends a considerable portion of his service in India, Burma, Egypt or South Africa. Each tour abroad is five years, and the average length of service abroad is about one-half the total. This offers a wide and varied field for the professional activities of the corps, but naturally entails a corresponding strain on the individuals. Commissions as lieutenants are obtained by examination, the candidates having previously qualified as members of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Promotion to captain and major is granted at five and fifteen years' service respectively, and subsequently, by selection, to lieutenant-colonel and colonel, as vacancies occur. The director- general has the honorary rank of major-general. The Indian civil veterinary department was at first recruited from the A. V. Corps, but candidates who qualified as members of the R.C.V.S. were subsequently granted direct appoint- ments by the India Office, by selection. The service is paid and pensioned on the lines of the other Indian civil services, and offers an excellent professional career to those whose constitu- tion permits them to live in the tropics. The work comprises the investigation of disease in animals and the management of studs and farms, in addition to the clinical practice which falls to the share of all veterinary surgeons. In India there are schools for the training of natives as veterinary surgeons in Bombay, Lahore, Ajmere and Bengal. The courses extend over two and three years, and the instruction is very thorough. The professors are officers of the Indian civil veterinary depart- ment, and graduates are given subordinate appointments in that service, or find ready employment in the native cavalry or in civil life. In the United States of America, veterinary science made very slow progress until 1884, when the Bureau of Animal Industry was established in connexion with the Department of Agriculture at Washington. The immediate cause of the formation of the bureau was the urgent need by the Federal government of official information concerning the nature and prevalence of animal diseases, and of the means required to control and eradicate them, and also the necessity of having an executive agency to carry out the measures necessary to stop the spread of disease and to prevent the importation of contagion into the country, as well as to conduct investigations through which further knowledge might be obtained. In 1907 the bureau consisted of ten divisions, employing the services of 815 veterinary surgeons. It deals with the investigation, control and eradication of contagious diseases of animals, the inspection and quarantine of live stock, horse-breeding, experiments in feeding, diseases of poultry and the inspection of meat and dairy produce. It makes original investiga- tions as to the nature, cause and prevention of communicable diseases of live stock, and takes measures for their repression, frequently in conjunction with state and territorial authorities. It prepares tuberculin and mallein, and supplies these substances free of charge to public health officers, conducts experiments with immunizing agents, and prepares vaccines, sera and antitoxins for the protection of animals against disease. It prepares and publishes reports of scientific investigations and treatises on various subjects relating to live stock. The diseases which claim most attention are Texas fever, sheep scab, cattle mange, venereal disease of horses, tuberculosis of cattle and pigs, hog cholera, glanders, anthrax, black-quarter, and parasitic diseases of cattle, sheep and horses. The effect of the work of the bureau on the health and value of farm animals and their products is well known, and the people of the United States now realize the immense importance of veterinary science. Veterinary schools were established in New York City in 1846, Boston in 1848, Chicago in 1883, and subsequently in Kansas City and elsewhere, but these, like those of Great Britain, were private institutions. The American Veterinary College, N.Y., founded in 1875, is connected with New York University, and the N.Y. State Veterinary College forms a department of Cornell University at Ithaca. Other veterinary schools attached to state universities or agricultural colleges are those in Philadelphia. Pa.; Columbus, Ohio; Ames, Iowa; Pullman, Washington; Auburn, Alabama; Manhattan, Kansas; and Fort Collins, Colorado. Other veterinary colleges are in San Francisco; Washington, D.C. (two); Grand Rapids, Michigan ;St Joseph, Missouri; and Cincinnati, Ohio. In Canada a veterinary school was founded at Toronto in 1862, and four years later another school was established at Montreal. Canada ^or sorne Vear? the Montreal school formed a department of McGill University, but in 1902 the veterinary branch was discontinued. Veterinary instruction in French is given by the faculty of comparative medicine at Laval University. The Canadian Department of Agriculture possesses a fully equipped veterinary sanitary service employing about 400 qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of "live stock, meat and dairy produce. In the Australian commonwealth there is only one veterinary school, which was established in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1888. The Public Health Departments of New South Wales, Western Australia, Tasmania and the other states employ AtatnU'- qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of live stock, cowsheds, meat and dairy produce. There is no veterinary school in New Zealand, but the Depart- ment of Agriculture has arranged to establish one at Wellington in connexion with the investigation laboratory and farm „ of the division of veterinary science at Wallaceville. The ^ew. government employs about forty qualified veterinarians as inspectors of live stock, abattoirs, meat- works and dairies. In Egypt a veterinary school with French teachers was founded in 1830 at Abu-Zabel, near Cairo, by Clot-Bey, a doctor of medicine. This school was discontinued in 1842. The Public Health Ervat Department in 1901 established at Cairo a new veterinary school for the instruction of natives. Ten qualified! veterinary surgeons are employed in the sanitary service. Each of the colonies Natal, Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Swaziland, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia has a veterinary sanitary police service engaged in dealing with the south contagious diseases of animals. Laboratories for the Alrkm investigation of disease and the preparation of antitoxins and protective sera have been established at Grahamstown, Pretoria and Pietermaritzburg. Characteristics of Veterinary Medicine. Veterinary medicine has been far less exposed to the vagaries of theoretical doctrines and systems than human medicine. The explanation may perhaps be that the successful practice of this branch of medicine more clearly than m any other depends upon the careful observation of facts and the rational deductions to be made therefrom. No special doctrines seem, in later times at least, to have been adopted, and the dominating sentiment in regard to disease and its treatment has been a medical eclecticism, based on practical experience and anatomico- pathological investigation, rarely indeed on philosophical or abstract theories. In this way veterinary science has become pre-eminently a science of observation. At times indeed it has to some extent been influenced by the doctrines which have controlled the practice of human medicine — such as those of Broussais, Hahnemann, Brown, Rasori, Rademacher and others — yet this has not been for long: experience of them when tested upon dumb unimaginative animals soon exposed their fallacies and compelled their discontinuance. Of more moment than the cure of disease is its prevention, and this is now considered the most important object in con- nexion with veterinary science. More especially is this the case with those contagious disorders that depend for their existence and extension upon the presence of an infecting agent, and whose ravages for so many centuries are written largely in the history of civilization. Every advance made in human medicine affects the progress of veterinary science, and the invaluable investigations of Davaine, Pasteur, Chauveau, Lister and Koch have created as great a revolution in veterinary prac- tice as in the medicine of man. In " preventive medicine " the benefits derived from the application of the germ theory are now realized to be immense; and the sanitary police measures based on this knowledge, if carried rigorously into operation, must eventually lead to the extinction of animal plagues. Bacteriology has thrown much light on the nature, diagnosis and cure of disease both in man and animals, and it has developed the beneficent practice of aseptic and antiseptic surgery, enabling the practitioner to prevent exhausting suppuration and wound infection with its attendant septic fever, to ensure the rapid healing of wounds, and to undertake the more serious operations with greater confidence of a success- ful result. The medicine of the lower animals differs from that of man in no particular so much, perhaps, as in the application it makes of utilitarian principles. The life of man is sacred ; but in the case of animals, when there are doubts as to complete restora- tion to health or usefulness, pecuniary considerations gener- ally decide against the adoption of remedial measures. This feature in the medicine of domesticated animals brings very prominently before us the value of the old adage that " pre- vention is better than cure." In Great Britain the value of VETERINARY SCIENCE veterinary pathology in the relations it bears to human medicine, to the public health and wealth, as well as to agriculture, has not been sufficiently appreciated; and in consequence but little allowance has been made for the difficulties with which the practitioner of animal medicine has to contend. The rare instances in which animals can be seen by the veterinary surgeon in the earliest stages of disease, and when this would prove most amenable to medical treatment; delay, generally due to the inability of those who have the care of animals to perceive these early stages; the fact that animals cannot, except in a negative manner, tell their woes, describe their sensations or indicate what and where they suffer; the absence of those comforts and conveniences of the sick-room which cannot be called in to ameliorate their condition; the violence or stupor, as well as the attitude and structural peculiarities of the sick creatures, which only too frequently render favourable positions for recovery impossible; the slender means generally afforded for carrying out recommendations, together with the oftentimes intractable nature of their diseases; and the utilitarian in- fluences alluded to above — all these considerations, in the great majority of instances, militate against the adoption of curative treatment, or at least greatly increase its difficulties. But notwithstanding these difficulties, veterinary science has made greater strides since 1877 than at any previous period in its history. Every branch of veterinary knowledge has shared in this advance, but in none has the progress been so marked as in the domain of pathology, led by Nocard in France, Schiitz and Kitt in Germany, Bang in Denmark, and McFadyean in England. Bacteriological research has discovered new dis- eases, has revolutionized the views formerly held regarding many others, and has pointed the way to new methods of prevention and cure. Tuberculosis, anthrax, black-quarter, glanders, strangles and tetanus furnish ready examples of the progress of knowledge concerning the nature and causation of disease. These diseases, formerly attributed to the most varied causes — including climatic changes, dietetic errors, peculiar condition of the tissues, heredity, exposure, close breeding, overcrowding and even spontaneous origin — have been proved beyond the possibility of doubt to be due to infection by specific bacteria or germs. In the United Kingdom veterinary science has gained distinc- tion by the eradication of contagious animal diseases. For many years prior to 1865, when a government veterinary department was formed, destructive plagues of animals had prevailed almost continuously in the British islands, and scarcely any attempt had been made to check or extirpate them. Two exotic bovine diseases alone (contagious pleuro-pneumonia or lung plague and foot-and-mouth disease) are estimated to have caused the death, during the first thirty years of their prevalence in the United Kingdom, of 5,549,780 cattle, roughly valued at £83,616,854; while the invasion of cattle plague (rinderpest) in 1865-66 was calculated to have caused a money loss of from £5,000,000 to £8,000,000. The depredations made in South Africa and Australia by the lung plague alone are quite appalling; and in India the loss brought about by contagious diseases among animals has been stated at not less than £6,000,000 annually. The damage done by tuberculosis — a contagious disease of cattle, transmissible to other animals and to man by means of the milk and flesh of diseased beasts — cannot be even guessed at; but it must be enormous considering how widely this malady is diffused. But that terrible pest of all ages, cattle plague, has been promptly suppressed in England with comparatively trifling loss. Foot-and-mouth disease, which frequently proved a heavy infliction to agriculture, has been completely extirpated. Rabies may now be included, with rinderpest, lung plague and sheep-pox, in the category of extinct diseases; and new measures have been adopted for the suppression of glanders and swine fever. To combat such diseases as depend for their continuance on germs derived from the soil or herbage, which cannot be directly controlled by veterinary sanitary measures, recourse has been had to pro- tective inoculation with attenuated virus or antitoxic sera. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has an efficient staff of trained veterinary inspectors, who devote their whole time to the work in connexion with the scheduled diseases of animals, and are frequently employed to inquire into other diseases of an apparently contagious nature, where the circumstances are of general importance to agriculturists. Veterinary science can offer much assistance in the study and prevention of the diseases to which mankind are liable. Some grave maladies of the human species are certainly derived from animals, and others may yet be added to the list. In the training of the physician great benefit would be derived from the study of disease in animals — a fact which has been strangely overlooked in England, as those can testify who understand how closely the health of man may depend upon the health of the creatures he has domesticated and derives subsistence from, and how much more advantageously morbid processes can be studied in animals than in our own species. Although as yet few chairs of comparative pathology have been established in British universities, on the European continent such chairs are now looked upon as almost indis- pensable to every university. Bourgelat, towards the middle of the 1 8th century, in speaking of the veterinary schools he had been instrumental in forming, urged that " leurs portes soient sans cesse ouvertes a ceux qui, charges par 1'etat de la conservation des hommes, auront acquis par le nom qu'ils se seront fait le droit d'interroger la nature, chercher des analogies, et verifier des idees dont la conformation ne peut elre qu'utile a 1'espece humaine." And the benefits to be mutually derived from this association of the two branches of medicine inspired Vicq d'Azyr to elaborate his Nouveau plan de la constitution de la medecine en France, which he presented to the National Assembly in 1790. His fundamental idea was to make veterinary teaching a preliminary (le premier dcgre) and, as it were, the principle of instruction in human medicine. His proposal went so far as to insist upon a veterinary school being annexed to every medical college established in France. This idea was reproduced in the Rapport sur I'instruclion publique which Talleyrand read before the National Assembly in 1790. In this project veterinary teaching was to form part of the National Institution at Paris. The idea was to initiate students of medicine into a knowledge of diseases by observing those of animals. The suffering animal always appears exactly as it is and feels, without the intervention of mind obscuring the symptomatology, the symptoms being really and truly the rigorous expression of its diseased condition. From this point of view, the dumb animal, when it is ill, offers the same diffi- culties in diagnosis as does the ailing infant or the comatose adult. Of the other objects of veterinary science there is only one to which allusion need here be made: that is the perfectioning of the domestic animals in everything that is likely to make them more valuable to man. This is in an especial manner the province of this science, the knowledge of the anatomy, physiology and other matters connected with these animals by its students being essential for such improvement. Diseases of Domestic Animals. Considerations of space forbid a complete or detailed descrip- tion of all the diseases, medical and surgical, to which the domesticated animals are liable. Separate articles are devoted to the principal plagues, or murrains, which affect animals— RINDERPEST, FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, ANTHRAX, &c. Reference will be made here only to the more important other disorders of animals which are of a communic- able nature. Diseases of the Horse. Every horseman should know something of the injuries, lame- nesses and diseases to which the horse is liable. Unfortunately not very much can be done in this direction by book instruction; indeed, there is generally too much doctoring and too little nursing of sick animals. Even in slight and favourable cases of illness recovery is often retarded by too zealous and injudicious medication; the object to be always kept in view in the treatment of animal patients is to place them in those conditions which allow nature to VETERINARY SCIENCE operate most freely in restoring health. This can best be rendered in the form of nursing, which sick animals greatly appreciate. How- ever indifferent a horse may be to caressing or kind atten- Nurslag. t;on during health, when ill he certainly appreciates both, and when in pain will often apparently endeavour to attract notice and seek relief from those with whom he is familiar. Fresh air and cleanliness, quiet and comfort, should always be secured, if possible. The stable or loose-box should be warm, without being close, and free from draughts. If the weather is cold, and especially if the horse is suffering from inflammation of the air-passages, it may be necessary to keep up the temperature by artificial means; but great care should be taken that this does not render the air too dry to breathe. The surface of the body can be kept warm by rugs, and the legs by woollen bandages. Yet a sick horse is easily fatigued and annoyed by too much clothing, and therefore it is better to resort to artificial heating of the stable than to overload the body or impede movement by heavy wrappings. If blankets are used, it is well to place a cotton or linen sheet under them, should the horse have an irritable skin. For bedding, long straw should be employed as little as possible, since it hampers movement. Clean old litter, sawdust or peat-moss litter is the best. If the hoofs are strong, and the horse likely to be confined for some weeks, it affords relief to take off the shoes. Tying up should be avoided, if possible, unless it is urgently required, the horse being allowed to move about or lie down as he may prefer. When a sick horse has lost his appetite, he should be tempted to eat by offering him such food as will be enticing to him. It should be given frequently and in small quantities, but should not Food for be forced on him ; food will often be taken if offered from the hand, when it will not be eaten out of the manger. horse. Whether the animal be fed from a bucket or from a manger, any food that is left should be thrown away, and the receptacle well cleaned out after each meal. As a rule, during sickness a horse requires laxative food, in order to allay fever or inflammatory symptoms, while supporting the strength. The following list comprises the usual laxative foods employed: green grass, green wheat, oats and barley, lucerne, carrots, parsnips, gruel, bran mash, linseed and bran mash, boiled barley, linseed tea, hay tea and linseed oil. Green grass, lucerne, and similar articles of food if cut when in a wet state, should be dried before being given. Boiled grain should be cooked with very little water, so that it may be floury and comparatively dry when ready; a little salt should be mixed with it. One gallon of good gruel may be made with a pound of meal and cold water, which should be stirred till it boils, and afterwards permitted to simmer over a gentle fire till the fluid is quite thick. To make a bran mash, scald a stable bucket, throw out the water, put in 3 Ib of bran and I oz. of salt, add 2j pints of boiling water, stir up well, cover over and _ allow the mash to stand for fifteen or twenty minutes until it is well cooked. For a bran and linseed mash, boil slowly for two or three hours i Jb of linseed, so as to have about a couple of quaYts of thick fluid, to which 2 Ib of bran and I oz. of salt may be added. The whole should be stirred up, covered over and allowed to steam as before described. The thicker the mash the more readily will the horse eat it. Linseed tea is made by boiling I ft of lin- seed in a couple of gallons of water until the grains are quite soft. It may be economically made by using less water to cook the linseed, and afterwards making up the quantity of water to about a gallon and a half. Hay tea may be prepared by filling a bucket, after scalding it, with good sweet hay, pouring in as much boiling water as the bucket will hold, covering it over, and allowing it to stand until cold, when the fluid may be strained off and given to the horse. This forms a refreshing drink. Linseed oil, in quantities of from i oz. to 6 oz. daily, may be mixed with the food ; it keeps the bowels in a lax condition, has a good effect on the skin and air- passages, and is useful as an article of diet. When debility has to be combated, as in low fever or other weakening diseases, strengthen- ing and other easily digested food must be administered, though some of the foods already mentioned, such as boiled grain, answer this purpose to a certain extent. Milk, eggs, bread and biscuits, malt, corn, &c., are often prescribed with this object. Milk may be given skimmed or unskimmed ; a little sugar may be mixed with it ; and one or two gallons may be given daily, according to circum- stances. One or two eggs may be given beaten up with a little sugar and mixed with milk, three or four times a day, or more frequently; or they may be boiled hard and powdered, and mixed in the milk. A quart of stout, ale or porter may be given two or three times a day, or a half to one bottle of port wine daily. Scalded oats, with a little salt added, are very useful when convalescence is nearly completed. As a rule, a sick horse should have as much water as he likes to drink, though it may be necessary in certain cases to restrict the quantity, and to have the chill taken off ; but it should never be warmer than 75° to 80°. As little grooming as possible should be allowed when a horse is very weak; it should be limited to sponging the mouth, nostrils, eyes and forehead with clean water, to which a little eucalyptus or sanitas may be added. Rub the legs and ears with the hand, take off the clothing, and shake or change it once a day, and if agreeable rub over the body with a soft cloth. Exercise is of course not required during sickness or injury, and the period at which it is allowed will depend upon circumstances. Care must be taken that it is not ordered too early, or carried too far at first. Much care is required in administering medicines in the form of ball or bolus; and practice, as well as courage and tact, is needed in order to give it without danger to the administrator or the animal. The ball should be held between the fingers ' of the right hand, the tips of the first and fourth being brought together below the second and third, which are ' placed on the upper side of the ball ; the right hand is thus made as small as possible, so as to admit of ready insertion into the mouth. The left hand grasps the horse's tongue, gently pulls it out and places it on that part of the right side of the lower jaw which is bare of teeth. With the right hand the ball is placed at the root of the tongue. The moment the right hand is withdrawn, the tongue should be released. This causes the ball to be carried still farther back. The operator then closes the mouth and watches the left side of the neck, to note the passage of the ball down the gullet. Many horses keep a ball in the mouth a considerable time before they will allow it to go down. A mouthful of water or a handful of food will generally make them swallow it readily. It is most essential to have the ball moderately soft ; nothing can be more dangerous than a hard one. To administer a drink or drench requires as much care as giving a ball, in order to avoid choking the horse, though it is unattended with risk to the administrator. An ordinary glass or stone bottle may be used, providing there are no sharp points around the mouth ; but either the usual drenching-horn or a tin vessel with a narrow mouth or spout is safer. It is necessary to raise the horse's head, so that the nose may be a little higher than the horizontal line. The drink must be given by a person standing on the right side (the attendant being in front or on the left side of the horse), the cheek being pulled out a little, to form a sack or funnel, into which the medicine is poured, a little at a time, allowing an interval now and again for the horse to swallow. If any of the fluid gets into the windpipe (which it is liable to do if the head is held too high), it will cause coughing, whereupon the head should be instantly lowered. Neither the tongue nor the nostrils should be interfered with. Powders may be given in a little mash or gruel, well stirred up, or in the drinking water. If a wide surface is to be fomented (as the chest, abdomen or loins), a blanket or other large woollen cloth should be dipped in water as hot as the hand can comfortably bear it, moderately wrung out and applied to the part, the heat and moisture being retained by covering it with a waterproof sheet or dry rug. When it has lost some of its heat, it should be removed, dipped in warm water and again applied. In cases of acute inflammation, it may be necessary to have the water a little hotter; and, to avoid the inconvenience of removing the blanket, or the danger of chill when it is removed, it may be secured round the body by skewers or twine, the hot water being poured on the outside of the top part of the blanket by any convenient vessel. To foment the feet, they should be placed in a bucket or tub (the latter with the bottom resting wholly on the ground) containing warm water; a quantity of moss litter put in the tub or bucket prevents splashing and retains the heat longer. Poultices are used for allaying pain, softening horn or other tissues, and, when antiseptic, cleansing and promoting healthy action in wounds. To be beneficial they should be large ^^ and always kept moist. For applying poultices to the feet, a piece of sacking, or better a poultice-boot, supplied by saddlers, may be used with advantage. Poultices are usually made with bran, though this has the disadvantage of drying quickly, to prevent which it may be mixed with linseed meal or a little linseed oil. Antiseptic poultices containing lysol, izal, carbolic acid or creolin, are very useful in the early treatment of foul and punctured wounds. A charcoal poultice is sometimes employed when there is an offensjve smell to be got rid of. It is made by mixing linseed meal with boiling water and stirring until a soft mass is produced; with this some wood charcoal in powder is mixed, and when ready to be applied some more charcoal is sprinkled on the surface. It may be noted that, in lieu of these materials for poultices, spongiopiline can be usefully employed. A piece of sufficient size is steeped in hot water, applied to the part, covered with oiled silk or water- proof sheeting, and secured by tapes. Even an ordinary sponge, steeped in hot water and covered with waterproof material, makes a good poulticing medium; it is well adapted for the throat, the space between the branches of the lower jaw, as well as for the lower joints of the limbs. Enemata or clysters are given in fevers, constipation, colic, &c., to empty the posterior part of the bowels. They can be administered by a large syringe capable of containing a quart or more of water, with a nozzle about 12 in. long, or by a large funnel with a long nozzle at a right angle. Water, soap and ^/Lj•• They are most dangerous when migrating from one organ to another. They are found in the anterior mesenteric artery, but they also produce aneurism of the coeliac axis and other abdominal blood vessels, including: the aorta. These parasitic aneurisms are a frequent cause of fatal colic in young horses. Sclerostomum tetracanthum, or four-spined sclerostome, is about the same size as the palisade worm, and like it is found in the colon, caecum and small intestine. It finds its way to the bowel in water or green fodder swallowed by the horse. It is a true blood-sucker, and its development is very similar to that of the S. equinum, except that it directly encysts itself in the mucous membrane and does not enter the blood vessels. The symptoms of its presence are emacia- tion, colicky pains, harsh unthrifty coat, flabby muscles, flatu- lence, foetid diarrhoea, anaemia, great weakness and, sometimes, haemorrhagic enteritis. Treatment of equine sclerostomiasis fre- quently fails, as the remedies cannot reach the encysted parasites. As vermicides, thymol, areca, ferrous sulphate, tartar emetic, arsenic, sodium chloride, oil of turpentine, lysol, creolin and carbolic acid have been found useful. Oxyuris curoula, or pin worm, is a common parasite of the large intestine. The anterior part of the body is curved and the tail sharply pointed. The male is seldom seen. The female measures i to ij in. in length. It is found in the caecum, colon and rectum, and it causes pruritus of the anus, from which it may be found pro- jecting. This parasite is best treated by means of a cathartic, followed by a course of mineral tonics, and repeated rectal injections of sodium chloride solution, infusion of quassia or diluted creolin. The cestodes or taeniae of the horse are insignificant in size and they produce no special symptoms. Three species — Anoplocefhala perfoltata (26-28 mm. long), A. plicata (i$-8cm.)andA.mamillana (1-3 cm.) — have been described. The first is found in the_small intestine and caecum, rarely in the colon ; the second occurs in the small intestine and stomach; the third in the small intestine. Generally a horse may be proved to be infested with tape-worm by finding some of the ripe segments or proglottides in the faeces. The best remedy is male fern extract with turpentine and linseed oil. Gastrophilus equi, or the common bot-fly, is classed _with the parasites on account of its larval form living as a parasite. The bot-fly deposits its eggs on the fore-arm, knee and shank of the horse at pasture. In twenty-four hours the ova are hatched and the embryo, crawling on the skin, causes itching, which induces the horse to nibble or lick the part, and in this way the embryo is carried by the tongue to the mouth and swallowed. In the stomach the embryo attaches itself to the mucous membrane, moults three times, in- creases in size and changes from a blood-red to a yellowish-brown 12 VETERINARY SCIENCE colour. The bot remains in the stomach till the following spring, when it detaches itself, passes into the food and is discharged with the faeces. When very numerous, bots may cause symptoms of indigestion, though frequently their presence in the stomach is not indicated by any sign of ill-health. They are difficult to dislodge or kill. Green food, iodine, naphthalin, hydrochloric acid and vegetable bitters have been recommended; but the most effective remedy is a dose of carbon bisulphide given in a gelatin capsule, repeated in twelve hours, and followed twelve hours later by an aloetic ball. Of the parasites which infest cattle and sheep mention will only be made of Distomum hepaticum, or common fluke, which causes liver-rot or distomiasis, a very fatal disease of lambs and sheep under two years old. It occurs most frequently p' after a wet season on low-lying, marshy or undrainedland, but it may be carried to other pastures by sheep which have been driven through a fluke-infested country, and sheep allowed to graze along ditches by the roadside may contract the parasite. For a full description of its anatomy and development see TREMATODES. Preventive treatment comprises the destruction of flukes and snails; avoidance of low-lying, wet pastures draining infested land, and top-dressing with salt, gas-lime, lime water or soot; supplying sheep with pure drinking water; placing rock-salt in the fields, and providing extra food and a tonic lick consisting of salt, aniseed, ferrous sulphate, linseed and peas-meal. Husk, hoose or verminous bronchitis of calves is caused by St'ongylus micrurus, or pointed-tailed strongyle, a thread-worm i to 3 in. long, and 5. pulmonaris, a similar but smaller nematode; and the corresponding disease of sheep is due to S.^filaria and 5. rufescens. The male S.filaria is I to 2 in., and the female 2 to 4 in. long. They are white in colour and of the thickness of ordinary sewing cotton. The 5. rufescens is thinner and shorter than S.filaria and its colour is brownish red. The development of these strongyles is not accurately known. When expelled and deposited in water or moist earth, the embryos may live for many months. Hoose occurs in spring and continues until autumn, when it may be most severe. In sheep the symptoms are coughing, at first strong, with long intervals, then weak and frequent, leaving the sheep distressed and wheezing; discharge from the nose, salivation, occasional retching with expulsion of parasites in frothy mucus, advancing emaciation, anaemia and weakness. In calves the symptoms are similar but less acute. Various methods of cure have been tried. Remedies given by the mouth are seldom satisfactory. Good results have followed fumigations with chlorine, burning sulphur, tar, &c., and intra-tracheat injections of chloroform, iodine and ether, oil of turpentine, carbolic acid, and opium tincture,, or chloroform, ether, creosote and olive oil. The system should be supported with as much good nourishing food as possible. The principal parasites which infest the alimentary canal of cattle or sheep are strongyles and taeniae. The strongyles of the fourth stomach are 5. contortus, or twisted wire-worm (male 10 to 20 mm., female 20 to 30 mm. long), 5. convolutus (female 10 to 13 mm.), 5. ceroicornis (female 10 to 12 mm.), 5. gracilis (female 3 to 4 mm.), and an unnamed species (female 9 mm. long) discovered by McFadyean in 1896. In the contents of the stomach the contortus may easily be recognized, but the other parasites, owing to their small size or situation in the mucous membrane, may be overlooked in an ordinary post-mortem examination. The contortus, which is best known, may serve as the type. It lives on the blood which it abstracts from the mucous membrane, and, according to the state of repletion, its body may be red or white. The ova of this worm are discharged in the faeces and spread over the pastures by infected sheep. The oya hatch in a few days, and, according to Ransom, within a fortnight embryos one-thirtieth of an inch long may be found encased in a chitinoid investment, which protects them from the effects of excessive cold, heat or moisture. When the ground is damp and the temperature not too low, the embryos creep up the leaves of grasses and other plants, but when the temperature is below 40 F. they are inactive (Ransom). Sheep feeding on infected pasture gather the young worms and convey them to the fourth stomach, where they attain maturity in two or three weeks. In wet weather the embryos may be washed into ponds and ditches, and cattle and sheep may swallow them when drinking. Strongyles cause loss of appetite, irritation and inflam- mation of the stomach and bowel, diarrhoea, anaemia, progressive emaciation, and, if not destroyed or expelled, a lingering death from exhaustion. The success or failure of medicinal treatment depends on the degree of infestation. A change of pasture is always de- sirable, and as remedies a few doses of oil of turpentine in linseed oil, or a solution of lysol or cyllin, and a powder consisting of arsenic, ferrous sulphate, areca, nux vomica and common salt may be tried. The ox may be the bearer of three and the sheep of twelve species of taeniae, and of these the commonest is Moniezia (taenia) expanse, which is more frequently found in sheep than in cattle. It is the longest tapeworm, being from 6 to 30 ft. in sheep and from 40 to loo ft. in cattle. Its maximum breadth is J in.; it is found in the small intestine, and sometimes in sufficient numbers in lambs to obstruct the bowel. Infested animals are constantly spreading the ripe segments over the pastures, from which the ova or embryos are gathered by sheep. The symptoms are inappetence, dry harsh wool, weakness, anaemia and diarrhoea with segments of the worms in the faeces. Various drugs have been prescribed for the expulsion of tapeworms, but the most useful are male fern extract, turpentine, kamala, kousso, aloes and linseed oil. Very young animals should be supported by dry nourishing food and tonics, including salt and ferrous sulphate. The principal round-worms of the intestine of ruminants are Ascaris vitulorum, or calf ascarid, Strongylus filicollis, S. ventricosus, Sderostomum hypostomum, Anchylostomum cernuum and Tricho- cephalus qffinis, or common whip-worm, which sometimes causes severe symptoms in sheep. For a full account of the development of Cysticercus bovis, or beef measle, the larval form of Taenia saginata of the human subject, see TAPEWORMS. Another bladder-worm, found in the peritoneum of sheep and cattle, is Cysticercus tenui- collis, or slender-necked hydatid, the larval form of Taenia marginata of the dog. It seldom produces serious lesions. An important hydatid of ruminants in Coenurus cerebralis, which produces in sheep, cattle, goats and deer gid or sturdy, a peculiar affection of the central nervous system characterized by congestion, compression of the brain, vertigo, inco-ordination, and other symptoms of cerebro- spinal paralysis. This bladder-worm is the cystic form of Taenia coenurus of the dog. It is found in the cranial cavity, resting on the brain, within its substance or at its base, and sometimes in the spinal canal. The symptoms vary with the position and number of the vesicles. In an ordinary case the animal feeds intermittently or not at all, appears unaccountably nervous or very dull, more or less blind and deaf, with glazed eye, dilated pupil, the head twisted or inclined always to one side — that occupied by the cyst — and when moving the sheep constantly tends to turn in the same direction. When the vesicle is deep-seated or within the cerebral lobe, the sheep carries the head low, brings the feet together and turns round and round like a dog preparing to lie down. When the developing cyst exerts pressure at the base of the cerebellum, the sheep re- peatedly falls and rolls over. In other cases the chief symptoms may be frequent falling, always on the same side, high trotting action with varying length of step, advancing by rearing and leaping, complete motor paralysis, and in spinal cases posterior paralysis with dragging of the hind limbs. Medicinal treatment is of no avail, but in some cases the hydatid can be removed by trephining the skull. Gid may be prevented by attending to the treatment of dogs infested with the tapeworm. The helminthes of the pig, although not very detrimental to the animal itself, are nevertheless of great importance as regards the entozoa of man. Allusion must be made to Trichinella spiralis, which causes trichinosis. The male is Ath, the female Jth in. long, and the embryos ^jth to fain in. The ova measure uVsth '"• m their long diameter; they are hatched within the body of the female worm. When scraps of trichinous flesh or infested rats have been ingested by the pig, the cysts en- closing the larval trichinae are dissolved by the gastric juice in about eighteen hours, and the worms are found free in the intestine. In twenty-four to forty-eight hours later these larvae, having under- gone certain transformations, become sexually mature; then they copulate, and after an interval the embryos leave the body of the female worm and immediately begin to penetrate the intestinal wall in order to pass into various voluntary muscles, where they become encysted. About twelve days elapse from the time they begin their wandering. Usually each larva is enveloped in a capsule, but two or even three larvae have been found in one investment. They have been known to live in their capsules for eighteen months to two years. Cysticercus cettulosae is the larval form of Taenia solium of man (see TAPEWORMS). " Measly pork " is caused by the presence in the flesh of the pig of this entozoon, which is bladder-like in form. It has also been discovered in the dog. Other important parasites of the pig are Stephanurus dentatus, or crown-tailed strongyle, Echinorhynchus gigas, or thorn-headed worm, Ascaris suis, or pig ascarid, and Strongyloides suis. For these the most useful remedies are castor oil seeds, given with the food, and oil of turpentine in milk, followed by a dose of Epsom salts. Of all the domesticated animals the dog is by far the most fre- quently infested with worms. A very common round-worm is Ascaris marginata (3 to 8 in. long), a variety of the ascarid (A. mystax) of the cat. It occurs in the intestine or stomach of young dogs. The symptoms are emaciation, drooping belly, irritable skin, irregular appetite, vomiting the worms in mucus, colic and diarrhoea. The treatment comprises the administration of areca or santonin in milk, followed by a dose of purgative medicine. A nematode, Filaria immitis, inhabits the heart of the dog, and its larvae may be found in the blood, causing endocarditis, obstruction of the vessels, and fits, which often end in death. Spiroptera sanguinolenta may be found in the dog encysted in the wall of the stomach. Other nematodes of the dog are Anchylostomum trigonocephalum, which causes frequent bleeding from the nose and pernicious anaemia, and Trichocephalus depressius- culus, or whip-worm, which is found in the caecum. The dog harbours eight species of taeniae and five species of Bolhriocephalus. Taenia serrata, about 3 ft. in length, is found in about 10% of VETERINARY SCIENCE Derma- iozoa. English dogs, most frequently in sporting dogs and those employed on farms, owing to their eating the viscera of rabbits, &c., in which the larval form (Cysticercus pisiformis) of this taj»eworrn dwells. T. marginata is the largest cestode of the dog. It varies in length from 5 to 8 ft., and is found in the small intestine of 30% of dogs in Great Britain ; its cystic form (C. tenuicollis) occurs in the peritoneum of sheep. T. co'.nurus causes gid in sheep as previously stated. It seldom exceeds 3 ft. in length. Dogs contract this parasite by eating the heads of sheep infested with the bladder-worm (Coenurus cerebralis). Dipyliaium caninum, T. cucumerina, or melon seed tapeworm, is a very common parasite of dogs. It varies in length from 3 to 15 in.; its larval form (Cryptocystis trichodectis et pulicis) is found in the abdomen of the dog-flea (Pulex serraticeps) , the dog- louse (Trichodectis latus) and in the flea (P. irriians) of the human subject. The dog contracts this worm by swallowing fleas or lice containing the cryptocysts. T. echinococcus may be distinguished from the other tapeworms by its small size. It seldom exceeds J in. in length, and consists of four segments including the head. The fourth or terminal proglottis when ripe is larger than all the rest. Its cystic form is Echinococcus 'veterinorum, which causes hydatid disease of the liver, lungs, and other organs of cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, and even man. This affection may not be discovered during life. In well-marked cases the liver is much deformed, greatly enlarged, and increased in weight; in the ox the hydatid liver may weigh from 50 to 100 Ib or more. Another tapeworm (T. serialis) sometimes occurs in the small intestine. Its cystic form is found in rodents. Bolhriocephalus latus, or broad tapeworm, about 25 ft. long and I in. broad, is found in the intestine of the dog and sometimes in man. Its occurrence appears to be confined to certain parts of the European continent. Its larval form is met with in pike, turbot, tench, perch, and other fishes. The heart- shaped bothriocephalus (B. cordatus) infests the dog and man in Greenland. For the expulsion of tapeworm male fern extract has been found the most effectual agent; areca powder in linseed oil, and a combination of areca, colocynth and jalap, the dose varying according to the age, size and condition of the dog, have also proved beneficial. The parasites which cause numerous skin affections in the domesticated animals may be arranged in two groups, viz. animal parasites or Dermatozoa, and vegetable parasites or Dermatophytes. The dermatozoa, or those which produce pruritus, mange, scab, &c., are lice, fleas, ticks, acari or mange mites, and the larvae of certain flies. The lice of the horse are Haematopinus macrocephalus , Trichodectes pilosus and T. pubescens; those of cattle, H. eurysternus, or large ox-louse, H. vituli, or calf-louse, and T. scalaris, or small ox-louse ; and sheep may be attacked by T. sphaerocephalus, or sheep-louse, and by the louse-like ked or fag (Melophagus minus) which belongs to the pupiparous diptera. Dogs may be infested with two species of lice, H. piliferus and T. latus, and the pig with one, H. urius. Ticks belong to the family Ixodidae of the order Acarina. A few species have been proved responsible for the transmission of diseases caused by blood parasites, and this knowledge has greatly increased the importance of ticks in veterinary practice. The best known ticks are Ixodes ricinus, or castor-bean tick, and /. hexagonus, which are found all over Europe, and which attack dogs, cattle, sheep, deer and horses. Rhipicephalus annulatus, or Texan fever-tick of the United States, Rh. decoloratus, or blue-tick of South Africa, and Rk. australis, or scrub-tick of Australia, transmit the parasite of red water or bovine piroplasmosis. Rh. appendiculatus carries the germs of East Coast fever, Rh. bursa is the bearer of the parasite of ovine piroplasmosis, and Rh. evertsi distributes the germs of equine biliary fever. Amblyomma hebraeum conveys the parasite of " heart-water " of cattle and sheep, and Haemaphysalts leachi transmits the parasite of canine piroplasmosis. Hyalomma aegyptium, or Egyptian tick, Rh. simus and Rh. capensis, are common in most parts of Africa. The acari of itch, scab or mange are species of Sarcoptts, which burrow in the skin; Psoroptes, which puncture the skin and live on the surface sheltered by hairs and scurf; and Chorioptes, which live in colonies and simply pierce the epidermis. Representatives of these three genera have been found on the horse, ox and sheep; varieties of the first genus (Sarcoptes) cause mange in the dog and pig; and Chorioptes cynotis sometimes invades the ears of the dog and cat. These parasites live on the exudation produced by the irritation which they excite. Another acarus (Demodex folliculorum) invades the dog's skin and sometimes occurs in other animals. It inhabits the hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and causes a very intractable acariasis — the follicular or demodecic mange of the dog (see MITE). A useful remedy for mange in the horse is a mixture of sulphur, oil of tar and whale oil, applied daily for three days, then washed off and applied again. For the dog, sulphur, olive oil and potassium carbonate, or oil of tar and fish oil, may be tried. Various approved patent dips are employed for scab in sheep. A good remedy for destroying lice may be compounded from Stavesacre powder, soft soap and hot water, applied warm to the skin. Follic- ular mange is nearly incurable, but recent cases should be treated by daily rubbing with an ointment of 5 parts cyllin and 100 parts of lanoline. The vegetable parasites, or Dermatophytes, which cause tinea or ringworm in horses, cattle and dogs, belong to five distinct genera: Trichophyton, Microsporum, Eidamella, Achorion and Oospora. Ringworm of the horse is either a Tricho- phytosis produced by one of four species of fungi (Tricho- phyton mentagrophytes, T. flavum, T. equinum and T. verrucosum), or a Microsporosis caused by Microsporum audouini. Ringworm of cattle is always a Trichophytosis, and due to T. mentagrophytes. Four different dermatpphytes (T. caninum, M. audouini var. caninum, Eidamella spinosa and Oospora canina) affect the dog, producing Trichophytic, Microsporous and Eidamellian ringworm and favus. Little is known of ringworm in sheep and swine. The fungi attack the roots of the hairs, which after a time lose their elasticity and break off, leaving a greyish-yellow, bran-like crust of epidermic products, dried blood and sometimes pus. In favus the crusts are yellow, cupped, almost entirely composed of fungi, and have an odour like that of mouldy cheese. Ringworm may affect any part of the skin, but occurs principally on the head, face, neck, back and hind quarters. It is very contagious, and it may be communicated from one species to another, ana from animals to man. The affected parts should be carefully scraped and the crusts destroyed by burning; then the patches should be dressed with iodine tincture, solution of copper sulphate or carbolic acid, or with oil of tar. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Modern veterinary literature affords striking evidence of the progress made by the science: excellent text-books, manuals and treatises on every subject belonging to it are numerous, and are published in every European language, while the abundant periodical press, with marked ability and discrimination, records and distributes the ever-increasing knowledge. The substantial advances in veterinary pathology, bacteriology, hygiene, surgery and preventive medicine point to a still greater rate of progress. The schools in every way are better equipped, the education and training — general and technical — of students of veterinary medicine are more comprehensive and thorough, and the appliances for observation and investigation of disease have been greatly improved. Among the numerous modern works in English on the various branches of veterinary science, the following may be mentioned: McFadyean, Anatomy of the Horse: a Dissection Guide (London, 1902) ; Chauveau, Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals (London, 1891); Cuyer, Artistic Anatomy of Animals (London, 1905); Share-Jones, Surgical Anatomy of the Horse (London, J5°7)j Jowett, Blood-Serum Therapy and Preventive Inoculation (London, 1906); Swithinbank and Newman, The Bacteriology of Milk (London, 1905); Fleming, Animal Plagues (London, 1882); Merillat, Animal Dentistry (London, 1905); Liautard, Animal Castration (gth ed., London, 1902); Moussu and Dollar, Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Coats and Swine (London, 1905) ; Reeks, Common Colics of the Horse (London, 1905); Sessions, Cattle Tuberculosis (London, 1905); Sewell, Dogs: their Management (London, 1897); Hobday, Surgical Diseases of the Dog and Cat (London, 1906); Hill, Management and Diseases of the Dog (London, 1905); Sewell, The Dog's Medical Dictionary (London, 1907); Goubaux and Barrier, Exterior of the Horse (London, 1904) ; Reeks, Diseases of the Foot of the Horse (London, 1906); Roberge, The Foot of the Horse (London, 1894); Jensen, Milk Hygiene: a Treatise on Dairy and Milk Inspection, &c. (London, 1907); Smith, Manual of Veterinary Hygiene (London, 1905); Fleming, Human and Animal Variolae (London, 1881); Hunting, The Art of Horse- shoeing (London, 1899); Fleming, Horse-shoeing (London, 1900); Dollar and Wheatley, Handbook of Horse-shoeing (London, 1898); Lungwitz, Text-Book of Horse-shoeing (London, 1904); Axe, The Horse: its Treatment in Health and Disease (9 vols., London, 1905) ; Hayes, The Points of the Horse (London, 1904); Robertson, Equine Medicine (London, 1883); Hayes, Horses on Board Ship (London, 1902); FitzWygram, Horses and Stables (London, 1901); Liautard, Lameness of Horses (London, 1888); Walley, Meat Inspection (2nd ed., London, 1901); Ostertag, Handbook of Meat Inspection (London, 1907); Courtenay, Practice' of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (London, 1902); Williams, Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine (8th ed., London, 1897); J. Law, Text-book of Veterinary Medicine (5 vpls., New York, 1905); Cadiot and Dollar, Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (London, 1900); Steel, Diseases of the Ox (London, i88i);'Leblanc, Diseases of the Mam- mary Gland (London, 1904); De Bruin, Bovine Obstetrics (London, 1901); Fleming, Veterinary Obstetrics (London, 1896); Dalrymple, Veterinary Obstetrics (London, 1898); Neumann, Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (London, 1905); F. Smith, Veterinary Physiology (3rd ed., London, 1907); Meade Smith, Physiology of the Domestic Animals (London, 1889); Kitt, Comparative General Pathology (London, 1907) ; Friedberger and Frohner, Veterinary Pathology (London, 1905); Brown, Atlas of the Pig (London, 1900); Rush worth, Sheep and their Diseases (London, 1903); Fleming, Operative Veterinary Surgery (London, 1903); Williams, Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery (loth ed., London, 1903); Moller and Dollar, Practice of Veterinary Surgery (London, 1904); Frohner, General Veterinary Surgery (New York, 1906); Merillat, Principles of Veterinary Surgery and Surgical Pathology (London, 1907); Cadiot and Almy, Surgical VETO Therapeutics of Domestic Animals (London, 1906); Hayes, Stable Management (London, 1903); Dun, Veterinary Medicines: their Actions and Uses (llth ed., Edinburgh, 1906); Tuson, A Pharma- copoeia (London, 1904); Hoare, Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology (London, 1907); Gresswell, The Veterinary Pharma- copoeia and Manual of Therapeutics (London, 1903); Winslow, Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics (New York, 1901) ; Nunn, Veterinary Toxicology (London, 1907); Laveran and Mesnil, Trypanosomata and the Trypanosomiases (London, 1907); Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics (quarterly, Edinburgh) ; The Veterinary Journal (monthly, London) ; The Veterinary Record (weekly, London) ; The Veterinary News (weekly, London). (G. FL.; J.MAC.) VETO (Lat. for " I forbid "), generally the right of preventing any act, or its actual prohibition; in public law, the constitu- tional right of the competent authority, or in republics of the whole people in their primary assembly, to protest against a legislative or administrative act, and to prevent wholly, or for the time being, the validation or execution of the same. It is generally stated that this right was called into existence in the Roman republic by the tribunicia potestas, because by this authority decisions of the senate, and of the consuls and other magistrates, could be declared inoperative. Such a state- ment must, however, be qualified by reference to the facts that inlerdico, inlerdicimus were the expressions used, and, in general, that in ancient Rome every holder of a magistracy would check a negotiation set on foot by a colleague, his equal in rank, by his opposition and intervention. This was a consequence of the position that each of the colleagues possessed the whole power of the magistracy, and this right of intervention must have come into existence with the introduction of colleagued authorities, i.e. with the commencement of the republic. In the Roman magistracy a twofold power must be distinguished: the positive management of the affairs of the state entrusted to each indi- vidual, and the power of restraining the acts of magistrates of equal or inferior rank by his protest. As the tribuni plebis possessed this latter negative competence to a great extent, it is customary to attribute to them the origin of the veto. In the former kingdom of Poland the precedent first set in 1652 was established by law as a constant right, that in the imperial diet a single deputy by his protest " Nie pozwalam," i.e. " I do not permit it," could invalidate the decision sanctioned by the other members. The king of France received the right of a suspensory veto at the commencement of the French Revolution, from the National Assembly sitting at Ver- sailles in 1789, with regard to the decrees of the latter, which was only to be valid for the time being against the decisions come to and during the following National Assembly, but during the period of the third session it was to lose its power if the Assembly persisted in its resolution. By this means it was endeavoured to diminish the odium of the measure; but, as is well known, the monarchy was soon afterwards entirely abol- ished. Similarly the Spanish Constitution of 1812 prescribed that the king might twice refuse his sanction to bills laid twice before him by two sessions 6f the cortes, but if the third session repeated the same he could no longer exercise the power of veto. The same was the ca^e in the Norwegian Constitution of 1814. In the French republic the president has no veto strictly so called, but he has a power somewhat resembling it. He can, when a bill has passed both Chambers, by a message to them, refer it back for further deliberation. The king or queen of England has the right to withhold sanction from a bill passed by both houses of parliament. This royal prerogative has not been exercised since 1692 and may now be considered obsolete. The governor of an English colony with a representative legis- lature has the power of veto against a bill passed by the legis- lative body of a colony. In this case the bill is finally lost, just as a bill would be which had been rejected by the colonial council, or as a bill passed by the English houses of parliament would be if the crown were to exert the prerogative of refusing the royal assent. The governor may, however, without refusing his assent, reserve the bill for the consideration of the crown. In that case the bill does not come into force until it has either actually or constructively received the royal assent, which is in effect the assent of the English ministry, and therefore indirectly of the imperial parliament. Thus the colonial liberty of legisla- tion is made legally reconcilable with imperial sovereignty, and conflicts between colonial and imperial laws are prevented.1 The constitution of the United States of America contains in art. i., sect. 7, par. 2, the following order: — " Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the president of the United States; if he approve, he" shall sign it, if not, he shall return it with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such recon- sideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two- thirds of that house, it shall become a law. Every order, resolution or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the president of the United States, and, before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being dis- approved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill." In all states of the Union except one the governors, in the same manner or to a modified extent, possess the right of vetoing bills passed by the legislature. Here, therefore, we have again a suspensory veto which is frequently exercised. According to the constitution of the German empire of 1871, the imperial legislation is executed by the federal council and imperial diet; the emperor is not mentioned. In the federal council the simple majority of votes decides. But in the case of bills concerning the army, the navy and certain specially noted taxes, as well as in the case of decisions concerning the alteration of orders for the administration, and arrangements for the execution of the laws of customs and taxes, the proposal of the federal council is only accepted if the Prussian votes are on the side of the majority in favour of the same (art. vii., sect. 3). Prussia presides in the federal council. The state of things is therefore, in fact, as follows: it is not the German emperor, but the same monarch as king of Prussia, who has the right of veto against bills and decisions of the federal council, and therefore can prevent the passing of an imperial law. The superior power of the presidential vote obtains, it is true, its due influence only in one legislative body, but in reality it has the same effect as the veto of the head of the empire. The Swiss federal constitution grants the president of the Confederation no superior position at all; neither he nor the federal council possesses the power of veto against laws or decisions of the federal assembly. But in some cantons, viz. St Gall (1831), Basel (1832) and Lucerne (1841), the veto was introduced as a right of the people. The citizens had the power to submit to a plebiscite laws which had been debated and accepted by the cantonal council (the legislative authority), and to reject the same. If this plebiscite was not demanded within a certain short specified time, the law came into force. But, if the voting took place, and if the number of persons voting against the law exceeded by one vote half the number of persons entitled to vote in the canton, the law was rejected. The absent voters were considered as having voted in favour of the law. An attempt to introduce the veto in Zurich in 1847 failed. Thurgau and Schaffhausen accepted it later. Meanwhile another arrangement has quite driven it out of the field. This is the so-called " refer- endum " — properly speaking, direct legislation by the people — which has been introduced into most of the Swiss cantons. Formerly in all cantons — with the exception of the small moun- tainous districts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Glarus and Appenzell — it was not a pure democracy, but a representative constitution that prevailed: the great councillors or cantonal councillors periodically chosen by the people were the possessors of the sovereign power, and after deliberating twice passed the bills definitely. Now they have only to discuss the bills, which 1 A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, pp. in seq. (6th ed., London, 1902); Sir H. Jenkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, pp. 113 seq. (London, 1902). VETTER— VEVEY are printed and sent to all voters with an explanatory message; then the people on a certain day vote for the acceptance or re- jection of the law by writing " yes " or " no " on a printed voting paper, which is placed in an urn under official control. In some cantons important financial resolutions involving large state expenses are also submitted to the decision of the people. In the revised federal constitution of 1874, under certain sup- positions which have no further interest for us at present, a facultative referendum or Initiative (i.e. the possibility of de- manding a plebiscite under exceptional circumstances) was introduced for federal laws. Since that period it has often been employed and has operated like a veto. It is evident that by the compulsory referendum in the cantons the mere veto is rendered superfluous. In examining the question as to what position the veto occupies in jurisprudence, we must separate quite different conceptions which are comprised under the same name. 1. The veto may be a mere right of intervention on the part of a magistrate against the order of another official, or against that of an authority of equal or inferior rank. This was the case in ancient Rome. To this class belong also those cases in which, as in the French republic, the president makes his " no " valid against decisions of the general councillors, and the prefect does the same against decisions of the communal councillors. The use of the expres- sion here is quite justifiable, and this veto is not confined to bills, but refers particularly to administrative measures. It affords a guarantee against the abuse of an official position. 2. The veto may be a safety-valve against precipitate decisions, and so a preventive measure. This task is fulfilled by the suspensory veto of the president of the United States. Similarly, to this class belong the above-mentioned prescriptions of the Spanish and Norwegian constitutions, and also the veto of the governor of an English colony against decisions of the legislature; for this protest is only intended to prevent a certain want of harmony between the general and the colonial legislation, by calling forth a renewed investigation. This veto is neither an interference with the com- petence of an authority, nor a division of the legislative power among different factors, but simply a guarantee against precipitancy in the case of a purely legislative measure. The wisdom of estab- lishing this veto power by the constitution is thus manifest. 3. It is wrong to apply the term veto to what is merely the negative side of the sanctioning of the laws, in other words, an act of sove- reignty. It would not be in accordance with the nature of a con- stitutional monarchy to declare the monarch's consent to a law unnecessary, or make it a compulsory duty; the legislative power is divided between him and the chambers. The sovereign must therefore be perfectly at liberty to say " yes " or " no " in each single case according to his opinion. If he says the latter, we speak of it as his veto, but this — if he possesses an absolute and not merely a suspensory veto — is not an intervention and not a preventive measure, but the negative side of the exercise of the legislative power, and therefore an act of sovereignty. That this right belongs fully and entirely to the holder of sovereign power — however he may be called — is self-evident. One chamber can also by protest prevent a bill of the other from coming into force. The " placet of the temporal power for church affairs — when it occurs — also involves in this manner in itself the veto or non placet." Where in pure democracies the people in their assembly have the right of veto or referendum, the exercise of it is also a result of the sovereign rights of legislature. (For the question of the conflict between the two houses of England, see REPRESENTATION.) The peculiar power of veto possessed by the (Prussian) president of the federal council of Germany lies on the boundary between (2) and (3). (A. v. O.) VETTER [Vatter or Welter, often written, with the addition of the definite article, Vettern], a lake of southern Sweden, 80 m. long, and 18 m. in extreme breadth. It has an area of 733 sq. m., and a drainage area of 2528 sq. m.; its maximum depth in 390 ft., and its elevation above sea-level 289 ft. It drains eastward by the Motala river to the Baltic. Its waters are of remarkable transparency and blueness, its shores pictur- esque and steep on the east side, where the Omberg (863 ft.) rises abruptly, with furrowed flanks pierced by caves. The lake is subject to sudden storms. Its northern part is crossed from Karlsborg to Motala (W. to E.) by the Gota canal route. At the southern end is the important manufacturing town of Jonkoping, and 15 m. N. of it the picturesque island of Vising, with a ruined palace of the I7th century and a fine church. Vadstena, 8 m. S. of Motala, with a staple industry in lace, has a convent (now a hospital) of St Bridget or Birgitta (1383), a beautiful monastic church (1395-1424) and a castle of King Gustavus Vasa. At Alvastra, 16 m. S. again, are ruins of a Cistercian monastery of the nth century. Close to Motala are some of the largest mechanical workshops in Sweden, building warships, machinery, bridges, &c. VETULONIUM, or VETULONIA (Etruscan Velluna), an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, the site of which is probably occupied by the modern village of Vetulonia, which up to 1887 bore the name of Colonna. It lies 1130 ft. above sea-level, about 10 m. direct N.W. of Grosseto, on the N.E. side of the hills which project from the flat Maremma and form the promontory of Castiglione. The place is little mentioned in ancient literature, though Silius Italicus tells us that it was hence that the Romans took their magisterial insignia (fasces, curule chair, purple toga and brazen trumpets), and it was undoubtedly one of the twelve cities of Etruria. Its site was not identified before 1881, and the identification has been denied in various works by C. Dotto dei Dauli, who places it on the Poggio Castiglione near Massa Marittima, where scanty remains of buildings (possibly of city walls) have also been found. This site seems to agree better with the indications of medieval documents. But certainly an Etruscan city was situated on the hi)l of Colonna, where there are remains of city walls of massive limestone, in almost hori- zontal courses. The objects discovered in its extensive necro- polis, where over 1000 tombs have been excavated, are now in the museums of Grcsseto and Florence. The most important were surrounded by tumuli, which still form a prominent feature in the landscape. See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), ii. 263; Notizie degli Scavi, passim; I. Falchi, Ricerche di Vetulonia (Prato, 1881), and other works, especially Vetulonia e la sup, necropoli antichissima (Florence, 1891); G. Sordini, Vetulonia (Spoleto, 1894) and references. (T. As.) VEUILLOT, LOUIS (1813-1883), French journalist and man of letters, was born ot humble parents at Boynes (Loiret) on the nth of October 1813. When Louis Veuillot was five years old his parents removed to Paris. After a very slight education he entered a lawyer's office, and was sent in 1830 to serve on a Rouen paper, and afterwards to Perigueux. He returned to Paris in 1837, and a year later visited Rome during Holy Week. There he embraced extravagant ultramontane sentiments, and was from that time an ardent champion of Catholicism. The results of his conversion appeared in P'tler- inage en Suisse (1839), Rome el Lorelle (1841) and other works. In 1843 he entered the staff of the Univers religieux. His violent methods of journalism had already provoked more than one duel, and for his polemics against the university of Paris in the Univers he was imprisoned for a short time. In 1848 he became editor of the paper, which was suppressed in 1860, but revived in 1867, when Veuillot recommenced his ultra- montane propaganda, which brought about a second suppression of his journal in 1874. When his paper was suppressed Veuillot occupied himself in writing violent pamphlets directed against the moderate Catholics, the Second Empire and the Italian government. His services to the papal see were fully recog- nized by Pius IX., on whom he wrote (1878) a monograph. He died on the 7th of March 1883. Some of his scattered papers were collected in Melanges religieux, historiques et litteraires (12 vols., 1857-75), and his Correspondance (6 vols., 1883-85) has great political interest. His younger brother, Eugene Veuillot, published (1901-4) a comprehensive and valuable life, Louis Veuillot. VEVEY [German Vims], a small town in the Swiss canton of Vaud and near the eastern extremity of the Lake of Geneva. It is by rail 12 m. S.E. of Lausanne or 3! m. N.W. of the Vernex- Montreux railway station, while it is well served by steamers plying over the Lake of Geneva. In 1900 it had a population of 11,781, of whom 8878 were French-speaking, while there were 8277 Protestants to 3424 Romanists and 56 Jews. It is the second town in point of population in the canton, coming next after Lausanne, though inferior to the " agglomeration " known as Montreux. It stands at the mouth of the Veveyse and commands fine views of the snowy mountains seen over the glassy surface of the lake. The whole of the surrounding i6 VEXILLUM— VIANDEN country is covered with vineyards, which (with the entertain- ment of foreign visitors) occupy the inhabitants. Every twenty years or so (last in 1889 and 1905) the Fetedes Vigneronsis held here by an ancient gild of vinedressers, and attracts much attention. Besides a railway line that joins the Montreux- Bernese Oberland line at Chamby (5 m. from Vevey and ij m. below Les Avants) there is a funicular railway from Vevey up the Mont Pelerin (3557 ft.) to the north-west. Vevey was a Roman settlement [Viviscus] and later formed part of the barony of Vaud, that was held by the counts and dukes of Savoy till 1536, when it was conquered by Bern. In 1798 it was freed from Bernese rule and became part of the canton du Leman (renamed canton de Vaud in 1803) of the Helvetic Republic. (W. A. B. C.) VEXILLUM (Lat. dim. of velum, piece of cloth, sail, awning, or from vehere, vectum, to carry), the name for a small ensign consisting of a square cloth suspended from a cross-piece fixed to a spear. The vexillum was strictly the ensign of the maniple, as signum was of the cohort, but the term came to be used for all standards or ensigns other than the eagle (aquila) of the legion (see FLAG). Caesar (B.C. ii. 20) uses the phrase vexillum proponere of the red flag hoisted over the general's tent as a signal for the march or battle. The Gtandard-bearer of the maniple was styled vexillarius, but by the time of the Empire vexillum and vexillarius had gained a new significance. Tacitus uses these terms frequently both of a body of soldiers serving apart from the legion under a separate standard, and also with the addition of some word implying connexion with a legion of those soldiers who, after serving sixteen years with the legion, continued their service, under their own vexillum, with the legion. The term is also used for the scarf wrapped round a bishop's pastoral staff (q.v.). Modern science has adopted the word for the web or vein of a feather of a bird and of the large upper petal of flowers, such as the pea, whose corolla is shaped like a butterfly. VEXIO, or WEXIO, a town and bishop's see of Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of Kronoberg, 124 m. N.E. of Malmo by rail. Pop. (1900) 7365. It is pleasantly situated among low wooded hills at the north end of Lake Vexio, and near the south end of Lake Helga. Its appearance is modem, for it was burnt in 1843. The cathedral of St Siegfrid dates from about 1300, but has been restored, the last time in 1898. The Smaland Museum has antiquarian and numismatic collections, a library and a bust of Linnaeus. There are iron foundries, a match factory, &c. At Ostrabo, the episcopal residence without the town, the poet Esaias Tegner died in 1846, and he is buried in the town cemetery. On the shore of Lake Helga is the royal estate of Kronoberg, and on an island in the lake the ruins of a former castle of the same name. VEZELAY, a village of France, in the department of Yonne, 10 m. W.S.W. of Avallon by road. Its population, which was over 10,000 in the middle ages, was 524 in 1906. It is situated on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Cure, and owes its renown to the Madeleine, one of the largest and most beautiful basilicas in France. The Madeleine dates from the 1 2th century and was skilfully restored by Viollet-le-Duc. It consists of a narthex, with nave and aisles; a triple nave, without triforium, entered from the narthex by three door- ways; transepts; and a choir with triforium. The oldest portion of the church is the nave, constructed about 1125. Its groined vaulting is supported on wide, low, semicircular arches, and on piers and columns, the capitals of which are embellished with sculptures full of animation. The narthex was probably built about 1140. The central entrance, leading from it to the nave, is one of the most remarkable features of the church; it consists of two doorways, divided by a central pier supporting sculptured figures, and is surmounted by a tympanum carved with a representation of Christ bestowing the Holy Spirit upon His apostles. The choir and transepts are later in date than the rest of the church, which they surpass in height and grace of proportion. They resemble the eastern portion of the church of St Denis, and were doubtless built in place of a Romanesque choir damaged in a fire in 1165. A crypt beneath the choir is perhaps the relic of a previous Romanesque church which was destroyed by fire in 1120. The west facade of the Madeleine has three portals; that in the centre is divided by a pier and surmounted by a tympanum sculptured with a bas-relief of the Last Judgment. The upper portion of this front belongs to the i3th century. Only the lower portion of the northernmost of the two flanking towers is left, and of the two towers which formerly rose above the transept that to the north has disappeared. Of the other buildings of the abbey, there remains a chapter-house (i3th century) adjoining the south transept. Most of the ramparts of the town, which have a circuit of over a mile, are still in existence. In particular the Porte Neuve, consisting of two massive towers flanking a gateway, is in good preservation. There are several interesting old nouses, among them one in which Theodore of Beza was born. Of the old parish church, built in the i7th century, the clock-tower alone is left. A mile and a half from Vezelay, in the village of St Pere-sous-Vezelay, there is a remarkable Burgundian Gothic church, built by the monks of Vezelay in the i3th century. The west facade, flanked on the north by a fine tower, is richly decorated; its lower portion is formed of a projecting porch surmounted by pinnacles and adorned with elaborate sculpture. The history of Vezelay is bound up with its Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the gth century under the influence of the abbey of Cluny. This dependence was soon shaken off by the younger monastery, and the acquisition of the relics of St Magdalen, soon after its foundation, began to attract crowds of pilgrims, whose presence enriched both the monks and the town which had grown up round the abbey and ac- knowledged its supremacy. At the beginning of the I2th century the exactions of the abbot Artaud, who required money to defray the expense of the reconstruction of the church, and the refusal of the monks to grant political independ- ence to the citizens, resulted in an insurrection in which the abbey was burnt and the abbot murdered. During the next fifty years three similar revolts occurred, fanned by the counts of Nevers, who wished to acquire the suzerainty over Vezelay for themselves. The monks were, however, aided by the influence both of the Pope and of Louis VII., and the towns- men were unsuccessful on each occasion. During the i2th century V6zelay was the scene of the preaching of the second crusade in 1146, and of the assumption of the cross in 1190 by Richard Cceur de Lion and Philip Augustus. The influence of the abbey began to diminish in 1280 when the Benedictines of St Maximin in Provence affirmed that the true body of St Magdalen had been discovered in their church; its decline was precipitated during the wars of religion of the i6th century, when Vezelay suffered great hardships. VIANDEN, an ancient town in the grand duchy of Luxem- burg, on the banks of the Our, close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 2350. It possesses one of the oldest charters in Europe, granted early in the i4th century by Philip, count of Vianden, from whom the family of Nassau-Vianden sprang, and who was consequently the ancestor of William of Orange and Queen Wilhelmina of Holland. The semi-mythical foundress of this family was Bertha, " the White Lady " who figures in many German legends. The original name of Vianden was Viennensis or Vienna, and its probable derivation is from the Celtic Vien (rock). The extensive ruins of the ancient castle stand on an eminence of the little town, but the chapel which forms part of it was restored in 1849 by Prince Henry of the Netherlands. The size and importance of this castle in its prime may be gauged from the fact that the Knights' Hall could accommodate five hundred men-at-arms. A re- markable feature of the chapel is an hexagonal hole in the centre of the floor, opening upon a bare subterranean dungeon. This has been regarded as an instance of the " double chapel," but it seems to have been constructed by order of the crusader Count Frederick II. on the model of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In the neighbourhood of Vianden are other ruined castles, notably those of Stolzemburg and Falkenstein. The VIANNA DO CASTELLO— VICAIRE little town and its pleasant surroundings have been praised by many, among others by Victor Hugo, who resided here on several occasions. During his last visit he wrote his fine work V Annie terrible. In the time of the Romans the Vianden valley was covered with vineyards, but at the present day its chief source of wealth is derived from the rearing of pigs. VIANNA DO CASTELLO, a seaport and the capital of the district of Vianna do Castello, Portugal; at the mouth of the river Lima, which is here crossed by the iron bridge of the Oporto- Valenca do Minho railway. Pop. (1900) 10,000. Vianna do Castello has manufactures of lace and dairy produce. Its fisheries are important. Salmon and lampreys are exported, both fresh and preserved. The administrative district of Vianna do Castello coincides with the northern part of the ancient province of Entre Minho e Douro (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 215,267; area, 857 sq. m. VIAREGGIO, a maritime town and sea-bathing resort of Tus- cany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, on the Mediterranean, 13 m. N.W. of Pisa by rail, 7 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 14,863 (town); 21,557 (commune). Being sheltered by dense pine-woods on the north, and its malaria having been banished by drainage, it is frequented as a winter resort, and in summer by some thousands for its sea-bathing. In 1740 the population was only 300, and in 1841, 6549. The body of Shelley was burned on the shore near Viareggio after his death by drowning in 1822. The town possesses a school of navigation and a technical school, and carries on some shipbuilding. VIATICUM (a Latin word meaning " provision for a journey "; Gr. TO. i66ia), is often used by early Christian writers to denote the sacrament of the Eucharist, and is sometimes also applied to baptism. Ultimately it came to be employed in a restricted sense to denote the last communicn given to the dying. The I3th canon of the council of Nicaea is to the effect that " none, even of the lapsed, shall be deprived of the last and most neces- sary viaticum («0o6«w)," and that the bishop, on examination, is to give the oblation to all who desire to partake of the Eucharist on the point of death. The same principle still rules the canon law, it being of course understood that penitential discipline, which in ordinary circumstances would have been due for their offence, is to be undergone by lapsed persons who have thus received the viaticum, in the event of recovery. In extreme cases it is lawful to administer the viaticum to persons not fasting, and the same person may receive it frequently if his illness be prolonged. The ritual to be observed in its adminis- tration does not differ from that laid down in the office for the communion of the sick, except in the words of the formula, which is " accipe, carissime f rater (carissima soror), viaticum corpotis nostri Jesu Christi, quod te custodial ab hoste maligno, protegat te, et perducat te ad vitam aeternam. Amen." After- wards the priest rinses his fingers in a little water, which the communicant drinks. The viaticum is given before extreme unction, a reversal of the medieval practice due to the impor- tance of receiving the Eucharist while the mind is still clear. In the early centuries the sick, like those in health, generally re- ceived both kinds, though there are instances of the viaticum being given under one form only, sometimes the bread and sometimes, where swallowing was difficult, the wine. In times of persecution laymen occasionally carried the viaticum to the sick, a practice that persisted into the 9th century, and deacons continued to do so even after the Council of Ansa (near Lyons) in 990 restricted the function to priests. VIBORG, a town of Denmark, capital of the ami (county) of its name, lying in the bleak midland district of Jutland, though the immediate situation, on the small Viborg lake, is picturesque. Pop. (1901) 8623. It has a station on the railway running east and west between Langaa and Vemb. The most notable building is the cathedral (1130-1169, restored 1864- 1876). The Black Friars' church is of the i3th century, and the museum possesses specimens of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, also medieval antiquities. The Borgevold Park borders the lake on the site of a former castle. The industries embrace distilleries, iron foundries and manufactures of cloth. The country to the south attains to a certain degree of beauty near Lake Hald, where the ground is slightly elevated. VIBORG (Finnish Viipuri), capital of a province of the same name in Finland, is situated at the head of the Bay of Viborg in the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Saima Canal and on the railway which connects St Petersburg with Helsingfors. Population of the town (1904) 34,672, of the province 458,269. The Saima Canal (37 m. long), a fine engineering work, connects with the sea Lake Saima — the principal lake of Finland, 249 ft. above sea-level — and a series of others, including Puruvesi, Orivesi, Hoytianen and Kallavesi, all of which are navigated by steamers, as far north as lisalmi in 63° 30' N. lat. Viborg is thus the seaport of Karelia and eastern Savolaks, with the towns of Vilmanstrand (2393 inhabitants in 1904), St Michel (3933), Myslott (2687), Kuopio (13, 5 19) and lisalmi, with their numerous saw-mills and iron-works. Viborg stands most picturesquely on the glaciated and dome-shaped granite hills surrounding the bay, which is protected at its entrance by the naval station of Bjorko and at its head by several forts. The castle of Viborg, built in 1293 by Marshal Torkel Knutson, was the first centre for the spread of Christianity in Karelia, and for establishing the power of Sweden; it is now used as a prison. Its lofty and elegant tower has fallen into decay. The court-house (1839), the town-house, the gymnasium (1641; with an excellent library), and the museum are among the principal buildings of the city. There are also a lyceum and two higher schools for girls, a school of navigation and several primary schools, both public and private, a literary and an agricultural society, and several benevolent institutions. There are foundries, machine works and saw-mills, and a considerable export of timber and wood products. The coasting trade is also considerable. The environs are most picturesque and are visited by many tourists in the summer. The park of Monrepos (Old Viborg), in a bay dotted with dome-shaped islands, is specially attractive. The scenery of the Saima Canal and of the Finnish lakes with the grand ds of Pungaharju; the Imatra rapids, by which the Vuoksen discharges the water of Lake Saima into Lake Ladoga, with the castle of Kexholm at its mouth; Serdobol and Valamo monastery on Lake Ladoga — all visited from Viborg — attract many tourists from St Petersburg as well as from other parts of Finland. VIBURNUM, in medicine, the dried bark of the black haw or Viburnum prunifolium, grown in India and North America. The black haw contains viburnin and valerianic, tannic, gallic, citric and malic acids. The British Pharmacopoeial prepara- tion is the Extraclum Viburni Prunifolii liquidum; the United States preparation is the fluid extract prepared from the Viburnum opulus. The physiological action of viburnum is to lower the blood pressure. In overdose it depresses the motor functions of the spinal cord and so produces loss of reflex and paralysis. Therapeutically the drug is used as an anti- spasmodic in dysmenorrhoea and in menorrhagia. VICAIRE, LOUIS GABRIEL CHARLES (1848-1000), French •poet, was born at Belfort on the 25th of January 1848. He served in the campaign of 1870, and then settled in Paris to practise at the bar, which, however, he soon abandoned for literature. His work was twice " crowned " by the Academy, and in 1892 he received the cross of the Legion of Honour. Born in the Vosges, and a Parisian by adoption, Vicaire remained all his life an enthusiastic lover of the country to which his family belonged — La Bresse — spending much of his time at Ambe'rieu. His freshest and best work is his Emaux bressans (1884), a volume of poems full of the gaiety and spirit of the old French chansons. Other volumes followed: Le Livre de la patric, L'Hture en- chantee (1890), A la bonne franquetle (1892), Au bois joli (1894) and l*e Clos des f(es (1897). Vicaire wrote in collaboration with Jules Truffier two short pieces for the stage, Fleurs d'avrU (1800) and La Farce du mari refondu (1895); also the Miracle de Saint Nicolas (1888). With his friend Henri Beauclair he produced a parody of the Decadents entitled Les Deliquescence* and signed Ador£ Floupette. His fame rests on his £maux bressans and on his Rabelaisian drinking songs; the religious and fairy poems. i8 VICAR— VICE-CHANCELLOR charming as they often are, carry simplicity to the verge of affectation. The poet died in Paris, after a long and painful illness, on the 23rd of September 1900. See Henri Corbel, Un Poete, Gabriel Vicaire (1902). VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute), a title, more especially ecclesi- astical, describing various officials acting in some special way for a superior. Cicero uses the name vicarius to describe an under-slave kept by another as part of his private property. The vicarius was an important official in the reorganized empire of Diocletian. It remained as a title of secular officials in the middle ages, being applied to persons appointed by the Roman emperor to judge cases in distant parts of the empire, or to wield power in certain districts, or, in the absence of the emperor, over the whole empire. The prefects of the city at Rome were called Vicarti Romae. In the early middle ages the term was applied to representatives of a count administering justice for him in the country or small towns and dealing with unimportant cases, levying taxes, &c. Monasteries and religious houses often employed a vicar to answer to their feudal lords for those of their lands which did not pass into mortmain. The title of " vicar of Jesus Christ," borne by the popes, was introduced as their special designation during the 8th century, in place of the older style of " vicar of St Peter " (or vicarius prin- cipis apostolorum) . In the early Church other bishops commonly described themselves as vicars of Christ (Du Cange gives an example as late as the 9th century from the capitularies of Charles the Bald) ; but there is no proof in their case, or indeed in that of " vicar of St Peter " given to the popes, that it was part of their formal style. The assumption of the style " vicar of Christ " by the popes coincided with a tendency on the part of the Roman chancery to insist on placing the pontiff's name before that of emperors and kings and to refuse to other bishops the right to address him as" brother "(MasLatrie, s." Sabinien," p. 1047). It was not till the i3th century that the alternative style " vicar of St Peter " was definitively forbidden, this pro- hibition thus coinciding with the extreme claims of the pope to rule the world as the immediate " vicar of God " (see INNOCENT III.). All bishops were looked upon as in some sort vicars of the pope, but the title vicarius sedis apostolicae came especially to be ap- plied as an alternative to legatus sedis apostolicae to describe papal legates to whom in certain places the pope delegated a portion of his authority. Pope Benedict XIV. tells us in his treatise De synodo dioecesana that the pope often names vicars-apostolic for the government of a particular diocese because the episcopal see is vacant or, being filled, the titular bishop cannot fulfil his functions. The Roman Catholic Church in England was governed by vicars-apostolic from 1685 until 1850, when Pope Pius IX. re-established the hierarchy. Vicars-apostolic at the present day are nearly always titular bishops taking their titles from places not acknowledging allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. The title is generally given by the pope to bishops sent on Eastern missions. A neighbouring bishop was sometimes appointed by the pope vicar of a church which happened to be without a pastor. A special vicar was appointed by the pope to superintend the spiritual affairs of Rome and its suburbs, to visit its churches, monasteries, &c., and to correct abuses. It became early a custom for the prebendaries and canons of a cathedral to employ " priest-vicars " or " vicars-choral " as their substitutes when it was their turn as hebdomedary to sing High Mass and conduct divine office. In the English Church these priest-vicars remain in the cathedrals of the old foundations as beneficed clergy on the foundation; in the cathedrals of the new foundation they are paid by the chapters. " Lay vicars " also were and are employed to sing those parts of the office which can be sung by laymen. In the early Church the assistant bishops (chorepiscopi) were sometimes described as vicarii episcoporum. The employment of such vicars was by no means general in the early Church, but towards the I3th century it became very general for a bishop to employ a vicar-general, often to curb the growing authority of the archdeacons. In the middle ages there was not a very clear distinction drawn between the vicar and the official of the bishop. When the voluntary and contentious jurisdiction came to be dis- tinguished, the former fell generally to the vicars, the latter to the officials. In the style of the Roman chancery, official docu- ments are addressed to the bishops or their vicars for dioceses beyond the Alps, but for French dioceses to the bishops or their officials. The institution of vicars-general to help the bishops is now general in the Catholic Church, but it is not certain that a bishop is obliged to have such an official. He may have two. Such a vicar possesses an ordinary and not a delegated juris- diction, which he exercises like the bishop. He cannot, however, exercise functions which concern the episcopal order, or confer benefices without express and particular commission. In the Anglican Church a vicar-general is employed by the archbishop of Canterbury and some other bishops to assist in such matters as ecclesiastical visitations. In the Roman Catholic Church bishops sometimes appoint lesser vicars to exercise a more limited authority over a limited district. They are called " vicars-forane " or rural deans. They are entrusted especially with the surveillance of the parish priests and other priests of their districts, and with matters of ecclesiastical discipline. They are charged especially with the care of sick priests and in case of death with the celebration of their funerals and the charge of their vacant parishes. In canon law priests doing work in place of the parish priest are called vicars. Thus in France the cure or head priest in a parish church is assisted by several vicaires. Formerly, and especially in England, many churches were appropriated to monasteries or colleges of canons, whose custom it was to appoint one of their own body to perform divine service in such churches, but in the I3th century such corporations were obliged to appoint permanent paid vicars who were called perpetual vicars. Hence in England the distinction between rectors, who draw both the greater and lesser tithes, and vicars, who are attached to parishes of which the great tithes, formerly held by monasteries, are now drawn by lay rectors. (See APPRO- PRIATION.) See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infiniae Latinitatis, ed. L. Favre (Niort, 1883, &c.); Migne, Encyclopedic theologique, series i. vol. 10 (Droit Canon) ; Comte de Mas Latrie, Tresor de chronologic (Paris, 1889); and Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England (2nd ed. 1895). (E. O'N.) VICE, (i) (Through Fr. from Lat. vitium), a fault, blemish, more specifically a moral fault, hence depravity, sin, or a par- ticular form of depravity. In the medieval morality plays a special character who acted as an attendant on the devil was styled " the Vice," but sometimes took the name of specific vices such as Envy, Fraud, Iniquity and the like. He was usually dressed in the garb that is identified with that of the domestic fool or jester, and was armed with a wooden sword or dagger. (2) (M.E. vyce, vise or vyse; Fr. vis; Lat. vitis, a vine, or bryony, i.e. something that twists or winds), a portable or fixed tool or appliance which holds or grips an object while it is being worked; a special form of clamp. The tool consists essentially of movable jaws, either jointed by a hinge or moving on slides, and the closing motion is applied by a screw, whence the name, as of something which turns or winds, or by a lever, ratchet, &c. (see TOOLS). (3) (Lat. vice, in place of, abl. sing, of a noun not found in the nom.), a word chiefly used as a prefix in combination with names of office-holders, indicating a position subordinate or alternative to the chief office-holder, especially one who takes second rank or acts in default of his superior, e.g. vice-chairman, vice-admiral, &c. VICE-CHANCELLOR, the deputy of a chancellor (q.v.). In the English legal system vice-chancellors in equity were formerly important officials. The first vice-chancellor was appointed in 1813 in order to lighten the work of the lord chancellor and the master of the rolls, who were at that time the sole judges in equity. Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed in 1841. The vice-chancellors sat separately from the lord chancellor and the lords justices, to whom there was an appeal from their decisions. By the Judicature Act 1873 VICENTE they became judges of the High Court of Justice, retaining their titles, but it was enacted that on the death or retirement of any one his successor was to be styled " judge." Vice-chancellor Sir J. Bacon (1798-1895) was the last to hold the office, resigning in 1886. Vice-chancellor is also the title given to the judge of the duchy court of Lancaster. For the vice-chancellor of a university, see CHANCELLOR. VICENTE, GIL (1470-1540), the father of the Portuguese drama, was born at Guimaraes, but came to Lisbon in boyhood and studied jurisprudence at the university without taking a degree. In 1493 we find him acting as master of rhetoric to the duke of Beja, afterwards King Manoel, a post which gave him admission to the court; and the Cancioneiro Geral contains some early lyrics of his which show that he took part in the famous seroes do paco. The birth of King John III. furnished the occasion for his first dramatic essay — The Neatherd's Monologue, which he recited on the night of the 7th-8th June 1502 in the queen's chamber in the presence of King Manoel and his court. It was written in Spanish out of compliment to the queen, a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and because that language was then the fashionable medium with the higher classes. This manger-hymn, which was a novelty in Portugal, so pleased the king's mother, the infanta D. Beatriz, that she desired Gil Vicente to repeat it the following Christmas, but he composed instead the CastUian Pastoral Auto, a more developed piece in which he introduced six characters. The infanta, pleased again, required a further diversion for Twelfth Day, whereupon he produced the Auto of the Wise Kings. He had now estab- lished his reputation as a playwright, and for the next thirty years he entertained the courts of Kings Manoel and John III., accompanying them as they moved frcm place to place, and providing by his autos a distraction in times of calamity, and in times of rejoicing giving expression to the feelings of the people. Though himself both actor and author, Gil Vicente had no regular company of players, but it is probable that he easily found students and court servants willing to get up a part for a small fee, especially as the plays would not ordinarily run for. more than one night. The Auto of the Sybil Cassandra (produced at the monastery of Euxobregas at Christmas 1503), the Auto of St Martin (played in the church at Caldas on the feast of Corpus Christi 1504), and a mystery play, the Auto of the Four Seasons, all belong, like their predecessors, to the religious drama, but in 1505 Gil Vicente wrote a comedy of real life, Who has Bran to sell? a title given it by the public. It is a clever farce depicting an amorous poor squire and his ill-paid servants, and opens a rich portrait-gallery in which the dramatist includes every type of Portuguese society, depicting the fail- ings of each with the freedom of a Rabelais. The next three years saw no new play, but in 1506 Gil Vicente delivered before the court at Almeirim a sermon in verse on the theme Non volo, volo, et deficior, in which he protested against the intolerance shown to the Jews, just as in 1531 he interfered to prevent a massacre of the " New Christians " at Santarem. The Auto of the Soul, a Catholic prototype of Goethe's Faust, containing some beautiful lyrics, appeared in 1508, and in 1509 the Auto da India, a farce which has the eastern enterprise of his country- men for background, while the Auto da Fama (1516) and the Exhortation to War (1513) are inspired by the achievements that made Portugal a world-power. If the farce of The Old Man of the Garden (1514) breathes the influence and spirit of the Celestina, the popular trilogy of the Boats of Hell, Purgatory and Glory (1517, 1518, 1519) is at once a dance of death, full of splendid pageantry and caustic irony, and a kind of Portuguese Divina Commedia. The Auto of the Fairies (1516), the Farce of the Doctors (1519) and the Comedy of Rubena (1521) ridicule unchaste clerics and ignorant physicians with considerable freedom and a medieval coarseness of wit, and the Farce of the Gipsies is interesting as the first piece of the European theatre dealing professedly with that race. Ignez Pereira, usually held to be Gil Vicente's masterpiece, was produced in 1523 before King John III. at the convent of Christ at Thomar, and owed its origin to certain men of bom saber, perhaps envious partisan* of the classical school. They pretended to doubt his author- ship of the autos, and accordingly gave him as a theme for a fresh piece the proverb: " I prefer an ass that carries me to a horse that throws me." Gil Vicente accepted the challenge, and furnished a triumphant reply to his detractors in this comedy of ready wit and lively dialogue. The Beira Judge (1526), the Forge of Love (1525) and The Beira Priest (1526) satirize the maladministration of justice by ignorant magistrates and the lax morals of the regular clergy, and the Farce of the Muleteers (1526) dramatizes the type of poor nobleman described in Cleynart's Letters. The Comedy of the Arms of Ihs City of Coimbra (1527) has a considerable antiquarian interest, and the facetious Ship of Love is full of quaint imagery, while the lengthy Auto of the Fair (1527), with its twenty-two characters, may be described as at once an indictment of the society of the time from the standpoint of a practical Christian and a telling appeal for the reform of the church. In an oft-quoted passage, Rome personified comes to the booth of Mercury and Time, and offers her indulgences, saying, " Sell me the peace of heaven, since I have power here below "; but Mercury refuses, declaring that Rome absolves the whole world and never thinks of her own sins. The play concludes with a dance and hymn to the Blessed Virgin. The Triumph of Winter (1529) exposes the unskilful pilots and ignorant seamen who cause the loss of ships and lives on the route to India, and the Auto da Lusitania (1532) portrays the household of a poor Jewish tailor, ending with a curious dialogue between "All the World" and "Nobody." The Pilgrimage of the Aggrieved (1533) is an attack on discontent and ambition, lay and clerical. After representing the Auto da festa for the Conde de Vimioso (1535), and dramatizing the romances of chivalry in D. Duardos and Amadis de Gaula, Gil Vicente ended his dramatic career in 1536 with a mirthful comedy, The Garden of Deceptions. He spent the evening of life in preparing his works for the press at the instance of King John III., and died in 1540, his wife Branca Bezerra having predeceased him. Four children were bom of their union, and among them Paula Vicente attained distinction as a member of the group of cultured women who formed a sort of female academy presided over by the infanta D. Maria. The forty-four pieces comprising the theatre of Gil Vicente fall from the point of view of language into three groups: (i) those in Portuguese only, numbering fourteen; (2) those in Spanish only, numbering eleven; and (3) the bilingual, being the remainder, nineteen in all. They are also from their nature divisible as follows : a. Works of a religious character or of devotion. Most of these are a development of the mystery or miracle play of the middle ages; and they may be subdivided into (i) Biblical pieces; (2) pieces founded on incidents in the life of a saint ; and .(3) religious allegories. In this department Gil Vicente reaches his highest poetical nights, and the Auto of the Soul is a triumph of elevation of idea and feeling allied to beauty of expression, b. Aristocratic works, or tragi- comedies, the composition of which was the result of his contact with the court ; these," though often more spectacular than strictly dramatic, are remarkable for opulence of invention and sweetness of versification, c. The popular theatre, or comedies and farces. Gil Vicente's plays contain some evidence of his knowledge and appreciation of French poetry ; e.e. The Beira Judge wears a general likeness to the products of the Oercs de la Basocne, and his Testa- ment of Maria Parda is reminiscent of the better-known work of Francois Villon. Most of the plays are written in the national redondilha verse, and are preceded by initial rubrics stating the date when, the place where, in whose presence, and on what occasion each was first performed, and these make up the annals of the first thirty-four years of the Portuguese drama. Most of them were put on the stage at the different royal pala_ces; some, however, were played in hospitals, and, it is said, even in churches, though this is doubtful; those of which the subjects are liturgical at the great festivals of Christmas, Epiphany and Maundy Thursday, others on the happening of some event of importance to the royal family or the nation. Many of the plays contain songs, either written and set to music by the author, or collected by him from popular sources, while at the close the characters leave the stage singing and dancing, as was the custom in the medieval comedjes. Though so large a proportion of his pieces are' in Spanish, they are all eminently national in idea, texture and subject. No other Portuguese writer reflects so faithfully the language, types, customs and colour of his age as Gil Vicente, and the rudest of his dramas are full of genuine comic feeling. If they never attain to perfect 20 VICENZA art, they possess the supreme gift of life. None of them are, strictly speaking, historical, and he never attempted to write a tragedy. Himself a man of the people, he would not imitate the products of the classical theatre as did Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, but though he remained faithful to the Old or Spanish school in form, yet he had imbibed the critical spirit and mental ferment of the Renaissance without its culture or erudition. Endowed by nature with acute observation and considerable powers of analysis, Gil Vicente possessed a felicity of phrase and an unmatched knowledge of popular super- stitions, language and lore. Above all, he was a moralist, with satire and ridicule as his main weapons; but if his invective is often stinging it is rarely bitter, while more than one incident in his career shows that he possessed a kindly heart as well as an impartial judgment, and a well-balanced outlook on life. If he owed his early inspiration to Juan de Encina, he repaid the debt by showing a better way to the dramatists of the neighbouring country, so that he may truly be called the father of the rich Spanish drama, of Lope de Vega and Calderon. Much of his fame abroad is due to his position as an innovator, and, as Dr Garnett truly remarked, " One little corner of Europe alone possessed in the early i6th century a drama at once living, indigenous and admirable as literature." Gil Vicente perhaps lacks psychological depth, but he possesses a breadth of mental vision and a critical acumen unknown in any medieval dramatist. In his attitude to religion he acts as the spokesman of the better men of his age and country. A convinced but liberal-minded Catholic, he has no sympathy with attacks on the unity of the Church, but he cries out for a reform of morals, pillories the corruption and ignorance of the clergy and laity, and pens the most bitter things of the popes and their court. He strove to take a middle course at a time when moderation was still possible, though, had he lived a few years longer, in the reign of religious fanaticism inaugurated by the Inquisition, his bold stand for religious toleration would have meant his imprisonment or exile, if not a worse fate. He is a great dramatist in embryo, who, if he had been born fifty years later and preserved his liberty of thought and expression, might with added culture have surpassed Calderon and taken his place as the Latin and Catholic rival of Shakespeare. Some of the plays were printed in Gil Vicente's lifetime, but the first collected edition, whicli included his lyrics, was published after his death by his son Luiz (Lisbon, 1562), with a dedication to King Sebastian. A second edition appeared in 1586, with various omissions and alterations made at the instance of the Inquisition. A critical edition of the text in 3 vols. came out at Hamburg (1834), with a glossary and introductory essay on Vicente's life and writings, and a poor reprint of this edition is dated Lisbon 1852. He has never found a translator, doubtless because of the difficulty of rendering his form and explaining his wealth of topical allusions. AUTHORITIES. — Dr Theophilo Braga, Gil Vicente e as origens do theatre national (Oporto, 1898); J. I. de Brito Rebello, Gil Vicente (Lisbon, 1902); "The Portuguese Drama in the l6th Century — Gil Vicente," in the Manchester Quarterly (July and October 1897); introduction by the Conde de Sabugosa to his edition of the Auto defesla (Lisbon, 1906). (E. PR.) • VICENZA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of Vicenza, 42 m. W. of Venice by rail, 131 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 32,200 (town); 47,558 (com- mune). It lies at the northern base of the Monti Berici, on both sides of the Bacchiglione, at its confluence with the Retrone. It was surrounded by 13th-century walls, once about 3 m. in circumference, but these are now in great part demolished. Though many of the streets are narrow and irregular, the town has a number of fine buildings, many of them the work of Andrea Palladio. The best of these is the town hall, otherwise known as the basilica, one of the finest works of the Renaissance period, of which Palladio himself said that it might stand comparison with any similar work of antiquity. It is especially noteworthy owing to the difficulty of the task the architect had to accom- plish— that of transforming the exterior of the Palazzo della Ragione, a Gothic building of the latter half of the isth century, which the colonnades of the basilica entirely enclose. It was begun in 1549, but not finished till 1614, long after his death. He also designed many of the fine palaces which give Vicenza its individuality; only two of them, the Barbarano and Chieri- cati palaces (the latter containing the picture gallery), have two orders of architecture, the rest having a heavy rustica basis with only one order above it. Many palaces, however, have been wrongly attributed to him which are really the work of Scamozzi and others of his successors. The famous Teatro Olrmpico was begun by him, but only finished after his death; it is a remarkable attempt to construct a theatre in the ancient style, and the stage, with the representation of streets ascending at the back, is curious. The cathedral, which is Italian Gothic, dating mainly from the i3th century, consists of a nave with eight chapels on each side, and a very high Renaissance domed choir; it contains examples of the Montagnas and of Lorenzo da Venezia. The churches of S. Lorenzo (1280-1344) and S. Corona (1260-1300), both of brick, are better examples of Gothic than the cathedral; both contain interesting works of art — the latter a very fine " Baptism of Christ," by Giovanni Bellini. In S. Stefano is an imposing altar-piece by Palma Vecchio. The church of SS. Felice e Fortunato was restored in A.D. 975, but has been much altered, and was transformed in 1613. The portal is of 1154, and the Lombardesque square brick tower of 1160. Under it a mosaic pavement with the names of the donors, belonging to the original church of the Lombard period (?), was discovered in 1895 (see F. Berchet, ///. Relazione dell' Ujficio Regionale per la conservazione del monumenli del Veneto, Venice, 1895, p. in). None of the churches of Vicenza is the work of Palladio. Of the Palladian villas in the neighbourhood, La Rotonda, or Villa Palladiana, 15 m. S.E., deserves special mention. It is a square building with Ionic colonnades and a central dome, like an ancient temple, but curiously unlike a Roman villa. Vicenza also contains some interesting remains of the Gothic period besides the churches mentioned — the lofty tower of the town hall (1174-1311-1446; the Piazza contains two columns of the Venetian period, with S. Theodore and the Lion of S. Mark on them) and several palaces in the Venetian style. Among these may be especially noted the small Casa Pigafetta dating from 1481, but still half Gothic, prettily decorated. Some of these earlier houses had painted facades. The fine picture of " Christ bearing the Cross " (wrongly ascribed to Giorgione) , according to Burckhardt once in the Palazzo Loschi, is now in the Gardner collection at Boston, U.S.A. The most im- portant manufacture is that of silk, which employs a large proportion of the inhabitants. Great numbers of mulberry trees are grown in the neighbourhood. Woollen and linen cloth, leather, earthenware, paper, and articles in gold and silver are also made in Vicenza, and a considerable trade in these articles, as well as in corn and wine, is carried on. Vicenza is the ancient Vicetia, an ancient town of Venetia. It was of less importance than its neighbours Venetia and Patavium, and we hear little of it in history. It no doubt acquired Roman citizenship in 49 B.C., and became a muni- cipii'tn', and is mentioned two years later apropos of a dispute between the citizens and their slaves. Remains of a theatre and of a late mosaic pavement with hunting scenes have been found, three of the bridges across the Bacchiglione and Retrone are of Roman origin, and arches of the aqueduct exist outside Porta S. Croce. A road diverged here to Opitergium (mod. Oderzo) from the main road between Verona and Patavium (Padua) : see T. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Latin, v. (Berlin, 1883), p. 304. It suffered severely in the invasion of Attila, by whom it was laid waste, and in subsequent incursions. It was for some time during the middle ages an independent republic, but was subdued by the Venetians in 1405. Towards the end of the 1 5th century it became the seat of a school of painting strongly influenced by Mantegna, of which the principal repre- sentatives were, besides Bartolomeo Montagna, its founder, his son Benedetto Montagna, Giovanni Speranza and Gio- vanni Buonconsiglio. Good altar-pieces by the former exist in S. Bartolommeo, S. Corona, and the cathedral, and several pictures also in the picture gallery; while his son Benedetto had greater merits as an engraver than a painter. Some works by both of the last two exist at Vicenza— the best is a Pieta in tempera in the gallery by Buonconsiglio, by whom is also a good Madonna at S. Rocco. Andrea Palladio (1518-1580) was a native of Vicenza, as was also a contemporary, Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), who was largely dependent on him, but is better known for his work on architecture (Architctlura universale, 1615). Palladio inaugurated a school of followers who continued to erect similar buildings in Vicenza even down to the French Revolution. (T. As.) See G. Petting, Vicenza (Bergamo, 1905). VICEROY— VICKSBURG 21 VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or ro i, king) , the governor of a kingdom or colony to whom is delegated by his sovereign the power to exercise regal authority in his name. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland and the governor-general of India are frequently referred to as viceroys, but the title has no official recognition in British government. VICH, a city of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on the river Gurri, a small right-hand tributary of the Ter, and on the Granollers-Ripoll railway. Pop. (1900) 11,628. Vich is an ancient episcopal city, with narrow, ill- paved streets and many curious old houses irregularly built on the slope of a hill, which rises above one of the side valleys of the Ter basin. The cathedral, founded about 1040 and built chiefly in the I4th century, was to some extent modernized in 1803. Its Gothic cloisters (1340) are remarkable for the beauti- ful tracery in their windows, and there is a fine altar of sculp- tured marble. Some valuable manuscripts are preserved in the library of the chapter-house, and the museum contains an interesting archaeological collection, besides statuary, pic- tures, &c. The city is locally celebrated for the manufacture of sausages; other industries include tanning and the weaving of linen and woollen fabrics. Vich, the Ausa of the ancient geographers, was the chief town of the Ausetani; in the middle ages it was called Ausona and Vicus Ausonensis, hence Vic de Osona, and simply Vich. VICHY, a town of central France in the department of Allier, on the right bank of the Allier, 33 m. S. by E. of Moulins by rail. Pop. (1906) 14,520. Vichy owes its importance to its mineral waters, which were well known in the time of the Romans. They afterwards lost their celebrity and did not regain it till the I7th century, in the latter half of which they were visited and written of by Madame de Sevigne. Within the town or in its immediate vicinity there are between thirty and forty springs, twelve of which are state property, four of these having been tapped by boring. The waters of those which are outside the town are brought in by means of aqueducts. The most celebrated and frequented are the Grande Grille, L'Hopital, the Celestins, and Lardy. The most copious of all, the Puits Carre, is reserved for the baths. All these, whether cold or hot (maximum temperature, 113° F.), are largely charged with bicarbonate of soda; some also are chalybeate and tonic. The waters, which are limpid, have an alkaline taste and emit a slight odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. They are recom- mended in cases of stomachic and liver complaint, also for diabetes, gravel and gout. Large quantities are bottled and exported. A luxurious bathing establishment, the property of the state, was opened in 1903. In addition to this, Vichy has the hydropathic establishments of Lardy, Larbaud and L'Hopital, and a large military hospital, founded in 1843. A fine casino and two public parks add to its attraction. The promenade commands a splendid view of the mountains of Auvergne. Cusset, about i m. distant, has similar mineral waters and a bathing establishment. VICKSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers,1 44 m. by rail W. of Jackson, and 236 m. N. by W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1800) 13,373; (1000) 14,834, of whom 8147 were negroes; (1910 census) 20,814, being the second largest city in Mississippi. It is served by the Alabama & Yicksburg, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by steamboat lines. It is built among the Walnut Hills, which rise about 260 ft. above the river. Among the principal buildings and institutions are the court-house, standing on one of the highest hills, a fine Federal building, the city hall, a state charity hospital, an 'The channel of the Mississippi has changed greatly: until 1876 the entire city was on the Mississippi, which made a bend forming a tongue of land opposite the city; in 1876 the river cut across this tongue and formed an island, making the northern part of the city front on the shallow " Lake Centennial." The Federal govern- ment, by turning the Yazoo through a canal across the upper end of the old channel, gave the city a river front once more. infirmary, a sanatorium, a public library, the medical college of the university of Mississippi, All Saints' Episcopal College (Protestant Episcopal, 1009) for girls, Saint Francis Xavier's Academy, and Saint Aloysius College (Roman Catholic). The Civil War battle-ground has been converted into a beautiful National Military Park, embracing 1283 acres and containing numerous markers, memorials and monuments, including one (1910) to Lieut. -General Stephen Dill Lee, who was super- intendent of the Military Park from 1899 until his death in 1908. On the bluffs just beyond the northern limits of the city and ad- joining the Military Park is the Vicksburg National Cemetery, in which are the graves of 16,892 Federal soldiers (12,769 unknown). The principal industry of Vicksburg is the construction and repair of rolling stock for steam railways. It has also a dry dock and cotton compresses; and among its manufactures are cottonseed oil and cake, hardwood lumber, furniture, boxes and baskets. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $1,887,924. The city has a large trade in long-staple cotton grown in the surrounding country. It is a port of entry but has practically no foreign trade. The French built Fort St Peter near the site of Vicksburg early in the i8th century, and on the 2nd of January 1730 its garrison was murdered by the Yazoo Indians. As early as 1783 the Spanish erected Fort Nogales, and in 1798 this was taken by some United States troops and renamed Fort McHenry. The first permanent settlement in the vicinity was made about 1811 by Rev. Newell (or Newit) Vick (d. 1819), a Methodist preacher. In accordance with his will a town was laid out in 1824; and Vicksburg was incorporated as a town in 1825, and was chartered as a city in 1836. The campaigns of which it was the centre in 1862 and 1863 are described below. Vicks- burg was the home of Seargent Smith Prentiss from 1832 to 1845- See H. F. Simrall, " Vicksburg: the City on the Walnut Hills," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900). Campaign of 1862-63. — Vicksburg is historically famous as being the centre of interest of one of the most important cam- paigns of the Civil War. The command of the Mississippi, which would imply the severance of the Confederacy into two halves, and also the reopening of free commercial navigation from St Louis to the sea, was one of the principal objects of the Western Union armies from the time that they began their southward advance from Illinois, Missouri and Kentucky in February 1862. A series of victories in the spring and summer carried them as far as the line Memphis-Corinth, but in the autumn they came to a standstill and were called upon to repulse the counter-advance of the Southern armies. These armies were accompanied by a flotilla of thinly armoured but powerful gunboats which had been built on the upper Mississippi in the autumn of 1861, and had co-operated with the army at Fort Donelson, Shiloh and Island No. 10, besides winning a victory on the water at Memphis. At the same time a squadron of sea-going vessels under Flag-officer Farragut had forced the defences of New Orleans (q.v.) and, accompanied by a very small military force, had steamed up the great river. On reaching Vicksburg the heavy vessels again forced their way past the batteries, but both at Vicksburg and at Port Hudson they had to deal, no longer with low-sited fortifications, but with inconspicuous earth- works on bluffs far above the river-level, and they failed to make any impression. Farragut then returned to New Orleans. From Helena to Port Hudson the Confederates maintained complete control of the Mississippi, the improvised fortresses of Vicksburg, Port Hudson and Arkansas Post (near the mouth of Arkansas river) being the framework of the defence. It was to be the task of Grant's army around Corinth and the flotilla at Memphis to break up this system of defences, and, by joining hands with Farragut and clearing the whole course of the Mississippi, to cut the Confederacy in half. The long and painful operations by which this was achieved group themselves into four episodes: (a) the Grenada expedition 22 VICKSBURG of Grant's force, (6) the river column under McClernand and Sherman, (c) the operations in the bayoux, and (d) the final " overland " campaign from Grand Gulf. The country in which these operations took place divides itself sharply into two zones, the upland east of the river, upon which it looks down from high bluffs, and the levels west of it, which are a maze of bayoux, backwaters and side channels, the intervening land being kept dry near the river itself by artificial banks (levees) but elsewhere swampy. At Vicksburg, it is important to observe, the bluffs trend away from the Mississippi to follow the course of the Yazoo, rejoining the great river at Memphis. Thus there are two obvious lines of advance for the Northern army, on the upland (Memphis and Grand Junction on Grenada- Jackson), and downstream through the bayou country (Memphis-Helena- Vicksburg). The main army of the defenders, who were commanded by Lieut.-General J. C. Pemberton, between Vicksburg and Jackson and Grenada, could front either north against an advance by Grenada or west along the bluffs above and below Vicksburg. STTE N/N E S SEE VICKSBURG Scale.i:3,30o.ooo Engllsb Miles 0 ? 10 .to » Emt ry Walker sc. The first advance was made at the end of November 1862 by two columns from Grand Junction and Memphis on Grenada. The Confederates in the field, greatly outnumbered, fell back without fighting. But Grant's line of supply was one long single-line, ill-equipped railway through Grand Junction to Columbus, and the opposing cavalry under Van Dorn swept round his flank and, by destroying one of his principal magazines (at Holly Springs), without further effort compelled the abandon- ment of the advance. Meantime one of Grant's subordinates, McClernand, was intriguing to be appointed to command an expedition by the river-line, and Grant meeting half-way an evil which he felt himself unable to prevent, had sent Sherman with the flotilla and some 30,000 men to attack Vicksburg from the water-side, while he himself should deal with the Confederate field army on the high ground. But the scheme broke down completely when Van Dorn cut Grant's line of supply, and the Confederate army was free to turn on Sherman. The latter, ignorant of Grant's retreat, attacked the Yazoo bluffs above Vicksburg (battle of Chickasaw Bayou) on Decem- ber 2gth; but a large portion of Pemberton's field army had arrived to help the Vicksburg garrison, and the Federals were easily repulsed with a loss of 2000 men. McClernand now appeared and took the command out of Sherman's hands, informing him at the same time of Grant's retreat. Sherman thereupon proposed, before attempting fresh operations against Vicksburg, to clear the country behind them by destroying the Confederate garrison at Arkansas Post. This expedition was completely successful: at a cost of about 1000 men the fort and its 5000 defenders were captured on the nth of January 1863. McClernand, elated at his victory, would have continued to ascend the Arkansas, but such an eccentric operation would have been profitless if not dangerous, and Grant, authorized by the general-in-chief, Halleck, per- emptorily ordered McClernand back to the Mississippi. airipaign against VICKSBURG April and May, 1863 Scale, 1:1,400,000 Retreating from the upland, Grant sailed down the river and joined McClernand and Sherman at Milliken's Bend at the beginning of February, and, superseding the resentful McClernand, assumed command of the three corps (XIII., McClernand; XV., Sherman; XVII., McPherson) available. He had already imagined the daring solution of his most difficult problem which he afterwards put into execution, but for the present he tried a series of less risky expedients to reach the high ground beyond Pemberton's flanks, without indeed much confidence in their success, yet desirous in these unhealthy flats of keeping up the spirits of his army by active work, and of avoiding, at a crisis in the fortunes of the war, any appearance of discouragement. Three such attempts were made in all, with the co-operation of the flotilla under Captain David D. Porter. First, Grant endeavoured to cut a canal across the bend of the Mississippi at Vicksburg, hoping thus to isolate the fortress, to gain a water connection with the lower river, and to land an army on the bluffs beyond Pemberton's left flank. This was unsuccessful. Next he tried to make a practicable channel from the Mississippi to the upper Yazoo, and so to turn Pemberton's right, but the Confederates, warned in time, constructed a fort at the point where Grant's advance emerged from the bayoux. Lastly, an advance through a maze of creeks (Steele's Bayou expedition), towards the middle Yazoo and Haines's Bluff, encountered the enemy, not on the bluffs, but in the low-lying woods and islands, and these so harassed and delayed the progress of the expedition that Grant recalled it. Shortly afterwards Grant determined en the manoeuvre in rear of Vicksburg which established his repu- tation. The troops marched overland from Milliken's Bend to New Carthage, and \m the i6th of April Porter's gunboat flotilla and the transports ran past the Vicksburg batteries. All this, which involved careful arrangement and hard work, was done by the 24th of April. General Banks, with a Union army from New Orleans, was now advancing up the river to invest Port Hudson, and by way of diverting attention from the Mississippi, a cavalry brigade under Benjamin Grierson rode from La Grange to Baton Rouge (600 m. in 16 days), destroying railways and magazines and cutting the telegraph VICO wires en route. Sherman's XV. corps, too, made vigorous demonstrations at Haines's Bluff, and in the confusion and uncertainty Pemberton was at a loss. On the 30th of April McClernand and the XIII. corps crossed the Mississippi 6 m. below Grand Gulf, followed by McPherson. The nearest Confederate brigades, attempting to oppose the advance at Port Gibson, were driven back. Grant had now deliberately placed himself in the middle of the enemy, and although his engineers had opened up a water-line for the barges carrying his supplies from Milliken's Bend to New Carthage, his long line of supply curving round the enemy's flank was very exposed. But his resolute purpose outweighed all text-book strategy. Having crossed the Mississippi, he collected wheeled transport for five days' rations, and on Sherman's arrival cut loose from his base altogether (May 7th). Free to move, he aimed north from the Big Black river, so as to interpose between the Confederate forces at Vicksburg and those at Jackson. A fight took place at Raymond on the I2th of May, and Jackson was captured just in time to forestall the arrival of reinforcements for Pemberton under General Joseph E. Johnston. The latter, being in supreme command of the Confederates, ordered Pemberton to come out of Vicksburg and attack Grant. But Pemberton did not do so until it was too late. On May i6th Grant, with all his forces well in hand, defeated him in the battle of Champion Hill with a loss of nearly 4000 men, and sharply pursuing him drove him into Vicksburg. By the ipth of May Vicksburg and Pemberton's army in it was invested by land and water. Grant promptly assaulted his works, but was repulsed with loss (May ipth); the assault was repeated on the 22nd of May with the same result, and Grant found himself compelled to resort to a blockade. Reinforcements were hurried up from all quarters, Johnston's force (east of Jackson), was held off by a covering corps under Blair (afterwards under Sherman), and though another un- successful assault was made on the 25th of June, resistance was almost at an end. On the 4th of July, the day after, far away in Pennsylvania, the great battle of Gettysburg had closed with Lee's defeat, the garrison of Vicksburg, 37,000 strong, surrendered. VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744), Italian jurist and philosopher, was born at Naples on the 23rd of June 1668. At the university he made rapid progress, especially in juris- prudence, though preferring the study of history, literature, juridical science and philosophy. Being appointed tutor to the nephews of the bishop of Ischia, G. B. Rocca, he accom- panied them to the castle of Vatolla, near Cilento, in the province of Salerno. There he passed nine studious years, chiefly de- voted to classical reading, Plato and Tacitus being his favourite authors, because " the former described the ideal man, and the latter man as he really is." On his return to Naples he found himself out of touch with the prevailing Cartesianism, and lived quietly until in 1697 he gained the professorship of rhetoric at the university, with a scanty stipend of 100 scudi. On this he supported a growing family and gave himself to untiring study. Two authors exercised a weighty influence on his mind — Francis Bacon and Grotius. He was no follower of their ideas, indeed often opposed to them; but he derived from Bacon an increasing stimulus towards the investigation of certain great problems of history and philosophy, while Grotius proved valuable in his study of philosophic jurispru- dence. In 1708 he published his De ratione studiorum, in 1710 De antiquissima Italorum sapientia, in 1720 De universi juris uno principle el fine uno, and in 1721 De constantia jurispru- dentis. On the strength of these works he offered himself as a candidate for the university chair of jurisprudence, but as he had no personal or family influence was not elected. With calm courage he returned to his poverty and his favourite studies, and in 1725 published the first edition of the work that forms the basis of his renown, Principii d' una sciensa nuova. In 1730 he produced a second edition of the Scienza nuova, so much altered in style and with so many substantial additions that it was practically a new work. In 1735 Charles III. of Naples marked his recognition of Vice's merits by appointing him historiographer-royal, with a yearly stipend of 100 ducats. Soon after his mind began to give way, but during frequent intervals of lucidity he made new corrections in his great work, of which a third edition appeard in 1744, prefaced by a letter of dedication to Cardinal Trojano Acquaviva. He died on the 2oth of January of the same year. Fate seemed bent on persecuting him to the last. A fierce quarrel arose over his burial between the brotherhood of St Stephen, to which he had belonged, and the university professors, who desired to escort his corpse to the grave. Finally the canons of the cathedral, together with the professors, buried the body in the church of the Gerolimini. Vico has been generally described as a solitary soul, out of harmony with the spirit of his time and often directly opposed to it. Yet a closer inquiry into_ the social conditions of Vko's time, and of the studies then flourishing, shows him to have been thoroughly in touch with them. Owing to the historical past of Naples, and its social and economic condition at the end of the I7th century, the only study that really flourished there was that of law; and this soon penetrated from the courts to the university, and was raised to the level of a science. A great school of jurisprudence was thus formed, including many men of vast learning and great ability, although little known outside their immediate surroundings. Three men, however, obtained a wider recognition. By his exposition of the political history of the kingdom, based on a study of its laws and institutions and of the legal conflicts between the state and the court of Rome, Pietrp Giannone was the initiator of what has been since known as civil history. Gioyan Vincenzo Gravina wrote a history of Roman law, specially distinguished for its accuracy and elegance. Vico raised the problem to a higher plane, by tracing the origin of law in the human mind and explaining the historical changes of the one by those of the other. Thus he made the original discovery of certain ideas which constitute the modern psychologico-historic method. This problem he proceeded to develop in various works, until in his Scienza nuova he arrived at a more complete solution, which may be formulated as follows: If the principle of justice and law be one, eternal and immutable, why should there be so many different codes of legislation? These differences are not caused by difference of nationality only, but are to be noted in the history of the same people, even in that of the Romans. This problem is touched upon in his Orations or Inaugural Addresses (Orazioni o Prolusioni) and in his Minor Works (Scritti minori). Finally he applied himself to its solution in his Universal Law (Dirillo universal*), which is divided into two books. The first of these, De uno el universi juris principle et fine uno, was subdivided into two parts; so like- wise was the second, with the respective titles of De constantia philologiae and De constantia jurisprudenlis. The following is the general idea derived from these researches. Vico held God to be the ruler of the world of nations, but ruling, not as the providence of the middle ages by means of continued miracles, but as He rules nature, by means of natural laws. If, therefore, the physicist seeks to discover the laws of nature by study of natural phenomena, so the philosopher must seek the laws of historical change by the investigation of human events and of the human mind. According to Vico, law emanates from the conscience of mankind, in whom God has infused a sentiment of justice, and is therefore in close and continual relation with the human mind, and participates in its changes. This sentiment of justice is at first confused, uncertain and almost instinctive-^is, as it were, a divine and religious inspiration instilled by Heaven into the primi- tive tribes of the earth. It is an unconscious, universal sentiment, not the personal, conscious and rational sentiment of the superior few. Hence the law to which it gives birth is enwrapped in religious forms which are likewise visible and palpable, inasmuch as primitive man is incapable of abstract, philosophical ideas. This law is not the individual work of any philosophical legislator, for no man was, or could be, a philosopher at that time. It is first displayed in the shape of natural and necessary usages consecrated by religion. The names of leading legislators, which we so often find recorded in the history of primitive peoples, are symbols and myths, merely serving to mark an historic period or epoch by some definite and personal denomination. For nations, or rather tribes, were then distinguished by personal names only. The first obscure and con- fused conception of law gradually becomes clearer and better defined. Its visible and religious forms then give way to abstract formulae, which in their turn are slowly replaced by the rational manifestation of the philosophic principles of law that gains the victory in the final stage of development, designated by Vico as that of civil and human law. This is the penod of individual and philosophic legislators. Thus Roman law has passed through three great periods — the divine, the heroic and the human — which are like- wise the three chief periods of the history of Rome, with which it is intimately and intrinsically connected. Nevertheless, on carefu examination of these three successive stages, it will easily be seen that, in spite of the apparent difference between them, all have a common foundation, source and purpose. The human and civil VICO philosophic law of the third period is assuredly very different in form from the primitive law; but in substance it is merely the abstract, scientific and philosophic manifestation of the same senti- ment of justice and the same principles which were vaguely felt in primitive times. Hence one development of law may be easily translated into another. Thus in the varied manifestations of law Vico was able to discover a single and enduring principle (De universi juris uno principio el fine uno). On these grounds it has been sought to establish a close relation between Vico and Grotius. The latter clearly distinguished between a positive law differing in different nations and a natural taw based on a general and unchanging prin- ciple of human nature, and therefore obligatory upon all. But Vico was opposed to Grotius, especially as regards his conception of the origin of society, and therefore of law. Grotius holds that its origin was not divine, but human, and neither collective, spontaneous nor unconscious, but personal, rational and conscious. He believed, moreover, that natural law and positive law moved on almost constant and immutable parallel lines. But Vico maintained that the one was continually progressing towards the other, positive law showing an increasing tendency to draw nearer to natural and rational law. Hence the conception that law is of necessity a spontaneous birth, not the creation of any individual legislator; and hence the idea that it necessarily proceeds by a natural and logical process of evolu- tion constituting its history. Vico may have derived from Grotius the idea of natural law; but his discovery of the historic evolution of law was first suggested to him by his study of Roman law. He saw that the history of Roman jurisprudence was a continuous progress of the narrow, rigorous, primitive and almost iron law of the XII. Tables towards the wider, more general and more humane jus gentium. Having once derived this conception from Roman history, he was easily and indeed necessarily carried on to the next — • that the positive law of all nations, throughout history, is a continual advance, keeping pace with the progress of civilization, towards the philosophic and natural law founded on the principles of human nature and human reason. As already stated, the Scienza nuova appeared in three different editions. The third may be disregarded; but the first and second editions are almost distinct works. In the former the author sets forth the analytical process by which the laws he discovered were deduced from facts. In the second he not only enlarges his matter and gives multiplied applications of his ideas, but also follows the synthetic method, first expounding the laws he had dis- covered and then proving them by the facts to which they are applied. In this edition the fragmentary and jerky arrangement, the intricate style, and a peculiar and often purely conventional terminology seriously checked the diffusion of the work, which accordingly was little studied in Italy and remained almost un- known to the rest of Europe. Its fundamental idea consists in that which Vico, in his peculiar terminology, styles " poetical wisdom " (sapienza poetica) and " occult wisdom " (sapienza riposta), and in the historical process by which the one is merged in the other. He frequently declares that this discovery was the result of the literary labours of his whole life. Vico was the first thinker who asked, Why have we a science of nature, but no science of history? Because our glance can easily be turned outwards and survey the exterior world ; but it is far harder to turn the mind's eye inwards and contemplate the world of the spirit. All our errors in explaining the origin of human society arise from our obstinacy in believing that primitive man was entirely similar to ourselves, who are civilized, i.e. developed by the results of a lengthy process of anterior historic evolution. We must learn to issue from ourselves, transport ourselves back to other times, and become children again in order to comprehend the infancy of the human race. As in children, imagination and the senses prevailed in those men of the past. They had no abstract ideas; in their minds all was concrete, visible and tangible. All the phenomena, forces and laws of nature, together with mental conceptions, were alike personified. To suppose that all mythical stories are fables invented by the philosophers is to write history backwards and confound the instinctive, impersonal, poetic wisdom of the earliest times with the civilized, rational and abstract occult wisdom of pur own day. But how can we explain the formation of this poetic wisdom, which, albeit the work of ignorant men, has so deep and intrinsic a philosophic value? The only possible reply is that already given when treating of the origin of law. Providence has instilled into the heart of man a sentiment of justice and goodness, of beauty and of truth, that is manifested differently at different times. The ideal truth within us, constituting the inner life that is studied by philosophers, becomes transmuted by the facts of history into assured reality. For Vico psychology and history were the two poles of the new world he discovered. After having extolled the work of God and proclaimed Him the source of all knowledge, he adds that a great truth is continually flashed on us and proved to us by history, namely, " that this world of nations is the work of man, and its explanation therefore only to be found in the mind of man." Thus poetical wisdom, appearing as a spon- taneous emanation of the human conscience, is almost the product of divine inspiration. From this, by the aid of civilization, reason and philosophy, there is gradually developed the civil, occult wisdom. The continual, slow and laborious progress from the one to the other is that which really constitutes history, and man be- comes civilized by rendering himself the conscious and independent possessor of all that in poetical wisdom remained impersonal, unconscious, that came, as it were, from without by divine afflatus. Vico gives many applications of this fundamental idea. The religion of primitive peoples is no less mythical than their history, since they could only conceive of it by means of myths. On these lines he interprets the whole history of primitive Rome. One book of the second edition of the Scienza nuova is devoted to " The Discovery of the True Homer." Why all the cities of Greece dispute the honour of being his birthplace is because the Iliad and the Odyssey are not the work of one, but of many popular poets, and a true creation of the Greek people which is in every city of Greece. And because the primitive peoples are unconscious and self-ignorant Homer is represented as being blind. In all parts of history in which he was best versed Vico pursues a stricter and more scientific method, and arrives at safer conclusions. This is the case in Roman history, especially in such portions as related to the history of law. Here he sometimes attains, even in details, to divinations of the truth afterwards confirmed by new documents and later research. The aristocratic origin of Rome, the struggle between the patricians and the plebeians, the laws of the XII. Tables, not, as tradition would have it, imported from Greece, but the natural and spon- taneous product of ancient Roman customs, and many other similar theories were discovered by Vico, and expounded with his usual originality, though not always without blunders and exaggerations. Vico may be said to base his considerations on the history of two nations. The greater part of his ideas on poetical wisdom were derived from Greece. Nearly all the rest, more especially the transi- tion from poetical to occult wisdom, was derived from Rome. Having once formulated his idea, he made it more general in order to apply it to the history of all nations. From the savage state, through the terror that gives birth to religions, through the creation of families by marriage, through burial rites and piety towards the dead, men approach civilization with the aid of poetic wisdom, and pass through three periods — the divine, heroic and human — in which they have three forms of government, language, litera- ture, jurisprudence and civilization. The primary government is aristocratic. Patrician tyranny rouses the populace to revolt, and then democratic equality is established under a republic. Democratic excesses cause the rise of an empire, which, becoming corrupt, declines into barbarism, and, again emerging from it, re- traces the same course. This is the law of cycles, constituting that which is designated by Vico as the " eternal ideal history, or rather course of humanity, invariably followed by all nations." It must not be held to imply that one nation imitates the course pursued by another, nor that the points of resemblance between them are transmitted by tradition from one to the other, but merely that all are subject to one law, inasmuch as this is based on the human nature common to all alike. Thus, while on the one hand the various cycles traced and retraced by all nations are similar and yet independent, on the other hand, being actually derived from Roman history, they become converted in the Scienza nuova into a bed of Procrustes, to which the history of all nations has to be fitted by force. And wherever Vico's historical know- ledge failed he was led into increased error by this artificial and arbitrary effort. It has been justly observed by many that this continuous cyclical movement entirely excludes the progress of humanity towards a better future. It has been replied that these cycles are similar without being identical, and that, if one might differ from another, the idea of progress was not necessarily excluded by the law of cycles. Vico undoubtedly considered the poetic wisdom of the Middle Ages to be different from that of the Greeks and Romans, and Christianity to be very superior to the pagan religion. But he never investigated the question whether, since there is a law of progressive evolution in the history of different nations, separately examined, there may not likewise be another law ruling the general history of these nations, every one of which must have represented a new period, as it were, in the history of humanity at large. There- fore, although the Scienza nuova cannot be said absolutely to deny the law of progress, it must be allowed that Vico not only failed to solve the problem but even shrank from attacking it. Vico founded no school, and though during his lifetime and for a while after his death he had many admirers both in Naples and the northern cities, his fame and name were soon obscured, especially as the Kantian system dominated the world of thought. At the beginning of the igth century, however, some Neapolitan exiles at Milan called attention to the merits of their great countryman, and his reinstatement was completed by Michelet, who in 1827 translated the Scienza nuova and other works with a laudatory introduction. Vico's writings suffer through their author's not having followed a regular course of studies, and his style is very involved. He was a deeply religious man, but his exemption of Jewish origins from the canons of historical inquiry which he elsewhere applied was probably due to the conditions of his age, which preceded the dawn of Semitic investigation and regarded the Old Testament and the Hebrew religion as sui generis. VICTOR— VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS For Vice's personal history see his autobiography, written at the request of the Conte di Porcia, and his letters; also Cantoni, C. B. Vico, Studii Critici e Comparative (Turin, 1867); R. Flint, Vico (Edinburgh and London, 1884). For editions of Vice's own works, see Opere, ed. Giuseppe Ferrari, with introductory essay, " La Mente de Vico " (6 vols., Milan, 1834-35), and Michelct, (Euvres Choisies de Vico (2 vols., Paris, 1835). A full list is given in B. Croce, BMiografia Vichiana (Naples, 1904). See also O. Klemm, G. B. Vico als Geschichtsphilosoph und Volkerpsycholog (Leipzig. 1906); M. H. Rafferty in Journal of the Society of Com- parative Legislation, New Series, xvii., xx. VICTOR, the name taken by three popes and two antipopes. VICTOR I. was bishop of Rome from about 190 to 198. He submitted to the opinion of the episcopate in the various parts of Christendom the divergence between the Easter usage of Rome and that of the bishops of Asia. The bishops, particu- larly St Irenaeus of Lyons, declared themselves in favour of the usage of Rome, but refused to associate themselves with the excommunication pronounced by Victor against their Asiatic colleagues. At Rome Victor excommunicated Theodotus of Byzantium on account of his doctrine as to the person of Christ. St Jerome attributes to Victor some opuscula in Latin, which are believed to be recognized in certain apo- cryphal treatises of St Cyprian. VICTOR II., the successor of Leo IX., was consecrated in St Peter's, Rome, on the i3th of April 1055. His father was a Swabian baron, Count Hartwig von Calw, and his own baptismal name was Gebhard. At the instance of Gebhard, bishop of Regensburg, uncle of the emperor Henry III., he had been appointed while still a young man to the see of Eichstadt; in this position his great talents soon enabled him to render important services to Henry, whose chief adviser he ultimately became. His nomination to the papacy by Henry, at Mainz, in September 1054, was made at the instance of a Roman deputation headed by Hildebrand, whose policy doubtless was to detach from the imperial interest one of its ablest supporters. In June 1055 Victor met the emperor at Florence, and held a council, which anew condemned clerical marriages, simony and the alienation of the estates of the church. In the follow- ing year he was summoned to Germany to the side of the emperor, and was with him when he died at Botfeld in the Harz on the sth of October 1056. As guardian of Henry's infant son, and adviser of the empress Agnes, Victor now wielded enormous power, which he began to use with much tact for the maintenance of peace throughout the empire and for strengthening the papacy against the aggressions of the barons. He died shortly after his return to Italy, at Arezzo, on the z8th of July 1057. His successor was Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine). (L. D.*) VICTOR III. (Dauferius Epifani), pope from the 24th of May 1086 to the i6th of September 1087, was the successor of Gregory VII. He was a son of Landolfo V., prince of Bene- vento, and was born in 1027. After studying in various monasteries he became provost of St Benedict at Capua, and in 1055 obtained permission from Victor II. to enter the cloister at Monte Cassino, changing his name to Desiderius. He succeeded Stephen IX. as abbot in 1057, and his rule marks the golden age of that celebrated monastery; he promoted literary activity, and established an important school of mosaic. Desiderius was created cardinal priest of Sta Cecilia by Nicholas II. in 1059, and as papal vicar in south Italy conducted frequent negotiations between the Normans and the pope. Among the four men suggested by Gregory VII. on his death-bed as most worthy to succeed him was Desiderius, who was favoured by the cardinals because of his great learning, his connexion with the Normans and his diplomatic ability. The abbot, however, declined the papal crown, and the year 1085 passed without an election. The cardinals at length proclaimed him pope against his will on the 24th of May 1086, but he was driven from Rome by imperialists before his consecration was complete, and, laying aside the papal insignia at Terracina, he retired to his beloved monastery. As vicar of the Holy See he convened a synod at Capua on the 7th of March 1087, resumed the papal insignia on the 2ist of March, and received tardy consecration at Rome on the 9th of May. Owing to the presence of the antipope, Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna), who had powerful partisans, his stay at Rome was brief. He sent an army to Tunis, which defeated the Saracens and compelled the sultan to pay tribute to the papal see. In August 1087 he held a synod at Bene- vento, which renewed the excommunication of Guibert; banned Archbishop Hugo of Lyons and Abbot Richard of Marseilles as schismatics; and confirmed the prohibition of lay investiture. Falling ill at the synod, Vicar returned to Monte Cassino, where he died on the i6th of September 1087. He was buried at the monastery and is accounted a saint by the Benedictine order. His successor was Urban II. Victor III., while abbot of Monte Cassino contributed personally to the literary activity of the monastery. He wrote Dialogi de miraculis S. Benedicti, which, along with his Epistolae, are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149, and an account of the miracles of Leo IX. (in Ada Sanctorum, igth of April). The chief sources for his life are the " Chronica monasterii Casinensis," in the Hon. Germ. hist. Script, vii., and the Vitae in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149, and in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae. See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-2); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte (2nd ed., 1873-90), vol. 5; Hirsch, " Desiderius von Monte Cassino als Papst Victor III.," in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, vol. 7 (Gottingen, 1867); H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol. 3 (repub. London, 1899). VICTOR IV. was a title taken by two antipopes. (i) Gregorio Conti, cardinal priest of Santi Dodici Apostoli, was chosen by a party opposed to Innocent II. in succession to the antipope Anacletus II., on the isth of March 1138, but through the in- fluence of Bernard of Clairvaux he was induced to make his submission on the 29th of May. (2) Octavian, count of Tusculum and cardinal deacon of St Nicola in carcere Tulliano, the Ghi- belline antipope, was elected at Rome on the ?th of September 1159, in opposition to Alexander III., and supported by the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Consecrated at Farfa on the 4th of October, Victor was the first of the series of antipopes supported by Frederick against Alexander III. Though the excommunication of Frederick by Alexander in March 1160 made only a slight impression in Germany, this pope was never- theless able to gain the support of the rest of western Europe, because since the days of Hildebrand the power of the pope over the church in the various countries had increased so greatly that the kings of France and of England could not view with indifference a revival of such imperial control of the papacy as had been exercised by the emperor Henry III. He died at Lucca on the 2oth of April 1164 and was succeeded by the anti- pope Paschal III. (1164-1168). See M. Meyer, Die Wahl Alexanders III. und Victors IV. 1159 (Gottingen, 1871); and A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, Band iv. (C. H. HA.) VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.), Roman writer on rhetoric, possibly of Gallic origin. His extant manual (in C. Halm's Rhetores Lalini Minores, 1863) is of some importance as facilitating the textual criticism of Quintilian, whom he closely follows in many places. VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS, prefect of Pannonia about 360 (Amm. Marc. xxi. 10), possibly the same as the consul (jointly with Valentinian) in 373 and as the prefect of the city who is mentioned in an inscription of the time of Theodosius. Four small historical works have been ascribed to him on more or less doubtful grounds — (i) Origo Gentis Romance, (2) De Viribus Illvstribus Romae, (3) De Caesaribus, (4) De Vila et Moribus Imperatorum Romanorum excerpta ex Libris Sex. Aw. Victoris. The four have generally been published together under the name Historia Romano, but the fourth piece is a rfchau/f of the third. The second was first printed at Naples about 1472, in 4to, under the name of Pliny (the younger), and the fourth at Strassburg in 1 505. The first edition of all four was that of A. Schottus (8vo, Ant- werp, 1579). The most recent edition of the De Caesaribus is by F. Pichlmayr (Munich, 1892). VICTOR AMEDEUS II.— VICTOR EMMANUEL II. VICTOR AMEDEUS II. (1666-1732), duke of Savoy and first king of Sardinia, was the son of Duke Charles Emmanuel II. and Jeanne de Savoie-Nemours. Born at Turin, he lost his father in 1675, and spent his youth under the regency of his mother, known as " Madama Reale " (madame royale), an able but ambitious and overbearing woman. He assumed the reins of government at the age of sixteen, and married Princess Anne, daughter of Philip of Orleans and Henrietta of England, and niece of Louis XIV., king of France. That sovereign was determined to dominate the young duke of Savoy, who from the first resented the monarch's insolent bearing. In 1685 Victor was forced by Louis to persecute his Waldensian subjects, because they had given shelter to the French Huguenot refugees after the revoca- tion of the edict of Nantes. With the unwelcome help of a French army under Marshal Catinat, he invaded the Waldensian valleys, and after a difficult campaign, characterized by great cruelty, he subjugated them. Nevertheless, he became more anxious than ever to emancipate himself from French thraldom, and his first sign of independence was his visit to Venice in 1687, where he conferred on political affairs with Prince Eugene of Savoy and other personages, without consulting Louis. About this time the duke plunged into a whirl of dissipation, and chose the beautiful but unscrupulous Contessa di Verrua as bis mistress, neglecting his faithful and devoted wife. Louis having dis- covered Victor's intrigues with the emperor, tried to precipitate hostilities by demanding his participation in a second expedi- tion against the Waldensians. The duke unwillingly complied, but when the French entered Piedmont and demanded the cession of the fortresses of Turin and Verrua, he refused, and while still professing to negotiate with Louis, joined the league of Austria, Spain and Venice. War was declared in 1690, but at the battle of Staffarda (i8th of August 1691), Victor, in spite of his great courage and skill, was defeated by the French under Catinat. Other reverses followed, but the attack on Cuneo was heroically repulsed by the citizens. The war dragged on with varying success, until the severe defeat of the allies at Marsiglia and their selfish neglect of Victor's interests induced him to open negotiations with France once more. Louis agreed to restore most of the fortresses he had captured and to make other concessions; a treaty was signed in 1696, and Victor appointed generalissimo of the Franco-Piedmontese forces in Italy operating against the imperialists. By the treaty of Ryswick (1697) a general peace was concluded. On the out- break of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1 700 the duke was again on the French side, but the insolence of Louis and of Philip V. of Spain towards him induced him, at the end of the two years for which he had bound himself to them, to go over to the imperialists (1704). At first the French were successful and captured several Piedmontese fortresses, but after besieging Turin, which was skilfully defended by the duke, for several months, they were completely defeated by Victor and Prince Eugene of Savoy (1706), and eventually driven out of the other towns they had captured. By the peace of Utrecht (1713) the Powers conferred the kingdom of Sicily on Victor Amedeus, whose government proved efficient and at first popular. But after a brief stay in the island he returned to Piedmont and left his new possessions to a viceroy, which caused much discontent among the Sicilians; and when the Quadruple Alliance decreed in 1718 that Sicily should be restored to Spain, Victor was unable to offer any opposition, and had to content himself with receiving Sardinia in exchange. The last years of Victor Amedeus's life were saddened by domestic troubles. In 1715 his eldest son died, and hi 1728 he lost his queen. After her death, much against the advice of his remaining son and heir, Carlino (afterwards Charles Emmanuel III.), he married the Contessa di San Sebastiano, whom he created Marchesa di Spigno, abdicated the crown and retired to Chambery to end his days (1730). But his second wife, an ambitious intrigante, soon tired of her quiet life, and induced him to return to Turin and attempt to revoke his abdication. This led to a quarrel with his son, who with quite unnecessary harshness, partly due to his minister the Marquis d'Ormea, arrested his father and confined him at Rivoli and later at Mon- calieri; there Victor, overwhelmed with sorrow, died on the 3ist of October 1732. Victor Amedeus, although accused not without reason of bad faith in his diplomatic dealings and of cruelty, was undoubtedly a great soldier and a still greater administrator. He not only- won for his country a high place in the council of nations, but he doubled its revenues and increased its prosperity and industries, and he also emphasized its character as an Italian state. His infidelity to his wife and his harshness towards his son Carlino are blemishes on a splendid career, but he more than expiated these faults by his tragic end. See D. Carutvi, Storia del Regno di Vittorio Amedeo II. (Turin, 1856); and E. Parri, Vittorio Amedio II. ed Eugenia di Savoia (Milan, I888J. The Marchesa Vitelleschi's work. The Romance of Savoy (2 vols., London, 1905), is based on original authorities, and is the most complete monograph on the subject. VICTOR EMMANUEL II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia and first king of Italy, was born at Turin on the i4th of March 1820, and was the son of Charles Albert, prince of Savoy- Carignano, who became king of Sardinia in 1831. Brought up in the bigoted and chilling atmosphere of the Piedmontese court, he received a rigid military and religious training, but little intellectual education. In 1842 he was married to Adelaide, daughter of the Austrian Archduke Rainer, as the king desired at that time to improve his relations with Austria. The young couple led a somewhat dreary life, hidebound by court etiquette, which Victor Emmanuel hated. He played no part in politics during his father's lifetime, but took an active interest in military matters. When the war with Austria broke out in 1848, he was delighted at the prospect of distinguishing himself, and was given the command of a division. At Goito he was slightly wounded and displayed great bravery, and after Custozza defended the rearguard to the last (25th of July 1848). In the campaign of March 1849 he commanded the same division. After the disastrous defeat at Novara on the 23rd of March, Charles Albert, having rejected the peace terms offered by the Austrian field-marshal Radetzky, abdicated in favour of his son, and withdrew to a monastery in Portugal, where he died a few months later. Victor Emmanuel repaired to Radetzky's camp, where he was received with every sign of respect, and the field-marshal offered not only to waive the claim that Austria should occupy a part of Piedmont, but to give him an extension of territory, provided he revoked the constitution and substituted the old blue Piedmontese flag for the Italian tricolour, which savoured too much of revolution. But although the young king had not yet sworn to observe the charter, and in any case the other Italian princes had all violated their constitutional promises, he rejected the offer. Consequently he had to agree to the temporary Austrian occupation of the territory comprised within the Po, the Sesia and the Ticino, and of half the citadel of Alessandria, to disband his Lombard, Polish and Hungarian volunteers, and to withdraw his fleet from the Adriatic; but he secured an amnesty for all the Lom- bards compromised in the recent revolution, having even threatened to go to war again if it were not granted. It was the maintenance of the constitution in the face of the over- whelming tide of reaction that established his position as the champion of Italian freedom and earned him the sobriquet of Re Galanluomo (the honest king). But the task entrusted to him was a most difficult one: the army disorganized, the treasury empty, the people despondent if not actively disloyal, and he himself reviled, misunderstood, and, like his father, accused of treachery. Parliament having rejected the peace treaty, the king dissolved the assembly; in the famous pro- clamation from Moncalieri he appealed to the people's loyalty, and the new Chamber ratified the treaty (gth of January 1850). This same year, Cavour (q.v.) was appointed minister of agri- culture in D'Azeglio's cabinet, and in 1852, after the fall of the latter, he became prime minister, a post which with brief in- terruptions he held until his death. In having Cavour as his chief adviser Victor Emmanuel was VICTOR EMMANUEL II. 27 most fortunate, and but for that statesman's astounding diplomatic genius the liberation of Italy would have been impossible. The years from 1850 to 1859 were devoted to restor- ing the shattered finances of Sardinia, reorganizing the army and modernizing the antiquated institutions of the kingdom. Among other reforms the abolition of the joro ecclesiastico (privileged ecclesiastical courts) brought down a storm of hostility from the Church both on the king and on Cavour, but both remained firm in sustaining the prerogatives of the civil power. When the Crimean War broke out, the king strongly supported Cavour in the proposal that Piedmont should join France and England against Russia so as to secure a place in the councils of the great Powers and establish a claim on them for eventual assistance in Italian affairs (1854). The following year Victor Emmanuel was stricken with a threefold family misfortune; for his mother, the Queen Dowager Maria Teresa, his wife, Queen Adelaide, and his brother Ferdinand, duke of Genoa, died within a few weeks of each other. The clerical party were not slow to point to this circumstance as a judgment on the king for what they deemed his sacrilegious policy. At the end of 1855, while the allied troops were still in the East, Victor Emmanuel visited Paris and London, where he was warmly welcomed by the emperor Napoleon III. and Queen Victoria, as well as by the peoples of the two countries. Victor Emmanuel's object now was the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy and the expansion of Piedmont into a North Italian kingdom, but he did not regard the idea of Italian unity as coming within the sphere of practical politics for the time being, although a movement to that end was already beginning to gain ground. He was in communication with some of the conspirators, especially with La Farina, the leader of the Societ^ Nazionale, an association the object of which was to unite Italy under the king of Sardinia, and he even com- municated with Mazzini and the republicans, both in Italy and abroad, whenever he thought that they could help in the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy. In 1859 Cavour's diplomacy succeeded in drawing Napoleon III. into an alliance against Austria, although the king had to agree to the cession of Savoy and possibly of Nice and to the marriage of his daughter Clothilde to Prince Napoleon. These conditions were very painful to him, for Savoy was the hereditary home of his family, and he was greatly attached to Princess Clothilde and disliked the idea of marrying her to a man who gave little promise of proving a good husband. But he was always ready to sacrifice his own personal feelings for the good of his country. He had an interview with Garibaldi and appointed him commander of the newly raised volunteer corps, the Cacciatori delle Alpi. Even then Napoleon would not decide on immediate hostilities, and it required all Cavour's genius to bring him to the point and lead Austria into a declaration of war (April 1859). Although the Franco-Sardinian forces were successful in the field, Napoleon, fearing an attack by Prussia and disliking the idea of a too powerful Italian kingdom on the frontiers of France, insisted on making peace with Austria, while Venetia still remained to be freed. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he could not continue the campaign alone, agreed most unwillingly to the armistice of Villafranca. When Cavour heard the news he hurried to the king's headquarters at Monzambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful language implored him to continue the campaign at all hazards, relying on his own army and the revolutionary movement in the rest of Italy. But the king on this occasion showed more political insight than his great minister and saw that by adopting the heroic course proposed by the latter he ran the risk of finding Napoleon on the side of the enemy, whereas by waiting all might be gained. Cavour resigned office, and by the peace of Zurich (xoth of November 1859) Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont but retained Venetia; the central Italian princes who had been deposed by the revolu- tion were to be reinstated, and Italy formed into a confederation of independent states. But this solution was most unacceptable to Italian public opinion, and both the king and Cavour deter- mined -to assist the people in preventing its realization, and consequently entered into secret relations with the revolutionary governments of Tuscany, the duchies and of Romagna. As a result of the events of 1859-60, those provinces were all annexed to Piedmont, and when Garibaldi decided on the Sicilian expedition Victor Emmanuel assisted him in various ways. He had considerable influence with Garibaldi, who, although in theory a republican, was greatly attached to the bluff soldier-king, and on several occasions restrained him from too foolhardy courses. When Garibaldi having conquered Sicily was determined to invade the mainland possessions of Francis II. of Naples, Victor Emmanuel foreseeing international difficulties wrote to the chief of the red shirts asking him not to cross the Straits; but Garibaldi, although acting throughout in the name of His Majesty, refused to obey and continued his victorious march, for he knew that the king's letter was dictated by diplomatic considerations rather than by his own personal desire. Then, on Cavour's advice, King Victor decided to participate himself in the occupation of Neapolitan territory, lest Garibaldi's entourage should proclaim the republic or create anarchy. When he accepted the annexation of Romagna offered by the inhabitants themselves the pope excommunicated him, but, although a devout Catholic, he continued in his course undeterred by ecclesiastical thunders, and led his army in person through the Papal States, occupying the Marches and Umbria, to Naples. On the 29th of October he met Garibaldi, who handed over his conquests to the king. The whole peninsula, except Rome and Venice, was now annexed to Piedmont, and on the i8th of February 1861 the parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of united Italy. The next few years were occupied with preparations for the liberation of Venice, and the king corresponded with Mazzini, Klapka, Tiirr and other conspirators against Austria in Venetia itself, Hungary, Poland and elsewhere, keeping his activity secret even from his own ministers. The alliance with Prussia and the war with Austria of 1866, although fortune did not favour Italian arms, added Venetia to his dominions. The Roman question yet remained unsolved, for Napoleon, although he had assisted Piedmont in 1859 and had reluctantly consented to the annexation of the central and southern provinces, and of part of the Papal States, would not permit Rome to be occupied, and maintained a French garrison there to protect the pope. When war with Prussia appeared imminent he tried to obtain Italian assistance, and Victor Emmanuel was very anxious to fly to the assistance of the man who had helped him to expel the Austrians from Italy, but he could not do so unless Napoleon gave him a free hand in Rome. This the emperor would not do until it was too late. Even after the first French defeats the chivalrous king, in spite of the advice of his more prudent councillors, wished to go to the rescue, and asked Thiers, the French representative who was imploring him for help, if with 100,000 Italian troops France could be saved, but Thiers could give no such undertaking and Italy remained neutral. On the 2oth of September 1870, the French troops having been' withdrawn, the Italian army entered Rome, and on the 2nd of July 1871 Victor Emmanuel made his solemn entry into the Eternal City, which then be- came the capital of Italy. The pope refused to recognize the new kingdom even before the occupation of Rome, and the latter event rendered relations between church and state for many years extremely delicate. The king himself was anxious to be reconciled with the Vatican, but the pope, or rather his entourage, rejected all overtures, and the two sovereigns dwelt side by side in Rome until death without ever meeting. Victor Emmanuel devoted himself to his duties as a constitutional king with great conscientious- ness, but he took more interest in foreign than in domestic politics and contributed not a little to improving Italy's inter- national position. In 1873 he visited the emperor Francis Joseph at Vienna and the emperor William at Berlin. He received an enthusiastic welcome in both capitals, but the visit to Vienna was never returned in Rome, for Francis Joseph as a Catholic sovereign feared to offend the pope, a circumstance VICTOR EMMANUEL III.— VICTORIA, QUEEN which served to embitter Austro-Italian relations. On the 9th of January 1878, Victor Emmanuel died of fever in Rome, and was buried in the Pantheon. He was succeeded by his son Humbert. Bluff, hearty, good-natured and simple in his habits, yet he always had a high idea of his own kingly dignity, and his really statesmanlike qualities often surprised foreign diplomats, who were deceived by his homely exterior. As a soldier he was very brave, but he did not show great qualities as a military leader in the campaign of 1866. He was a keen sportsman and would spend many days at a time pursuing chamois or steinbock in the Alpine fastnesses of Piedmont with nothing but bread and cheese to eat. He always used the dialect of Piedmont when conversing with natives of that country, and he had a vast fund of humorous anecdotes and proverbs with which to illustrate his arguments. He had a great weakness for female society, and kept several mistresses; one of them, the beautiful Rosa Vercellone, he created Countess Mirafiori e Fontanafredda and married morganatically in 1869; she bore him one son. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides the general works on Italy and Savoy see V. Bersezio, // Regno di Vitlorio Emanuele II. (8 vols., Turin, 1869); G. Massari, La Vila ed il Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II. (2 vols., Milan, 1878); N. Bianchi, Storia della Diplomazia Europea in Italia (8 vols., Turin, 1865). (L. V.*) VICTOR EMMANUEL III. (1860- ), king of Italy, son of King Humbert I. and Queen Margherita of Savoy, was born at Naples on the nth of November 1869. Carefully educated by his mother and under the direction of Colonel Osio, he outgrew the weakness of his childhood and became expert in horsemanship and military exercises. Entering the army at an early age he passed through the various grades and, soon after attaining his majority, was appointed to the command of the Florence Army Corps. During frequent journeys to Germany he enlarged his military experience, and upon his appointment to the command of the Naples Army Corps in 1896 displayed sound military and administrative capacity. A keen huntsman, and passionately fond of the sea, he extended his yachting and hunting excursions as far east as Syria and as far north as Spitsbergen. As representative of King Humbert he attended the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II. in 1896, the Victorian Jubilee celebrations of 1897, and the festivities connected with the coming of age of the German crown prince in 1900. The prince's intellectual and artistic leanings were well known; in particular, he has made a magnifi- cent collection of historic Italian coins, on which subject he became a recognized authority. At the time of the assassina- tion of his father, King Humbert (the 29th of July 1900), he was returning from a yachting cruise in the eastern Mediterranean. Landing at Reggio di Calabria he hastened to Monza, where he conducted with firmness and tact the preparations for the burial of King Humbert and for his own formal accession, which took place on the gth and nth of August 1900. On the 24th of October 1896 he married Princess Elena of Montenegro, who, on the ist of June 1901, bore him a daughter named Yolanda Margherita, on the I9th of November 1902 a second daughter named Mafalda, and on the isth of September 1904 a son, Prince Humbert. VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA], Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India (1819-1901), only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria Mary Louisa of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (widow of Prince Emich Karl of Lein- ingen, by whom she already had two children), was born at Kensington Palace on the 24th of May 1819. The duke and duchess of Kent had been living at Amorbach, in Franconia, owing to their straitened circumstances, but they returned to London on purpose that (heir child should be born in England. In 1817 the death of Princess Charlotte (only child of the prince regent, afterwards George IV., and wife of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians), had left the ultimate succession to the throne of England, in the younger generation, so uncertain that the three unmarried sons of George III., the dukes of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), Kent and Cambridge, all married in the following year, the two elder on the same day. All three had children, but the duke of Clarence's two baby daughters died in infancy, in 1819 and 1821; and the duke of Cambridge's son George, born on the 26th of March 1819, was only two months old when the birth of the duke of Kent's daughter put her before him in the succession. The question as to what name the child should bear was not settled without bickerings. The duke of Kent wished her to be christened Elizabeth, and the prince regent wanted Georgiana, while the tsar Alexander L, who had promised to stand sponsor, stipulated for Alexandrina. The baptism was performed in a drawing-room of Kensington Palace on the 24th of June by Dr Manners Sutton, archbishop of Canterbury. The prince regent, who was present, named the child Alexandrina; then, being requested by the duke of Kent to give a second name, he said, rather abruptly, " Let her be called Victoria, after her mother, but this name must come after the other." 1 Six weeks after her christening the princess was vaccinated, this being the first occasion on which a member of the royal family underwent the operation. In January 1820 the duke of Kent died, five days before his brother succeeded to the throne as George IV. The widowed duchess of Kent was now a woman of thirty-four, handsome, homely, a German at heart, and with little liking for English ways. But she was a woman of experience, and shrewd; and fortunately she had a safe and affectionate adviser in her brother, Prince Leopold of Coburg, afterwards (1831) king of the Belgians, who as the husband of the late Princess Charlotte had once been a prospective prince consort of England. His former doctor and private secretary, Baron Stockmar (q.v.), a man of encyclopaedic information and remarkable judgment, who had given special attention to the problems of a sovereign's position in England, was afterwards to play an important r61e in Queen Victoria's life; and Leopold himself took a fatherly interest in the young princess's education, and contributed some thousands of pounds annually to the duchess of Kent's income. Prince Leopold still lived at this time at Claremont, where Princess Charlotte had died, and this became the duchess of Kent's occasional English home; but she was much addicted to travelling, and spent several months every year in visits to watering-places. It was said at court that she liked the demonstrative homage of crowds; but she had good reason to fear lest her child should be taken away from her to be educated according to the views of George IV. Between the king and his sister-in-law there was little love, and when the death of the duke of Clarence's second infant daughter Elizabeth in 1821 made it pretty certain that Princess Victoria would eventually become queen, the duchess felt that the king might possibly obtain the support of his ministers if he insisted that the future sovereign should be brought up under masters and mistresses designated by himself. The little princess could not have received a better education than that which was given her under Prince Leopold's direction. Her uncle considered that she ought to be kept as long as possible from the knowledge of her position, which might raise a large growth of pride or vanity in her and make her un- manageable; so Victoria was twelve years old before she knew that she was to wear a crown. Until she became queen she never slept a night away from her mother's room, and she was not allowed to converse with any grown-up person, friend, tutor or servant without the duchess of Kent or the Baroness Lehzen, her private governess, being present. Louise Lehzen, a native of Coburg, had come to England as governess to the Princess Fecdore of Leiningen, the duchess of Kent's daughter 1 The question of her name, as that of one who was to be queen, remained even up to her accession to the throne a much-debated one. In August 1831, in a discussion in parliament upon a grant to the duchess of Kent, Sir M. W. Ridley suggested changing it to Elizabeth as "more accordant to the feelings of the people"; and the idea o_f a change seems to have been powerfully supported. In 1836 William IV. approved of a proposal to change it to Charlotte; but, to the princess's own delight, it was given u'p. VICTORIA, QUEEN 29 by her first husband, and she became teacher to the Princess Victoria when the latter was five years old. George IV. in 1827 made her a baroness of Hanover, and she continued as lady-in- attendance after the duchess of Northumberland was appointed official governess in 1830, but actually performed the functions first of governess and then of private secretary till 1842, when she left the court and returned to Germany, where she died in 1870. The Rev. George Davys, afterwards bishop of Peter- borough, taught the princess Latin; Mr J. B. Sale, music; Mr Westall, history; and Mr Thomas Steward, the writing master of Westminster School, instructed her in penmanship. In 1830 George IV. died, and the duke of York (George III.'s second son) having died childless in 1827, the duke of Clarence became king as William IV. Princess Victoria now became the direct heir to the throne. William IV. cherished affectionate feelings towards his niece; unfortunately he took offence at the duchess of Kent for declining to let her child come and live at his court for several months in each year, and through the whole of his reign there was strife between the two; and Prince Leopold was no longer in England to act as peacemaker. In the early hours of the 2oth of June 1837, William IV. died. His thoughts had dwelt often on his niece, and he repeatedly said that he was sure she would be " a good woman and a good queen. It will touch every sailor's heart to have a girl queen to fight for. They'll be tattooing her face on their arms, and I'll be bound they'll all think she was christened after Nelson's ship." Dr Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, and the marquis of Conyngham, bearing the news of the king's death, started in a landau with four horses for Kensington, which they reached at five o'clock. Their servants rang, knocked and thumped; and when at last admittance was gained, the primate and the marquis were shown into a lower room and there left to wait. Presently a maid appeared and said that the Princess Victoria was " in a sweet sleep and could not be disturbed." Dr Howley, who was nothing if not pompous, answered that he had come on state business, to which everything, even sleep, must give place. The princess was accordingly roused, and quickly came downstairs in a dressing-gown, her fair hair flowing loose over her shoulders. Her own account of this interview, written the same day in her journal (Letters, i. p. 97), shows her to have been quite prepared. The privy council assembled at Kensington in the morning; and the usual oaths were administered to the queen by Lord Chancellor Cottenham, after which all present did homage. There was a touching incident when the queen's uncles, the dukes of Cumberland and Sussex, two old men, came forward to perform their obeisance. The queen blushed, and descending from her throne, kissed them both, without allowing them to kneel. By the death of William IV., the duke of Cumberland had become King Ernest of Hanover, and immediately after the ceremony he made haste to reach his kingdom. Had Queen Victoria died without issue, this prince, who was arro- gant, ill-tempered and rash, would have become king of Great Britain; and, as nothing but mischief could have resulted from this, the young queen's life became very precious in the sight of her people. She, of course, retained the late king's ministers in their offices, and it was under Lord Melbourne's direction that the privy council drew up their declaration to the kingdom. This document described the queen as Alexandrina Victoria, and all the peers who subscribed the roll in the House of Lords on the 2oth of June swore allegiance to her under those names. It was not till the following day that the sovereign's style was altered to Victoria simply, and this necessitated the issuing of a new declaration and a re-signing of the peers' roll. The public proclamation of the queen took place on the 2istatSt James's Palace with great pomp. The queen opened her first parliament in person, and in a well-written speech, which she read with much feeling, adverted to her youth and to the necessity which existed for her being guided by enlightened advisers. When both houses had voted loyal addresses, the question of the Civil List was considered, and a week or two later a message was brought to parliament requesting an increase of the grant formerly made to the duchess of Kent. Government recommended an addition of £30,000 a year, which was voted, and before the close of the year a Civil List Bill was passed, settling £385,000 a year on the queen. The duchess of Kent and her brothers, King Leopold and the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, had always hoped to arrange that the queen should marry her cousin, Albert (q.v.) of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, and the prince himself had been made acquainted with this plan from his earliest years. In 1836 Prince Albert, who was born in the same year as his future wife, had come on a visit to England with his father and with his brother, Prince Ernest, and his handsome face, gentle disposition and playful humour had produced a favourable impression on the princess. The duchess of Kent had communicated her projects to Lord Mel- bourne, and they were known to many other statesmen, and to persons in society; but the gossip of drawing-rooms during the years 1837-38 continually represented that the young queen had fallen in love with Prince This or Lord That, and the more imaginative babblers hinted at post-chaises waiting outside Ken- sington Gardens in the night, private marriages and so forth. The coronation took place on the 28th of June 1838. No more touching ceremony of the kind had ever been performed in Westminster Abbey. Anne was a middle-aged married woman at the time of her coronation; she waddled and wheezed, and made no majestic appearance upon her throne. Mary was odious to her Protestant subjects, Eliza- beth to those of the unreformed religion, and both these queens succeeded to the crown in times of general sadness; but the youthful Queen Victoria had no enemies except a few Chartists, and the land was peaceful and prosperous when she began to reign over it. The cost of George IV. 's coronation amounted to £240,000; that of William IV. had amounted to £50,000 only; and in asking £70,000 the government had judged that things could be done with suitable luxury, but without waste. The traditional banquet in Westminster Hall, with the throwing down of the glove by the king's champion in armour, had been dispensed with at the coronation of William IV., and it was resolved not to revive it. But it was arranged that the sove- reign's procession to the abbey through the streets should be made a finer show than on previous occasions; and it drew to London 400,000 country visitors. Three ambassadors for different reasons became objects of great interest on the occasion. Marshal Soult, Wellington's old foe, received a hearty popular welcome as a military hero; Prince Esterhazy, who represented Austria, dazzled society by his Magyar uniform, which was encrusted all over, even to the boots, with pearls and diamonds; while the Turkish ambassador, Sarim Effendi, caused much diversion by his bewilderment. He was so wonder-struck that he could not walk to his place, but stood as if he had lost his senses, and kept muttering, " All this for a woman ! " Within a year the court was brought into sudden disfavour with the country by two events of unequal importance, but both exciting. The first was the case of Lady Flora Hastings, nt In February 1839 this young lady, a daughter of the " Bed- marquis of Hastings, and a maid of honour to the duchess of Kent, was accused by certain ladies of the bedchamber of immoral conduct. The charge having been laid before Lord Melbourne, he communicated it to Sir James Clark, the queen's physician, and the result was that Lady Flora was subjected to the indignity of a medical examination, which, while it cleared her character, seriously affected her health. In fact, she died in the following July, and it was then discovered that the physical appearances which first provoked suspicion against her had been due to enlargement of the liver. The queen's conduct towards Lady Flora was kind and sisterly from the beginning to the end of this painful business; but the scandal was made public through some indignant letters which the marchioness of Hastings addressed to Lord Melbourne pray- ing for the punishment of her daughter's traducers, and the general opinion was that Lady Flora had been grossly treated at the instigation of some private court enemies. While the agitation about the affair was yet unappeased, the political chamber Plot." VICTORIA, QUEEN crisis known as the " Bedchamber Plot " occurred. The Whig ministry had introduced a bill suspending the Constitution of Jamaica because the Assembly in that colony had refused to adopt the Prisons Act passed by the Imperial Legislature. Sir Robert Peel moved an amendment, which, on a division (6th May), was defeated by a majority of five only in a house of 583, and ministers thereupon resigned. The duke of Wellington was first sent for, but he advised that the task of forming an administration should be entrusted to Sir Robert Peel. Sir Robert was ready to form a cabinet in which the duke of Welling- ton, Lords Lyndhurst, Aberdeen and Stanley, and Sir James Graham would have served; but he stipulated that the mistress of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber appointed by the Whig administration should be removed, and to this the queen would not consent. On the loth of May she wrote curtly that the course proposed by Sir Robert Peel was contrary to usage and repugnant to her feelings; the Tory leader then had to inform the House of Commons that, having failed to obtain the proof which he desired of her majesty's confidence, it was im- possible for him to accept office. The ladies of the bedchamber were so unpopular in consequence of their behaviour to Lady Flora Hastings that the public took alarm at the notion that the queen had fallen into the hands of an intriguing coterie; and Lord Melbourne, who was accused of wishing to rule on the strength of court favour, resumed office with diminished prestige. The Tories thus felt aggrieved; and the Chartists were so prompt to make political capital out of the affair that large numbers were added to their ranks. On the i4th of June Mr Attwood, M.P. for Birmingham, presented to the House of Commons a Chartist petition alleged to have been signed by 1,280,000 people. It was a cylinder of parchment of about the diameter of a coach- wheel, and was literally rolled up on the floor of the house. On the day after this curious document had furnished both amuse- ment and uneasiness to the Commons, a woman, describing herself as Sophia Elizabeth Guelph Sims, made application at the Mansion House for advice and assistance to prove herself the lawful child of George IV. and Mrs Fitzherbert; and this incident, trumpery as it was, added fuel to the disloyal flame then raging. Going in state to Ascot the queen was hissed by some ladies as her carriage drove on to the course, and two peeresses, one of them a Tory duchess, were openly accused of this unseemly act. Meanwhile some monster Chartist demon- strations were being organized, and they commenced on the 4th of July with riots at Birmingham. It was an untoward coinci- dence that Lady Flora Hastings died on the 5th of July, for though she repeated on her deathbed, and wished it to be published, that the queen had taken no part whatever in the proceedings which had shortened her life, it was remarked that the ladies who were believed to have persecuted her still retained the sovereign's favour. The riots at Birmingham lasted ten days, and had to be put down by armed force. They were followed by others at Newcastle, Manchester, Bolton, Chester and Macclesfield. These troublous events had the effect of hastening the queen's marriage. Lord Melbourne ascertained that the queen's dis- The positions towards her cousin, Prince Albert, were un- seen's changed, and he advised King Leopold, through M. marriage, yan der Weyer, the Belgian minister, that the prince should come to England and press his suit. The prince arrived with his brother on a visit to Windsor on the loth of October 1839. On the I2th the queen wrote to King Leopold: " Albert's beauty is most striking, and he is so amiable and unaffected — in short, very fascinating." On the isth all was settled; and the queen wrote to her uncle, " I love him more than I can say." The queen's public announcement of her betrothal was enthusiastically received. But the royal lovers still had some parliamentary mortifications to undergo. The government proposed that Prince Albert should receive an annuity of £50,000, but an amendment of Colonel Sibthorp — a politician of no great repute — for making the annuity £30,000 was carried against ministers by 262 votes to 158, the Tories and Radicals going into the same lobby, and many ministerialists taking no part in the division. Prince Albert had not been described, in the queen's declaration to the privy council, as a Protestant prince; and Lord Palmerston was obliged to ask Baron Stockmar for assurance that Prince Albert did not belong to any sect of Protestants whose rules might prevent him from taking the Sacrament according to the ritual of the English Church. He got an answer couched in somewhat ironical terms to the effect that Protestantism owed its existence in a measure to the house of Saxony, from which the prince descended, seeing that this house and that of the landgrave of Hesse had stood quite alone against Europe in upholding Luther and his cause. Even after this certain High Churchmen held that a Lutheran was a " dissenter," and that the prince should be asked to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles. The queen was particularly concerned by the question of the prince's future status as an Englishman. It was impractic- able for him to receive the title of king consort; but the queen naturally desired that her husband should be placed by act of parliament in a position which would secure to him precedence, not only in England, but in foreign courts. Lord Melbourne sought to effect this by a clause introduced in a naturalization bill; but he found himself obliged to drop the clause, and to leave the queen to confer what precedence she pleased by letters-patent. This was a lame way out of the difficulty, for the queen could only confer precedence within her own realms, whereas an act of parliament bestowing the title of prince consort would have made the prince's right to rank above all royal imperial highnesses quite clear, and would have left no room for such disputes as afterwards occurred when foreign princes chose to treat Prince Albert as having mere courtesy rank in his wife's kingdom. The result of these political diffi- culties was to make the queen more than ever disgusted with the Tories. But there was no other flaw in the happiness of the marriage, which was solemnized on the loth of February 1840 in the Chapel Royal, St James's. It is interesting to note that the queen was dressed entirely in articles of British manu- facture. Her dress was of Spitalfields silk; her veil of Hcniton lace; her ribbons came from Coventry; even her gloves had been made in London of English kid — a novel thing in days when the French had a monopoly in the finer kinds of gloves. From the time of the queen's marriage the crown played an increasingly active part in the affairs of state. Previously, ministers had tried to spare the queen all disagree- able and fatiguing details. Lord Melbourne saw her every day, whether she was in London or at Windsor, and he used to explain all current business in a benevolent, chatty manner, which offered a pleasant contrast to the style of his two principal colleagues, Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston. A statesman of firmer mould than Lord Melbourne would hardly have succeeded so well as he did in making rough places smooth for Prince Albert. Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston were naturally jealous of the prince's interference — and of King Leopold's and Baron Stockmar's — in state affairs; but Lord Melbourne took the common-sense view that a husband will control his wife whether people wish it cr not. Ably advised by his private secretary, George Anson, and by Stockmar, the prince thus soon took the de facto place of the sovereign's private secretary, though he had no official status as such; and his system of classifying and annotating the queen's papers and letters resulted in the preservation of what the editors of the Letters of Queen Victoria (1907) describe as " probably the most extraordinary collection of state documents in the world " — those up to 1861 being contained in between 500 and 600 bound volumes at Windsor. To confer on Prince Albert every honour that the crown could bestow, and to let him make bis way gradually into public favour by his own tact, was the advice which Lord Melbourne gave; and the prince acted upon it so well, avoiding every appearance of intrusion, and treating men of all parties and degrees with urbanity, that within five months of his marriage he obtained a signal mark of the public confidence. In expectation of the queen becoming a mother, a bill was passed through parliament providing for the appointment of Prince Albert as sole regent in case the VICTORIA, QUEEN queen, after giving birth to a child, died before her son or daughter came of age. The Regency Bill had been hurried on in consequence of the attempt of a crazy pot-boy, Edward Oxford, to take the queen's . life. On loth June 1840, the queen and Prince Albert were driving up Constitution Hill in an open carriage, queea's when Oxford fired two pistols, the bullets from which Ufe- flew, it is said, close by the prince's head. He was arrested on the spot, and when his lodgings were searched a quantity of powder and shot was found, with the rules of a secret society, called " Young England," whose members were pledged to meet, " carrying swords and pistols and wearing crape masks." These discoveries raised the surmise that Oxford was the tool of a widespread Chartist conspiracy — or, as the Irish pretended, of a conspiracy of Orangemen to set the duke of Cumberland on the throne; and while these delusions were fresh, they threw well-disposed persons into a paroxysm of loyalty. Even the London street dogs, as Sydney Smith said, joined with O'Connell in barking " God save the Queen." Oxford seems to have been craving for notoriety; but it may be doubted whether the jury who tried him did right to pronounce his acquittal on the ground of insanity. He feigned madness at his trial, but during the forty years of his subsequent confinement at Bedlam he talked and acted like a rational being, and when he was at length released and sent to Australia he earned his living there as a house painter, and used to declare that he had never been mad at all. His acquittal was to be deprecated as establishing a dangerous precedent in regard to outrages on the sovereign. It was always Prince Albert's opinion that if Oxford had been flogged the attempt of Francis on the queen in 1842 and of Bean in the same year would never have been perpetrated. After the attempt of Bean — who was a hunchback, really insane — parliament passed a bill empowering judges to order whipping as a punishment for those who molested the queen; but some- how this salutary act was never enforced. In 1850 a half -pay officer, named Pate, assaulted the queen by striking her with a stick, and crushing her bonnet. He was sentenced to seven years' transportation; but the judge. Baron Alderson, excused him the flogging. In 1869 an Irish lad, O'Connor, was sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment and a whipping for presenting a pistol at the queen, with a petition, in St James's Park; but this time it was the queen herself who privately remitted the corporal punishment, and she even pushed clemency to the length of sending her aggressor to Australia at her own expense. The series of attempts on the queen was closed in 1882 by Maclean, who fired a pistol at her majesty as she was leaving the Great Western Railway station at Windsor. He, like Bean, 'was a genuine madman, and was relegated to Broadmoor. The birth of the princess royal, on the 2ist of November 1840, removing the unpopular King Ernest of Hanover from Birth tne Posit*011 °f heir-presumptive to the British crown, of the was a subject of loud congratulations to the people. princess A curious scare was occasioned at Buckingham Palace, nva7- when the little princess was a fortnight old, by the discovery of a boy named Joles concealed under a bed in the royal nursery. Jones had a mania for palace-breaking. Three times he effected a clandestine entry into the queen's residence, and twice he managed to spend several days there. By day he concealed himself in cupboards or under furniture, and by night he groped his way into the royal kitchen to eat whatever he could find. After his third capture, in March 1841, he coolly boasted that he had lain under a sofa, and listened to a private con- versation between the queen and Prince Albert. This third time he was not punished, but sent to sea, and turned out very well. The incident strengthened Prince Albert's hands in trying to carry out sundry domestic reforms which were being stoutly resisted by vested interests. The royal residences and grounds used to be under the control of four different officials — the lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the master of the horse and the commissioners of woods and forests. Baron Stockmar describing the confusion fostered by this state of things, said — ' The lord steward finds the fuel and lays the fire; the lord chamberlain lights it. The lord chamberlain provides the lamps; :he lord steward must clean, trim and light them. The inside cleaning of windows belongs to the lord chamberlain's depart- ment, but the outer parts must be attended to by the office of woods and forests, so that windows remain dirty unless the two departments can come to an understanding." It took Prince Albert four years of firmness and diplomacy sefore in 1845 he was able to bring the queen's home under the efficient control of a master of the household. At the general election of 1841 the Whigs returned in a minority of seventy-six, and Lord Melbourne was defeated on the Address and resigned. The queen was affected sir Robert to tears at parting with him; but the crisis had been Peer* tully expected and prepared for by confidential com- mlal*try- munications between Mr Anson and Sir Robert Peel, who now became prime minister (see Letters of Queen Victoria, I. 341 et seq.). The old difficulty as to the appointments to the royal household was tactfully removed, and Tory appoint- ments were made, which were agreeable both to the queen and to Peel. The only temporary embarrassment was the queen's continued private correspondence with Lord Melbourne, which led Stockmar to remonstrate with him; but Melbourne used his influence sensibly; moreover, he gradually dropped out of politics, and the queen got used to his not being indis- pensable. On Prince Albert's position the change had a marked effect, for in the absence of Melbourne the queen relied more particularly on his advice, and Peel himself at once dis- covered and recognized the prince's unusual charm and capacity. One of the Tory premier's first acts was to propose that a royal commission should be appointed to consider the best means for promoting art and science in the kingdom, and he nominated Prince Albert as president. The International Exhibition of 1851, the creation of the Museum and Science and Art Department at South Kensington, the founding of art schools and picture galleries all over the country, the spread of musical taste and the fostering of technical education may be attri- buted, more or less directly, to the commission of distinguished men which began its labours under Prince Albert's auspices. The queen's second child, the prince of Wales (see EDWARD VII.), was born on the gth of November 1841; and this event " filled the measure of the queen's domestic Birth of happiness," as she said in her speech from the throne the prince at the opening of the session of 1842. It is unnecessary 0/ '*'•*"• from this point onwards to go seriatim through the domestic history of the reign, which is given in the article ENGLISH HISTORY. At this time there was much political unrest at home, and serious difficulties abroad. As regards internal politics, it may be remarked that the queen and Prince Albert were much relieved when Peel, who had come in as the leader of the Protectionist party, adopted Free Trade and re- pealed the Corn Laws, for it closed a dangerous agitation which gave them much anxiety. When the country was in distress, the queen felt a womanly repugnance for festivities; and yet it was undesirable that the court should incur the The court reproach of living meanly to save money. There *atthe was a conversation between the queen and Sir Robert country. Peel on this subject in the early days of the Tory adminis- tration, and the queen talked of reducing her establishment in order that she might give away larger sums in charities. " I am afraid the people would only say that your majesty -was returning them change for their pounds in halfpence," answered Peel. " Your majesty is not perhaps aware that the most unpopular person in the parish is the relieving officer, and if the queen were to constitute herself a relieving officer for all the parishes in the kingdom she would find her money go a very little way, and she would provoke more grumbling than thanks." Peel added that a sovereign must do all things in order, not seeking praise for doing one particular thing well, but striving to be an example in all respects, even in dinner-giving. Meanwhile the year 1842 was ushered in by splendid ffites in honour of the king of Prussia, who held the prince of Wales at the font. In the spring there was a fancy-dress ball at Bucking- ham Palace, which remained memorable owing to the offence VICTORIA, QUEEN Tht queen'* tint rail- way journey. which it gave in France. Prince Albert was costumed as Edward III., the queen as Queen Philippa, and all the gentle- men of the court as knights of Poitiers. The French chose to view this as an unfriendly demonstration, and there was some talk of getting up a counter-ball in Paris, the duke of Orleans to figure as William the Conqueror. In June the queen took her first railway journey, travelling from Windsor to Paddington on the Great Western line. The master of the horse, whose business it was to provide for the queen's ordinary journeys by road, was much put out by this innovation. He marched into the station several hours before the start to inspect the engine, as he would have examined a steed; but greater merriment was occasioned by the queen's coachman, who insisted that, as a matter of form, he ought to make-believe to drive the engine. After some dispute, he was told that he might climb on to the pilot engine which was to precede the royal train; but his scarlet livery, white gloves and wig suffered so much from soot and sparks that he made no more fuss about his rights in after trips. The motion of the train was found to be so pleasant that the queen readily trusted herself to the railway for a longer journey a few weeks later, when she paid her first visit to Scotland. A report by Sir James Clark led to the queen's visiting Balmoral in 1848, and to the purchase of the Balmoral estate in 1852, and the queen's diary of hej journeys in Scotland shows what constant enjoyment she derived from her Highland home. Seven years before this the estate of Osborne had been pur- chased in the Isle of Wight, in order that the queen might have a home of her own. Windsor she considered too stately, and the Pavilion at Brighton too uncomfortable. The first stone of Osborne House was laid in 1845, and the royal family entered into possession in September 1846. In August 1843 the queen and Prince Albert paid a visit to King Louis Philippe at the chateau d'Eu. They sailed from Relations Southampton for Treport in a yacht, and, as it hap- pened to be raining hard when they embarked, the loyal members of the Southampton Corporation remem- bered Raleigh, and spread their robes on the ground for the queen to walk over. In 1844 Louis Philippe returned the visit by coming to Windsor. It was the first visit ever paid by a king of France to a sovereign of England, and Louis Philippe was much pleased at receiving the Order of the Garter. He said that he did not feel that he belonged to the " Club " of European sovereigns until he received this decoration. As the father of King Leopold of Belgium's con- sort, the queen was much interested in his visit, which went off with great success and goodwill. The tsar Nicholas had visited Windsor earlier that year, in which also Prince Alfred, who was to marry the tsar's grand-daughter, was born. In 1846 the affair of the " Spanish marriages " seriously troubled the relations between the United Kingdom and France. Louis Philippe and Guizot had planned the marriage of the duke of Montpensier with the infanta Louisa of Spain, younger sister of Queen Isabella, who, it was thought at the time, was not likely ever to have children. The intrigue was therefore one for placing a son of the French king on the Spanish throne. (See SPAIN, History.) As to Queen Victoria's intervention on this question and on others, these words, written by W. E. Gladstone in 1875, may be quoted: — " Although the admirable arrangements of the Constitution have now shielded the sovereign from personal responsibility, they have left ample scope for the exercise of direct and personal influence in the whole work of government. . . . The sovereign as compared with her ministers has, because she is the sovereign, the advantage of long experience, wide survey, elevated position and entire dis- connexion from the bias of party. Further, personal and domestic relations with the ruling families abroad give openings in delicate cases for saying more, and saying it at once more gently and more efficaciously, than could be ventured in the formal correspondence and rude contacts of government. We know with how much truth, fulness and decision, and with how much tact and delicacy, the queen, aided by Prince Albert, took a principal part on behalf of the nation in the painful question of the Spanish marriages." ' The year 1848, which shook so many continental thrones, with foreign *ove- ntgns. left that of the United Kingdom unhurt. Revolutions broke out in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, Naples, Venice, Munich, Dresden and Budapest. The queen and Prince Albert were affected in many private ways by the events abroad. Panic-stricken princes wrote to them for political assistance or pecuniary aid. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to Eng- land almost destitute, being smuggled over the Channel by the cleverness of the British consul at Havre, and the queen employed Sir Robert Peel as her intermediary for providing him with money to meet his immediate wants. Subsequently Clare- mont was assigned to the exiled royal family of France as a residence. During a few weeks of 1848 Prince William of Prussia (afterwards German emperor) found an asylum in England. In August 1849 the queen and Prince Albert, accompanied by the little princess royal and the prince of Wales, paid a visit to Ireland, landing at the Cove of Cork, which from that day was renamed Queenstown. The recep- tion was enthusiastic, and so was that at Dublin. " Such a day of jubilee," wrote The Times, " such a night of rejoicing, has never been beheld in the ancient capital of Ireland since first it arose on the banks of the Liffey." The queen was greatly pleased and touched. The project of estab- lishing a royal residence in Ireland was often mooted at this time, but the queen's advisers never urged it with sufficient warmth. There was no repugnance to the idea on the queen's part, but Sir Robert Peel thought unfavourably of it as an " empirical " plan, and the question of expense was always mooted as a serious consideration. There is no doubt that the absence of a royal residence in Ireland was felt as a slur upon the Irish people in certain circles. During these years the queen's family was rapidly becoming larger. Princess Alice (afterwards grand duchess of Hesse) was born on the 25th of April 1843; Prince Alfred (afterwards duke of Edinburgh and duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) on the 6th of August 1844; Princess Helena (Princess Christian) on the 25th of May 1846; Princess Louise (duchess of Argyll) on the i8th of March 1848; and Prince Arthur (duke of Con- naught) on the ist of May 1850. At the end of 1851 an important event took place, which ended a long-standing grievance on the part of the queen, in Lord Palmerston's dismissal from the office of foreign secre- The tary on account of his expressing approval of Louis queen and Napoleon's coup d'etat in Paris. The circumstances LonlPai- are of extreme interest for the light they throw on * the queen's estimate of her constitutional position and authority. Lord Palmerston had never been persona grata at court. His Anglo-Irish nature was not sympathetic with the somewhat formal character and German training of Prince Albert; and his views of ministerial independence were not at all in accord with those of the queen and her husband. The queen had more than once to remind her foreign secretary that his des- patches must be seen by her before they were sent out, and though Palmerston assented, the queen's complaint had to be continually repeated. She also protested to the prime minister (Lord John Russell) in 1848, 1849 and 1850, against various instances in which Palmerston had expressed his own personal opinions in matters of foreign affairs, without his despatches being properly approved either by herself or by the cabinet. Lord John Russell, who did not want to offend his popular and headstrong colleague, did his best to smooth things over; but the queen remained exceedingly sore, and tried hard to get Palmerston removed, without success. On the I2th of August 1850 the queen wrote to Lord John Russell the following important memorandum, which followed in its terms a private memorandum drawn up for her by Stockmar a few months earlier (Letters, ii. 282): — " With reference to the conversation about Lord Palmerston which the queen had with Lord John Russell the other day, and Lord Palmerston's disavowal that he ever intended any disrespect to her by the various neglects of which she has had so long and so often to complain, she thinks it right, in order to avoid any mis- takes for the future, to explain what it is she expects from the foreign secretary. VICTORIA, QUEEN 33 " She requires — " I. That he will distinctly state what he proposes in a given case, in order that the queen may know as distinctly to what she has given her royal sanction. " 2. Having given her sanction to a measure, that it be not arbitrarily altered or modified by the minister. Such an act she must regard as failing in sincerity to the crown, and justly to be visited by the exercise of her constitutional right of dismissing that minister. She expects to be kept informed of what passes between him and the foreign ministers, before important decisions are taken, based upon that intercourse; to receive the foreign despatches in good time, and to have the drafts for her approval sent her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their contents before they must be sent off. The queen thinks it best that Lord John Russell should show this letter to Lord Palmerston." Lord Palmerston took a copy of this letter, and promised to attend to its direction. But the queen thoroughly distrusted him, and in October 1851 his proposed reception of Kossuth nearly led to a crisis. Then finally she discovered (December 13) at the time of the coup d' Mai, that he had, of his own initiative, given assurances of approval to Count Walewski, which were not in accord with the views of the cabinet and with the " neutrality which had been enjoined " by the queen. This was too much even for Lord Jphn Russell, and after a short and decisive correspondence Lord Palmerston resigned the seals of office. The death of the duke of Wellington in 1852 deeply affected the queen. The duke had acquired a position above parties, Death of and was the trusted adviser of all statesmen and of the the duke court in emergencies. The queen sadly needed such ''''". a counsellor, for Prince Albert's position was one full Prfo°e of difficulty, and party malignity was continually Albert's putting wrong constructions upon the advice which he position, gave, and imputing to him advice which he did not give. During the Corn Law agitation offence was taken at his having attended a debate in the House of Commons, the Tories declaring that he had gone down to overawe the house in favour of Peel's measures. After Palmerston's en- forced resignation, there was a new and more absurd hubbub. A climax was reached when the difficulties with Russia arose which led to the Crimean War; the prince was accused by the peace party of wanting war, and by the war party of plotting surrender; and it came to be publicly rumoured that the queen's husband had been found conspiring against the state, and had been committed to the Tower. Some said that the queen had been arrested too, and the prince wrote to Stockman " Thou- sands of people surrounded the Tower to see the queen and me brought to it." This gave infinite pain to the queen, and at length she wrote to Lord Aberdeen on the subject. Eventually, on 3ist January 1854, Lord John Russell took occasion to deny most emphatically that Prince Albert interfered unduly with foreign affairs, and in both houses the statesmen of the two parties delivered feeling panegyrics of the prince, asserting at the same time his entire constitutional right to give private advice to the sovereign on matters of state. From this time it may be said that Prince Albert's position was established on a secure footing. He had declined (1850) to accept the post of commander-in-chief at the duke of Wellington's suggestion, and he always refused to let himself be placed in any situation which would have modified ever so slightly his proper relations with the queen. The queen was very anxious that he should receive the title of " King Consort," and that the crown should be jointly borne as it was by William III. and Mary; but he himself never spoke a word for this arrangement. It was only to please the queen that he consented to take the title of Prince Con- sort (by letters patent of June 25, 1857), and he only did this when it was manifest that statesmen of all parties approved the change. For the queen and royal family the Crimean War time was a very busy and exciting one. Her majesty personally super- The intended the committees of ladies who organized Crimean relief for the wounded; she helped Florence Nightin- **'"'• gale in raising bands of trained nurses; she visited the crippled soldiers in*"the hospitals, and it was through her resolute complaints of the utter insufficiency of the hospital accommodation that Netley1 Hospital was built. The xxvm. 2 distribution of medals to the soldiers and the institution of the Victoria Cross (February 1857) as a reward for individual instances of merit and valour must also be noted among the incidents which occupied the queen's time and thoughts. In 1855 the emperor and empress of the French visited the queen at Windsor Castle, and the same year her majesty and the prince consort paid a visit to Paris. The queen's family life was most happy. At Balmoral and Windsor the court lived in virtual privacy, and the queen and the prince consort saw much of their children. Count- The less entries in the queen's diaries testify to the anxious queen affection with which the progress of each little member aj>a btt of the household was watched. Two more children had been born to the royal pair, Prince Leopold (duke of Albany) on the 7th of April 1853, and on the I4th of April 1857 their last child, the princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg), bringing the royal family up to nine — four sons and five daughters. Less than a year after Princess Beatrice's birth the princess royal was married to Prince Frederick William of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick. The next marriage after the princess royal's was that of the princess Alice to Prince Louis (afterwards grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1862. In 1863 the prince of Wales married the princess Alex- andra of Denmark. In 1866 the princess Helena became the wife of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. In 1871 the princess Louise was wedded to the marquis of Lome, eldest son of the duke of Argyll. In 1874 Prince Alfred, duke of Edin- burgh, married Princess Marie Alexandrovna, only daughter of the tsar Alexander II. The duke of Connaught married in 1879 the princess Louise of Prussia, daughter of the soldier- prince Frederick Charles. In 1882 Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, wedded the princess Helen of Waldeck-Pyrmont. Finally came the marriage of Princess Beatrice in 1885 with Prince Henry of Battenberg. On the occasion of the coming of age of the queen's sons and the marriages of her daughters parliament made provision. The prince of Wales, in addition to the revenues of the duchy of Cornwall, had £40,000 a year, the princess £10,000, and an addition of £36,000 a year for their children was granted by parliament in 1889. The princess royal received a dowry of £40,000 and £8000 a year for life, the younger daughters £30,000 and £6000 a year each. The dukes of Edinburgh, Connaught and Albany were each voted an income of £15,000, and £10,000 on marrying. The dispute with the United States concerning the " Trent " affair of 1861 will always be memorable for the part played in its settlement by the queen and the prince consort. The In 1861 the accession of Abraham Lincoln to the presi- xmertcaa dency of the United States of America caused the clvU Wtr' Southern States of the Union to revolt, and the war began. During November trie British West India steamer "Trent " was boarded by a vessel of the Federal Navy, the " San Jacinto," and Messrs Slidell and Mason, commissioners for the Confederate States, who were on their way to England, were seized. The British government were on the point of demanding reparation for this act in a peremptory manner which could hardly have meant anything but war, but Prince Albert insisted on revising Lord Russell's despatch in a way which gave the American government an opportunity to concede the surrender of the prisoners without humiliation. The memorandum from the queen on this point was the prince consort's last political draft. The year 1861 was the saddest in the queen's life. On i6th March, her mother, the duchess of Kent, died, and on i4th December, while the dispute with America about the Death of " Trent " affair was yet unsettled, the prince consort theprtoce breathed his last at Windsor. His death left a void 00»»»rt- in the queen's life which nothing could ever fill. She built at Frogmore a magnificent mausoleum where she might be buried with him. Never again during her reign did the queen live in London, and Buckingham Palace was only used for occasional viiits of a few days. 34 VICTORIA, QUEEN At the time of the prince consort's death the prince of Wales was in his twenty-first year. He had spent several terms at Marriage e^cn °f tne two universities of Oxford and Cambridge, of the and he had already travelled much, having visited prince of most of Europe, Egypt and the United States. Wales, u^ marriage was solemnized at Windsor on the loth of March 1863. The queen witnessed the wedding from the private pew or box of St George's Chapel, Windsor, but she wore the deep mourning which she was never wholly to put off to the end of her life, and she took no part in the festivities of the wedding. In foreign imperial affairs, and in the adjustment of serious parliamentary difficulties, the queen's dynastic influence abroad and her position as above party at home, together with the respect due to her character, good sense and experience, still remained a powerful element in the British polity, as was shown Austro- on more than one occasion. In 1866 the Austro- Prussian Prussian War broke out , and many short-sighted people War. were tempted to side with France when, in 1867, Napoleon III. sought to obtain a " moral compensation " by laying a claim to the duchy of Luxemburg. A conference met in London, and the difficulty was settled by neutralizing the duchy and ordering the evacuation of the Prussian troops who kept garrison there. But this solution, which averted an imminent war, was only arrived at through Queen Victoria's personal intercession. In the words of a French writer — " The queen wrote both to the king of Prussia and to the emperor Napoleon. Her letter to the emperor, pervaded with the religious and almost mystic sentiments which predominate in the queen's mind, particularly since the death of Prince Albert, seems to have made a deep impression on the sovereign who, amid the struggles of politics, had never completely repudiated the philanthropic theories of his youth, and who, on the battlefield of Solferino, covered with the dead and wounded, was seized with an unspeakable horror of war." Moreover, Disraeli's two premierships (1868, 1874-80) did a good deal to give new encouragement to a right idea of the Disraeli constitutional function of the crown. Disraeli thought and that the queen ought to be a power in the state. His notion of duty— at once a loyal and chivalrous one — was that he was obliged to give the queen the best of his advice, but that the final decision in any course lay with her, and that once she had decided, he was bound, what- ever might be his own opinion, to stand up for her decision in public. The queen, not unnaturally, came to trust Disraeli implicitly, and she frequently showed her friendship for him. At his death she paid an exceptional tribute to his " dear and honoured memory " from his " grateful and affectionate sovereign and friend." To something like this position Lord Salisbury after 1886 succeeded. A somewhat different con- ception of the sovereign's functions was that of Disraeli's great rival, Gladstone, who, though his respect for the person and office of the sovereign was unbounded, not only expected all people, the queen included, to agree with him when he changed his mind, but to become suddenly enthusiastic about his new ideas. The queen consequently never felt safe with him. Nor did she like his manner — he spoke to her (she is believed to have said) as if she were a public meeting. The queen was opposed to the Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869) — the question which brought Gladstone to be premier — and though she yielded with good grace, Gladstone was fretful and astonished because she would not pretend to give a hearty assent to the measure. Through her secretary, General Grey, the queen pointed out that she had not concealed from Gladstone " how deeply she deplored " his having felt himself under the necessity of raising the question, and how appre- hensive she was of the possible consequences of the measure; but, when a general election had pronounced on the principle, when the bill had been carried through the House of Commons by unvarying majorities, she did not see what good could be gained by rejecting it in the Lords. Later, when through the skilful diplomacy of the primate the Lords had passed the second reading by a small but sufficient majority (179 to 146), and after amendments had been adopted, the queen herself wrote — " The queen ... is very sensible of the prudence and, at the same time, the anxiety for the welfare of the Irish Establishment which the archbishop has manifested during the course of the debates, and she will be very glad if the amendments which have been adopted at his suggestion lead to a settlement of the ques- tion; but to effect this, concessions, the queen believes, will have to be made on both sides. The queen must say that she cannot view without alarm possible consequences of another year of agita- tion on the Irish Church, and she would ask the archbishop seriously to consider, in case the concessions to which the government may agree should not go so far as he may himself wish, whether the postponement of the settlement for another year may not be likely to result in worse rather than in better terms for the Church. The queen trusts, therefore, that the archbishop will himself consider, and, as far as he can, endeavour to induce the others to consider, any concessions that may be offered by the House of Commons in the most conciliatory spirit." The correspondence of which this letter forms a part is one of the few published witnesses to the queen's careful and active interest in home politics during the latter half of her reign; but it is enough to prove how wise, how moderate and how steeped in the spirit of the Constitution she was. Another instance is that of the County Franchise and Redistribution Bills of 1884-85. There, again, a conflict between the two houses was imminent, and the queen's wish for a settlement had considerable weight in bringing about the curious but effective conference of the two parties, of which the first suggestion, it is believed, was due to Lord Randolph Churchill. In 1876 a bill was introduced into parliament for conferring on the queen the title of " Empress of India." It met with much opposition, and Disraeli was accused of ministering simply to a whim of the sovereign, whereas, in fact, the title was intended to impress the idea of British suzerainty forcibly upon the minds of the native princes, and upon the population of Hindustan. The prince of Wales's voyage to India in the winter of 1875-76 had brought the heir to the throne into personal relationship with the great Indian vassals of the British crown, and it was felt that a further demonstra- tion of the queen's interest in her magnificent dependency would confirm their loyalty. The queen's private life during the decade 1870-80 was one of quiet, broken only by one great sorrow when the Princess Alice died in 1878. In 1867 her majesty had started in author- ship by publishing The Early Days of the Prince fife™'' Consort, compiled by General Grey; in 1869 she gave to the world her interesting and simply written diary entitled Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands, and in 1874 appeared the first volume of The Life and Letters of the Prince Consort (2nd vol. in 1880), edited by Sir Theodore Martin. A second instalment of the Highland journal appeared in 1885. These literary occupations solaced the hours of a life which was mostly spent in privacy. A few trips to the Continent, in which the queen was always accompanied by her youngest daughter, the Princess Beatrice, brought a little variety into the home-life, and aided much in keeping up the good health which the queen enjoyed almost uninterruptedly. So far as public ceremonies were concerned, the prince and princess of Wales were now coming forward more and more to represent the royal family. People noticed meanwhile that the queen had taken a great affection for her Scottish man-servant, John Brown, who had been in her service since 1849; she made him her constant personal attendant, and looked on him more as a friend than as servant. When he died in 1883 the queen's grief was intense. From 1880 onwards Ireland almost monopolized the field of domestic politics. The queen was privately opposed to Gladstone's Home Rule policy; but she observed in public a constitutional reticence on the subject. In the year, however, of the Crimes Act 1887, an event took place which was of more intimate personal concern to the queen, and of more attractive import to the country and the empire at large. June 2oth was the fiftieth anniversary of her accession to ™biiee. the throne, and on the following day, for the second time in English history, a great Jubilee celebration was held to commemorate so happy an event. The country threw VICTORIA, QUEEN 35 itself into the celebration with unchecked enthusiasm; large sums of, money were everywhere subscribed; in every city, town and village something was done both in the way of rejoicing and in the way of establishing some permanent memorial of the event. In London the day itself was kept by a solemn service in Westminster Abbey, to which the queen went in state, surrounded by the most brilliant, royal, and princely escort that had ever accompanied a British sovereign, and cheered on her way by the applause of hundreds of thousands of her subjects. The queen had already paid a memorable visit to the East End, when she opened the People's Palace on the I4th of May. On the 2nd of July she reviewed at Buckingham Palace some 28,000 volunteers of London and the home counties. On the 4th of July she laid the foundation stone of the Imperial Institute, the building at Kensington to which, at the instance of the prince of Wales, it had been determined to devote the large sum of money collected as a Jubilee offering, and which was opened by the queen in 1893. On the pth of July the queen reviewed 60,000 men at Aldershot; and, last and chief of all, on the 23rd of July, one of the most brilliant days of a brilliant summer, she reviewed the fleet at Spithead. The year 1888 witnessed two events which greatly affected European history, and in a minor, though still marked, degree The queen the life of the English court. On the gth of March and the emperor William I. died at Berlin. He was Bismarck. succeeded by his son, the emperor Frederick III., regarded with special affection in England as the husband of the princess royal. But at the time he was suffering from a malignant disease of the throat, and he died on the 1 5th of June, being succeeded by his eldest son, the emperor William II., the grandson of the queen. Meanwhile Queen Victoria spent some weeks at Florence at the Villa Palmieri, and returned home by Darmstadt and Berlin. In spite of the illness of the emperor Frederick a certain number of court festivities were held in her honour, and she had long con- versations with Prince Bismarck, who was deeply impressed by her majesty's personality. Just before, the prince, who was still chancellor, had taken a very strong line with regard to a royal marriage in which the queen was keenly interested — the proposal that Prince Alexander of Battenberg, lately ruler of Bulgaria, and brother of the queen's son-in-law, Prince Henry, should marry Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of the emperor Frederick. Prince Bismarck, who had been anti- Battenberg from the beginning, vehemently opposed this mar- riage, on the ground that for reasons of state policy it would never do for a daughter of the German emperor to marry a prince who was personally disliked by the tsar. This affair causod no little agitation in royal circles, but in the end state reasons were allowed to prevail and the^chancellor had his way. The queen had borne so well the fatigue of the Jubilee that during the succeeding years she was encouraged to make some- what more frequent appearances among her subjects. In May 1888 she attended a performance of Sir Arthur Sullivan's Golden Legend at the Albert Hall, and in August she visited Glasgow to open the magnificent new municipal buildings, remaining for a couple of nights at Blythswood, the seat of Sir Archibald Campbell. Early in 1889 she received at Windsor a special embassy, which was the beginning of a memorable chapter of English history: two Matabele chiefs were sent by King Lobengula to present his respects to the " great White Queen," as to whose very existence, it was said, he had up till that time been sceptical. Soon afterwards her majesty went to Biarritz, and the occasion was made memorable by a visit which she paid to the queen-regent of Spain at San Sebas- tian, the only visit that an English reigning sovereign had ever paid to the Peninsula. The relations between the court and the country forme'd matter in 1889 for a somewhat sharp discussion in parliament and in the press. A royal message was brought by Mr W. H. Smith on the 2nd of July, expressing, on the one hand, the queen's desire to provide for Prince Albert Victor of Wales, and, on the other, informing the house of the intended marriage of the prince of Wales's daughter, the Princess Louise, to the earl (afterwards duke) of Fife. On the proposal of Mr Smith, seconded by Gladstone, a select committee meatary was appointed to consider these messages and to grant to report to the house as to the existing practice and as the prince to the principles to be adopted for the future. The ' evidence laid before the committee explained to the country for the first time the actual state of the royal income, and on the proposal of Gladstone, amending the proposal of the government, it was proposed to grant a fixed, addition of £36,000 per annum to the prince of Wales, out of which he should be expected to provide for his children without further application to the country. Effect was given to this proposal in a bill called " The Prince of Wales's Children's Bill," which was carried in spite of the persistent opposition of a small group of Radicals. In the spring of 1890 the queen visited Aix-les-Bains in the hope that the waters of that health resort might alleviate the rheumatism from which she was now frequently i/Mn-gi suffering. She returned as usual by way of Darmstadt, and shortly after her arrival at Windsor paid a visit to Baron Ferdinand Rothschild at Waddesdon Manor. In February she launched the battleship " Royal Sovereign " at Portsmouth; a week later she visited the Horse Show at Islington. Her annual spring visit to the South was this year paid to the little town of Grasse. At the beginning of 1892 a heavy blow fell upon the queen in the death of the prince of Wales's eldest son Albert Victor, duke of Clarence and Avondale. He had never been p^^ of a robust constitution, and after a little more than of the a week's illness from pneumonia following influenza, *"*« of he died at Sandringham. The pathos of his death Clmn was increased by the fact that only a short time before it had been announced that the prince was about to marry his second cousin, Princess May, daughter of the duke and duchess of Teck. The death of the young prince threw a gloom over the country, and caused the royal family to spend the year in such retirement as was possible. The queen this year paid a visit to Costebelle, and stayed there for some quiet weeks. In 1893 the country, on the expiration of the royal mourning, began to take a more than usual interest in the affairs of the royal family. On the igth of February the queen left home for a visit to Florence, and spent it in the Villa Palmieri. She was able to display remarkable energy in visiting the sights of the city, and even went as far afield as San Gimignano; and her visit had a notable effect in strengthening the bonds of friendship between the United Kingdom and the Italian people. On 28th April she arrived home, and a few days later the prince of Wales's second son, George, duke of York (see GEORGE V.), who by his brother's death had been left in the direct line of succession to the throne, was betrothed to the Princess May, the marriage being celebrated on 6th July in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace. In 1894 the queen stayed for some weeks at Florence, and on her return she stopped at Coburg to witness the marriage between two of her grandchildren, the grand duke of Hesse and the Princess Victoria Melita of Coburg. On the next day the emperor William officially announced the betrothal of the Cesarevitch (afterwards the tsar Nicholas II.) to the princess Alix of Hesse, a granddaughter whom the queen had always regarded with special affection. Aftei a few weeks in London the queen went northwards and stopped at Manchester, where she opened the Ship Canal. Two days afterwards she celebrated her seventy-fifth birthday in quiet at Balmoral. A month later (June 23) took place the birth of a son to the duke and duchess of York, the child receiving the thoroughly English name of Edward. In 1895 the queen lost her faithful and most efficient private secretary, General Sir Henry Ponsonby, who for many years VICTORIA, QUEEN had helped her in the management of her most private affairs and had acted as an intermediary between her and her ministers Death of w'tn Sm8u'ar ability and success. His successor was Prince Sir Arthur Bigge. The following year, 1896, was Henry of marked by a loss which touched the queen even more f*tten' nearly and more personally. At his own urgent request Prince Henry of Battenberg, the queen's son-in-law, was permitted to join the Ashanti expedition, and early in January the prince was struck down with fever. He was brought to the coast and put on board her majesty's ship " Blonde," where, on the aoth, he died. In September 1896 the queen's reign had reached a point at which it exceeded in length that of any other English The sovereign; but by her special request all public Diamond celebrations of the fact were deferred until the follow- Jubilee. mg june> which marked the completion of sixty years from her accession. As the time drew on it was obvious that the celebrations of this Diamond Jubilee, as it was popularly called, would exceed in magnificence those of the Jubilee of 1887. Mr Chamberlain, the secretary for the colonies, induced his colleagues to seize the opportunity of making the jubilee a festival of the British empire. Accordingly, the prime ministers of all the self-governing colonies, with their families, were invited to come to London as the guests of the country to take part in the Jubilee procession; and drafts of the troops from every British colony and dependency were brought home for the same purpose. The procession was, in the strictest sense of the term, unique. Here was a display, not only of Englishmen, Scotsmen, Irishmen, Welsh- men, but of Mounted Rifles from Victoria and New South Wales, from the Cape and from Natal, and from the Dominion of Canada. Here were Hausas from the Niger and the Gold Coast, coloured men from the West India regiments, zaptiehs from Cyprus, Chinamen from Hong Kong, and Dyaks— now civilized into military police — from British North Borneo. Here, most brilliant sight of all, were the Imperial Service troops sent by the native princes of India; while the detachments of Sikhs who marched earlier in the procession received their full meed of admiration and applause. Altogether the queen was in her carriage for more than four hours, in itself an extraordinary physical feat for a woman of seventy-eight. Her own feelings were shown by the simple but significant message she sent to her people throughout the world: " From my heart I thank my beloved people. May God bless them." The illuminations in London and the great provincial towns were magnificent, and all the hills from Ben Nevis to the South Downs were crowned with bonfires. The queen herself held a great review at Aldershot; but a much more significant display was the review by the prince of Wales of the fleet at Spithead on Saturday, the 26th"of June. No less than 165 vessels of all classes were drawn up in four lines, extending altogether to a length of 30 m. The two years that followed the Diamond Jubilee were, as regards the queen, comparatively uneventful. Her health remained good, and her visit to Cimiez in the spring of 1898 was as enjoyable and as beneficial as before. In May 1899, after another visit to the Riviera, the queen performed what proved to be her last ceremonial function in London: she proceeded in " semi-state " to South Kensington, and laid the foundation stone of the new buildings completing the Museum — henceforth to be called the Victoria and Albert Museum — which had been planned more than forty years before by the prince consort. Griefs and anxieties encompassed the queen during the last year of her life. But if the South African War proved more Tae serious than had been anticipated, it did more to queen's weld the empire together than years of peaceful last year, progress might have accomplished. The queen's frequent messages of thanks and greeting to her colonies and to the troops sent by them, and her reception of the latter at Windsor, gave evidence of the heartfelt joy with which she saw the sons of the empire giving their lives for the defence of its integrity; and the satisfaction which she showed in the Federation of the Australian colonies was no less keen. The reverses of the first part of the Boer cam- paign, together with the loss of so many of her officers and soldiers, caused no small part of that " great strain " of which the Court Circular spoke in the ominous words which first told the country that she was seriously ill. But the queen faced the new situation with her usual courage, devotion and strength of will. She reviewed the departing regiments; she entertained the wives and children of the Windsor soldiers who had gone to the war; she showed by frequent messages her watchful interest in the course of the campaign and in the efforts which were being made throughout the whole empire; and her Christmas gift of a box of chocolate to every soldier in South Africa was a touching proof of her sympathy and interest. She relinquished her annual holiday on the Riviera, feeling that at such a time she ought not to leave her country. Entirely on her own initiative, and moved by admiration for the fine achievements of " her brave Irish " during the war, the queen announced her intention of paying a long visit to Dublin; and there, accordingly, she went for the month of April 1900, staying in the Viceregal Lodge, receiving many of the leaders of Irish society, inspecting some 50,000 school children from all parts of Ireland, and taking many a drive amid the charming scenery of the neighbourhood of Dublin. She went even further than this attempt to conciliate Irish feeling, and to show her recognition of the gallantry of the Irish soldiers she issued an order for them to wear the shamrock on St Patrick's Day, and for a new regiment of Irish Guards to be constituted. In the previous November the queen had had the pleasure of receiving, on a private visit, her grandson, the German Em- peror, who came accompanied by the empress and by two of their sons. This visit cheered the queen, and the successes of the army which followed the arrival of Lord Roberts in Africa occasioned great joy to her, as she testified by many published messages. But independently of the public anxieties of the war, and of those aroused by the violent and unexpected out- break of fanaticism in China, the year brought deep private griefs to the queen. In 1899 her grandson, the hereditary prince of Coburg, had succumbed to phthisis, and in 1900 his father, the duke of Coburg, the queen's second son, previously known as the duke of Edinburgh, also died (July 30). Then Prince Christian Victor, the queen's grandson, fell a victim to enteric fever at Pretoria; and during the autumn it came to be known that the empress Frederick, the queen's eldest daughter, was very seriously ill. Moreover, just at the end of the year a loss which greatly shocked and grieved the queen was experienced in the sudden death, at Windsor Castle, of the Dowager Lady Churchill, one of her oldest and most intimate friends. These losses told upon the queen at her advanced age- Throughout her life she had enjoyed excellent health, and even in the last few years the only marks of age were rheumatic stiffness of the joints, which prevented walking, and a diminished power of eyesight. In the autumn of 1900, however, her health began definitely to fail, and though arrangements were made Death for another holiday in the South, it was plain that her strength was seriously affected. Still she continued the ordinary routine of her duties and occupations. Before Christmas she made her usual journey to Osborne, and there on the 2nd of January she received Lord Roberts on his return from South Africa and handed to him the insignia of the Garter. A fortnight later she commanded a second visit from the field- marshal; she continued to transact business, and until a week before her death she still took her daily drive. A sudden loss of power then supervened, and on Friday evening, the i8th of January, the Court Circular published an authoritative announce- ment of her illness. On Tuesday, the 22nd of January 1901, she died. Queen Victoria was a ruler of a new type. When she ascended the throne the popular faith in kings and queens was on the decline. She revived that faith; she consolidated her throne; she not only captivated the affections of the multitude, but VICTORIA, T. L. DA— VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) won the respect of thoughtful men; and all this she achieved by methods which to her predecessors would have seemed im- practicable— methods which it required no less shrewdness to discover than force of character and honesty of heart to adopt steadfastly. Whilst all who approached the queen bore witness to her candour and reasonableness in relation to her ministers, all likewise proclaimed how anxiously she considered advice that was submitted to her before letting herself be persuaded that she must accept it for the good of her people. Though richly endowed with saving common sense, the queen was not specially remarkable for high develcpment of any specialized intellectual force. Her whole life, public and private, was an abiding lesson in the paramount importance of character. John Bright said of her that what specially struck him was her absolute truthfulness. The extent of her family connexions, and the correspondence she maintained with foreign sovereigns, together with the confidence inspired by her personal character, often enabled her to smooth the rugged places of international relations; and she gradually became in later years the link between all parts of a demo- cratic empire, the citizens of which felt a passionate loyalty for their venerable queen. By her long reign and unblemished record her name had become associated inseparably with British institutions and imperial solidarity. Her own life was by choice, and as far as her position would admit, one of almost austere simplicity and homeliness; and her subjects were proud of a royalty which involved none of the mischiefs of caprice or ostentation, but set an example alike of motherly sympathy and of queenly dignity. She was mourned at her death not by her own country only, nor even by all English-speaking people, but by the whole world. The funeral in London on the ist and 2nd of February, including first the passage of the coffin from the Isle of Wight to Gosport between lines of warships, and secondly a military procession from London to Windsor, was a memorable solemnity: the greatest of English sovereigns, whose name would in history mark an age, had gone to her rest. There is a good bibliographical note at the end of Mr Sidney Lee's article in the National Dictionary of Biography. See also the Letters of Queen Victoria (1907), and the obituary published by The Times, from which some passages have been borrowed above. (H. CH.) VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (c. 1540-c. 1613), Spanish musical composer, was born at Avila (unless, as Haberl conjectures, his title of Presbyter Abulensis refers not to his birthplace but to his parish as priest, so that his name would indicate that he was born at Vittoria). In 1573 he was appointed as Maestro di Cappella to the Collegium Germani- cum at Rome, where he had probably been trained. Victoria left Rome in 1589, being then appointed vice-master of the Royal Chapel at Madrid, a post which he held until 1602. In 1603 he composed for the funeral of the empress Maria the greatest requiem of the Golden Age, which is his last known work, though in 1613 a contemporary speaks of him as still living. He was not ostensibly Palestrina's pupil; but Palestrina had the main influence upon his art, and the personal relations between the two were as intimate as were the artistic. The work begun by Morales and perfected by Palestrina left no stumbling-blocks in Victoria's 'path and he was able from the outset to express the purity of his ideals of religious music without having to sift the good from the bad in that Flemish tradition which had entangled Palestrina's path while it enlarged his style. From Victoria's first publication in 1572 to his last requiem (the Officium Defunclorum of 1605) there is practically no change of style, all being pure church music of unswerving loftiness and showing no inequality except in concentration of thought. Like his countryman and predecessor Morales, he wrote no secular music;1 yet he differs from Morales, perhaps more than can be accounted for by his later date, in that his devotional spirit is impulsive rather than ascetic. His work 1 One French song is mentioned by Hawkins, but no secular mus_ic appears in the prospectus of the modern complete edition of his works published by Breitkopf and Hartel. 37 is the crown of Spanish music: music which has been regarded as not constituting a special school, since it absorbed itself so thoroughly in the Rome of Palestrina. Yet, as has been aptly pointed out in the admirable article " Vittoria " in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Roman music owes so much to that Spanish school which produced Guerrero, Morales and Victoria, that it might fairly be called the Hispano-Roman school. In spite of the comparative smallness of Victoria's output as compared with that of many of his contemporaries, there is no mistaking his claim to rank with Palestrina and Orlando di Lasso in the triad of supreme 16th-century masters. In any extensive anthology of liturgical polyphony such as the Musica Divina of Proske, his work stands out as impressively as Palestrina's and Lasso's; and the style, in spite of a resem- blance to Palestrina which amounts to imitation, is as individual as only a successful imitator of Palestrina can be. That is to say, Victoria's individuality is strong enough to assert itself by the very act of following Palestrina's path. When he is below his best his style does not become crabbed or harsh, but over-facile and thin, though never failing in euphony. If he seldom displays an elaborate technique it is not because be conceals it, or lacks it. His mastery is unfailing, but his methods are those of direct emotional effect; and the intellectual qualities that strengthen and deepen this emotion are themselves innate and not sought out. The emotion is reasonable and lofty, not because he has trained himself to think correctly, but because he does not know that any one can think otherwise. His works fill eight volumes in the complete edition of Messrs Breitkopf and Hartel. ( D. F. T.) VICTORIA, a British colonial state, occupying the south- eastern corner of Australia. Its western boundary is in 140° 58' E. ; on the east it runs out to a point at Cape Howe, in 1 50° E. long., being thus rudely triangular in shape; the river Murray constitutes nearly the whole of the northern boundary, its most northerly point being in 34° S. lat.; the southern boundary is the coast-line of the Southern Ocean and of Bass Strait; the most southerly point is Wilson's Promontory in 39° S. lat, The greatest length east and west is about 480 m. ; the greatest width, in the west, is about 250 m. The area is officially stated to be 87,884 sq. m. The coast-line may be estimated at about 800 m. It begins about the 14131 meridian with bold but not lofty sand- stone cliffs, worn into deep caves and capped by grassy undu- lations, which extend inland to pleasant park-like lands. Capes Bridgewater and Nelson form a peninsula of forest lands, broken by patches of meadow. To the east of Cape Nelson lies the moderately sheltered inlet of Portland Bay, consisting of a sweep of sandy beach flanked by bold granite rocks. Then comes a long unbroken stretch of high cliffs, which, owing to insetting currents, have been the scene of many calamitous wrecks. Cape Otway is the termination of a wild mountain range that here abuts on the coast. Its brown cliffs rise verti- cally from the water; and the steep slopes above are covered with dense forests of exceedingly tall timber and tree-ferns. Eastwards from this cape the line of cliffs gradually diminishes in height to about 20 to 40 ft. at the entrance to Port Phillip. Next comes Port Phillip Bay, at the head of which stands the city of Melbourne. When the tide recedes from this bay through the narrow entrance it often encounters a strong current just outside; the broken and somewhat dangerous sea thus caused is called " the Rip." East of Port Phillip Bay the shores consist for 15 m. of a line of sandbanks; but at Cape Schanck they suddenly become high and bold. East of this comes Western Port, a deep inlet more than half occupied by French Island and Phillip Island. Its shores are flat and uninteresting, in some parts swampy. The bay is shallow and of little use for navigation. The coast continues rocky round Cape Liptrap. Wilson's Promontory is a great rounded mass of granite hills, with wild and striking scenery, tree-fern gullies and gigantic gum-trees, connected with the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. At its extremity lie a multitude of rocky islets, with steep granite edges. North of this cape, and VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) S~~0 U T H SCvW%w> VICTORIA *»' C Bass Str°dit°*-r> opening to the east, lies Corner Inlet, which is dry at low water. The coast now continues low to the extremity of the colony. The slight bend northward forms a sort of bight called the Ninety Mile Beach, but it really exceeds that length. It is an unbroken line of sandy shore, backed by low sandhills, on which grows a sparse dwarf vegetation. Behind these hills comes a succession of lakes, surrounded by excellent land, and beyond these rise the soft blue outlines of the mountain masses of the interior. The shores on the extreme east are somewhat higher, and occasionally rise in bold points. They terminate in Cape Howe, off which lies Gabo Island, of small extent but containing an important lighthouse and signalling station. The western half of Victoria is Jeyel or slightly undulating, and as a rule tame in its scenery, exhibiting only thinly timbered grassy lands, with all the appearance of open parks. The north-west corner of the colony, equally flat, is dry and sometimes sandy, and frequently bare of vegetation, though in one part some seven or eight millions of acres are covered with the dense brushwood known as " malice scrub." This wide western plain is slightly broken in two places. In the south the wild ranges of Cape Otway are covered over a considerable area with richly .luxurious but almost impassable forests. This district has been reserved as a state forest and its coast forms a favourite holiday resort, the scenery being very attractive. The middle of the plain is crossed by a thin line of mountains, known as the Australian Pyrenees, at the western extremity of which there are several irregularly placed transverse ranges, the chief being the Grampians, the Victoria Range and the Sierra Range. Their highest point is Mount William (3600 feet). The eastern half of the colony is wholly different. Though there is plenty of level land, it occurs in small patches, and chiefly in the south, in Gippsland, which extends from Corner Inlet to Cape Howe. But a great part of this eastern half is occupied with the complicated mass of ranges known collectively as the Australian Alps. The whole forms a plateau averaging from 1000 to 2000 ft. high, with many smaller table- lands ranging from 3000 to 5000 ft. in height. The highest peak, Bogong, is 6308 ft. in altitude. The ranges are so densely covered with vegetation that it is extremely difficult to penetrate them. About fifteen peaks over 5000 ft. in height have been measured. Along the ranges grow the giant trees for which Victoria is famous. The narrow valleys and gullies contain exquisite scenery, the rocky streams being overshadowed by groves of graceful tree-ferns, from amid whose waving; fronds rise the tall smooth stems of the white gums. Over ten millions of acres are thus covered with forest-clad mountains which in due time will become a very valuable asset of the state. The Australian Alps are connected with the Pyrenees by a long ridge called the Dividing Range (1500 to 3000 ft. high). Victoria is fairly well watered, but its streams are generally too small to admit of navigation. This, however, is not the case with Rivers. the Murray river (q.v.). The Murray for a distance of 670 m. (or 1250 m. if its various windings be followed) forms the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria; it receives a number of tributaries from the Victorian side. The Mitta Mitta, which rises in the heart of the Australian Alps, is 150 m. long. The Ovens, rising among the same mountains, is slightly shorter. The Goulburn (340 m.) flows almost entirely through well-settled agricultural country,' and is deep enough to be used in its lower part for navigation. The valley of this river is. a fertile grain- producing district. The Campaspe (150 m.) has too little volume of water to be of use for navigation ; its valley is also agricultural, and along its banks there lie a close succession of thriving town- ships. The Loddon (over 200 m.) rises in the Pyrenees. The upper part flows through a plain, to the right agricultural and to the left auriferous, containing nearly forty thriving towns, including Bendigo (formerly named Sandhurst) and Castlemaine. In the lower part of the valley the soil is also fertile, but the rainfall is small. To the west of the Loddon is the Avoca river with a length of 140 m.; it is of slight volume, and though it flows towards the Murray it loses itself in marshes and salt lagoons before reaching that river. The rivers which flow southwards into the ocean are numerous. The Snowy river rises in New South Wales, and in Victoria flows entirely through wild and almost wholly unoccupied territory. VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) The Tambo (120 m. long), which rises in the heart of the Australian Alps, crosses the Gippsland plains and falls into Lake King, one of the Gippsland lakes; into the same lake falls the Mitchell river, rising ajso in the Australian Alps. The Mitchell is navigated for a short distance. The Latrobe empties itself into Lake Wellington after a course of 135 m.; it rises at Mount Baw Baw. The Yarra Yarra rises in the " Black Spur " of the Australian Alps. Emerging in a deep valley from the ranges, it follows a sinuous course through the undulating plains called the " Yarra Flats," which are wholly enclosed by hills, on whose slopes are some of the best vineyards of Australia; it finds its way out of the Flats between high and pre- cipitous but well-wooded banks, and finally reaches Port Phillip Bay below Melbourne. Owing to its numerous windings its course through that city and its suburbs is at least thirty miles. Nearer to the sea its waterway, formerly available for vessels drawing 16 ft., has now been deepened so as to be available for vessels drawing 20 ft. The Barwon, farther west, is a river of considerable length but little volume, flowing chiefly through pastoral lands. The Hopkins and Glenelg (280 m.) both water the splendid pastoral lands of the west, the lower course of the former passing through the fertile district of Warrnambool, well known throughout Australia as a potato-growing region. In the west there are Lakes Corangamite and Colac, due north of Cape Otway. The former is intensely salt; the latter is fresh, having an outlet for its waters. Lakes Tyrrell and Hindmarsh lie in the plains of the north-west. In summer they are dried up, and in winter are again formed by the waters of nvers that have no outlet. In the east are the Gippsland lakes, formed by the waters of the Latrobe, Mitchell and Tambo, being dammed back by the sandhills of the Ninety Mile Beach. They are connected with Bass Strait by a narrow and shifting channel through a shallow bar; the government of Victoria has done a great deal of late years to deepen the entrance and make it safer. The upper lake is called Lake Wellington; a narrow passage leads into Lake Victoria, which is joined to a wider expanse called Lake King. These are all fresh- water lakes and are visited by tourists, being readily accessible from Melbourne. (T. A. C.) Geology. — Victoria includes a more varied and complete geo- logical sequence than any other area of equal size in Australia. Its geological foundation consists of a band of Archean and Lower Palaeozoic rocks, which forms the backbone of the state. The sedimentary rocks in this foundation have been thrown into folds, of which the axes trend approximately north and south. The Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks build up the Highlands of Victoria, which occupy the whole width of the state at its eastern end, extending from the New South Wales border on the north to the shore of the Southern Ocean on the south. These Highlands constitute the whole of the mountainous country of Gippsland and the north-eastern districts. They become narrower to the west, and finally, beyond the old plateau of Dundas, disappear beneath the recent loams of the plains along the South Australian border. The Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks bear upon their surface some Upper Palaeozoic rocks, which occur in belts running north and south, and have been preserved by infolding or faulting; such are the Grampian Sandstones in the west; the Cathedral Mountain Sandstones to the north-east of Melbourne; the belt of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks that extends across eastern Victoria, through Mount Wellington to Mansfield; and finally, far to the east, is the belt of the Snowy river porphyries, erupted by a chain of Lower Devonian volcanoes. Further Upper Palaeozoic rocks and the Upper Carboniferous glacial beds occur in basins on both northern and southern flanks of the Highlands. The Mesozoic rocks are confined to southern Victoria; they build up the hills of southern Gippsland and the Otway Ranges; and farther west, hidden by later rocks, they occur under the coast of the western district. Between the southern mountain chain and the Victorian Highlands occurs the Great Valley of Victoria, occupied by sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Kainozoic age. The North- Western Plains, occurring between the northern foot of the Highlands and the Murray, are occupied by Kainozoic sediments. Victoria has a fairly complete geological sequence, though it is poorer than New South Wales in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Mesozoic. The Archean rocks form two blocks of gneisses and schists, which build up the Highlands of Dundas in the west, and of the north-eastern part of Victoria. They were originally de- scribed as metamorphosed Silurian rocks, but must be of Archean age. Another series of Archean rocks is more widely developed, and forms the old framework upon which the geology of Victoria has been built up. They are known as the Heathcotian series, and consist of phyllites, schists and amphibolites; while their most characteristic feature is the constant association of foliated diabase and beds of jasperoids. Volcanic agglomerates occur in the series at the typical locality of Heathcote. The Heathcotian rocks form the Colbmabbin Range, which runs for 40 m. northward and southward, east of Bendigo. They are also exposed on the surface at the eastern foot of the Grampian Ranee, and at Dookie, and on the southern coast in Waratah Bay ; they have been proved by bores under Rushworth, and they apparently underlie parts of the Gipps- land coalfields. The Cambrian rocks have so far only been de- 39 finitely proved near Mansfield. Mr A. M. Howitt has there collected some fragmentary remains of Olenellus and worm tubes of the Cambrian genus Salterella. These beds at Mansfield contain phos- phatic limestones and wavellite. The. Ordovician system is well developed. It consists of slates and quartzites; and some schists around the granites of the western district, and in the Pyrenees, are regarded as metamorphic Ordovician. The Ordovician has a rich graptolitic fauna, and they have been classified into the following divisions: — Upper Ordovician . . Darriwill Series ( Castlemaine Series Lower Ordovician . . j Bendigo Series ( Lanceneld Series The Ordovician beds are best developed in a band running north- north-west and south-south-east across Victoria, of which the eastern boundary passes through Melbourne. This Ordovician band begins on the south with the block forming the plateau of Arthur's Seat and Mornington Peninsula, as proved by Ferguson. This outlier is bounded to the north by the depression of Port Phillip and the basalt plains west of Melbourne. It reappears north of them at Lanceneld, whence it extends along the Highlands, past Ballarat, with southern outliers as far as Steiglitz. It forms the whole of the Ballarat Plateau, and is continued northward through the goldfields of Castlemaine, Bendigo and the Pyrenees, till it dips under the North-Western Plains. Certain evidence as to the age of the rocks in the Pyrenees has not yet been collected, and they may be pre-Ordovician. Some Upper Ordovician rocks occur in the mountains of eastern Gippsland, as near Woods Point, and in north-eastern Victoria, in Wombat Creek. The Silurian system consists of two divisions: the lower or Mel- bourn ian, and the upper or Yeringian. Both consist in the main of sandstones, quartzites and shales; but the upper series includes lenticular masses of limestone, at Lillydale, Loyola and along the Thomson river. The limestones are rich in typical Silurian corals and bryozoa, and the shales and sandstones contain brachio- pods and trilobites. The Silurian rocks are well exposed in sections near Melbourne; they occur in a belt running from the southern coast at Waratah Bay, west of Wilson's Promontory, north-north-west- ward across Victoria, and parallel to the Ordovician belt, which underlies them on the west. The Silurian rocks include the gold- fields of the Upper Yarra, Woods Point, Walhalla and Rushworth, while the limestones are worked for lime at Lillydale and Waratah Bay. The Devonian system includes representatives of the lower, middle and upper series. The Lower Devonian series includes the porphyries and their associated igneous rocks, along the valley of the Snowy river. They represent the remains of an old chain of volcanoes which once extended north and south across Victoria. The Middle Devonian is mainly formed of marine sandstones, and lime- stones in eastern Gippsland. It is best developed in the valleys of the Mitchell, the Tambo and the Snowy nvers. The Upper Devonian rocks include sandstones, shales and coarse conglomerates. At the close of Middle Devonian times there were intense crustal disturbances, and the granitic massifs, which formed the primitive mountain axis of Victoria, were then intruded. The Carboniferous system begins with the Avon river sandstones, containing Lepidodendron, and the red sandstones, with Lower Carboniferous fish, collected by Mr Geo. Sweet near Mansfield. Probably the Grampian Sandstone, the Cathedral Mountain Sand- stone, and some in the Mount Wellington district belong to the same period. The Upper Carboniferous includes the famous glacial deposits and boulder clays, by which the occurrence of a Carboni- ferous glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere was first demonstrated. These beds occur at Heathcote, Bendigo, the Loddon Valley, southern Gippsland and the North-Eastern district. The beds comprise boulder clay, containing ice-scratched boulders, and sometimes rest upon ice-scratched, moutonn6 surfaces, and some lake deposits, similar to those laid down in glacial lakes. The glacial beds are overlain by sandstones containing Gangamopteris, and Kitson's work in Northern Tasmania leaves no doubt that they are on the horizon of the Greta or Lower Coal Measures of New South Wales. The Mesozoic group is represented only by Jurassic rocks, which form the mountains of southern Gippsland and include its coal- fields. The rocks contain fossil land plants, occasional fish remains and the claw of a dinosaur, &c. The coal is of excellent quality. The mudstones, which form the main bulk of this series, are largely composed of volcanic debris, which decomposes to a fertile soil. These rocks trend south-westward along the Bass Range, which reaches Western Port. They skirt the Mornington Peninsula, underlie part of Port Phillip and the Bellarine Peninsula, and are exposed in the Barrabool Hills to the south-west of Geelong; thence they extend into the Otway Ranges, which are wholly built of these rocks ar.d contain some coal seams. Farther west they disappear below the recent sediments and volcanic rocks of the \\arrnambool district. They are exposed again in the Portland Peninsula, and rise again to form the Wannon Hills, to the south of Dundas. The Kainozoic beds include three main series: lacustrine, marine and volcanic. The main lacustrine series is probably of Oligocene 40 age, and is important from its thick beds of brown coal, which are thickest in the Great Valley of Victoria in southern Gippsland. A cliff face on the banks of the Latrobe, near Morwell, shows 90 ft. of it, and a bore near Morwell is recorded as having passed through 850 ft. of brown coal. Its thickness, at least in patches, is very great. The brown coals occur to the south-east of Melbourne, under the basalts between it and Geelong. Brown coal is also abundant under the Murray plains in north-western Victoria. The Kainozoic marine rocks occur at intervals along the southern coast and in the valleys opening from it. The most important horizon is apparently of Miocene age. The rocks occur at intervals in eastern Victoria, along the coast and up the river valleys, from the Snowy river westward to Alberton. At the time of the deposition of these beds Wilson's Promontory probably extended south-eastward and joined Tasmania; for the mid-Kainozoic marine deposits do not occur between Alberton and Flinders, to the west of Western Port. They extend up the old valley of Port Phillip as far as Keilor to the north of Melbourne, and are widely distributed under the volcanic rocks of the Western Plains. They are exposed on the floors of the volcanic cauldrons, and have been found by mining; operations under the volcanic rocks of the Ballarat plateau near Pitfield. The Miocene sea extended up the Glenelg valley, round the western border of the Dundas Highlands, and spread over the Lower Murray Basin into New South Wales; its farthest south-eastern limit was in a valley at Stawell. Some later marine deposits occur at the Lakes Entrance in eastern Gippsland, and in the valley of the Glenelg. The volcanic series begins with a line of great dacite domes including the geburite-dacite of Macedon, which is associated with solvsbergites and trachy-dolerites. The eruption of these domes was followed by that of sheets of basalt of several different ages, and the intrusion of some trachyte dykes. The oldest basalts are associated with the Oligocene lake deposits; and fragments of the large lava sheets of this period form some of the table-topped moun- tains in the Highlands of eastern Victoria. The river gravels below the lavas have been worked for gold, and land plants discovered in the workings. At Flinders the basalts are associated with Miocene limestones. The largest development of the volcanic rocks are a series of confluent sheets of basalt, forming the Western Plains, which occupy over 10,000 sq. m. of south-western Victoria. They are crossed almost continuously by the South- Western railway for 166 m. from Melbourne to Warrnambool. The volcanic craters built up by later eruptions are well preserved: such are Mount Elephant, a simple breached cone; Mount Noprat, with a large primary crater and four secondary craters on its flanks; Mount Warrenheip, near Ballarat, a single cone with the crater breached to the north-west. Mount Franklin, standing on the Ordovician rocks north of Daylesford, is a weathered cone breached to the south-east. In addition to the volcanic craters, there are numerous volcanic cauldrons formed by subsidence, such as Bullen- merri and Gnotuk near Camperdown, Keilembete near Terang, and Tower Hill near Port Fairy. Tower Hill consists of a large volcanic cauldron, and rising from an island in a lake on its floor is a later volcanic crater. The Pleistocene, or perhaps Upper Pliocene, deposits of most interest are those containing the bones of giant marsupials, such as the Diprotodon and Palorchestes, which have been found near Geelong, Castlemaine, Lake Kolungulak, &c. ; at the last locality Diprotodon and various extinct kangaroos have been found in association with the dingo. There is no trace in these deposits of the existence of man, and J. W. Gregory has reasserted the striking absence of evidence of man's residence in Victoria, except for a very limited period. There is no convincing evidence of Pleistocene glacial deposits in Victoria. Of the many records, the only one that can still be regarded as at all probable is that regarding Mount Bogong. The chief literature on the geology of Victoria is to be found in the maps arid publications of the Geological Survey — a branch of the Mines Department. A map of the State, on the scale of eight inches to the mile, was issued in 1902. The Survey has published numerous quarter-sheet maps, and maps of the gold fields and parishes. The geology is described in the Reports, Bulletins and Memoirs of the Survey, and in the Quarterly Reports of the Mining Registrars. Statistics of the mining industry are stated in the Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines. See also the general summary of the geology of Victoria, by R. Murray, issued by the Mines Department in 1887 and 1895. Numerous papers on the geology p\ the State are contained in the Trans. R. Soc. Victoria, and on its mining geology in the Trans, of the Austral. Inst. Min. Engineers. The physical geography has been described by J. W. Gregory in the Geography of Victoria (1903). (J. W. G.) Flora. — The native trees belong chiefly to the Myrtaceae, being largely composed of Eucalypti or gum trees. There are several hundred species, the most notable being Eucalyptus amygdalina, a tree with tall white stem, smooth as a marble column, and without branches for 60 or 70 ft. from the ground. It is singularly beautiful when seen in groves, for these have all the appearance of lofty pillared cathedrals. These trees are among the tallest in the world, averaging in some districts about 300 ft. The longest ever measured was found prostrate on the Black Spur: it measured VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) 470 ft. in length; it was 81 ft. in girth near the root. Eucalyptus globulus or blue gum has broad green leaves, which yield the eucalyptus oil of the pharmacopoeia. Eucalyptus rostrata is ex- tensively used in the colony as a timber, being popularly known as red gum or hard wood. It is quite unaffected by weather, and almost indestructible when used as piles for piers or wharves. Smaller species of eucalyptus form the common " bush." Mela- leucas, also of Myrtacea kind, are prominent objects along all the coasts, where they grow densely on the sand-hills, forming " ti-tree " scrub. Eucalyptus dumosa is a species which grows only 6 to 12 ft. high, but with a straight stem; the trees grow so close together that it is difficult to penetrate the scrub formed by them. Eleven and a half million acres of the Wimmera district are covered with this " mallee scrub," as it is called. Recent legislation has made this land easy of acquisition, and the whole of it has been taken up on pastoral leases. Five hundred thousand acres have recently been taken up as an irrigation colony on Californian principles and laid out in 4O-acre farms and orchards. The Leguminosae are chiefly tepresented by acacias, of which the wattle is the commonest. The black wattle is of considerable value, its gum being marketable and its bark worth from £5 to £10 a ton for tanning purposes. The golden wattle is a beautiful tree, whose rich yellow blossoms fill the river-valleys in early spring with delicious scent. The Casuarinae or she-oaks are gloomy trees, of little use, but of frequent occurrence. Heaths, grass-trees and magnificent ferns and fern-trees are also notable features in Victorian forests. But European and subtropical vegetation has been introduced into the colony to such an extent as to have largely altered the characters of the flora in many districts. Fauna. — The indigenous animals belong almost wholly to the Marsupialia. Kangaroos are tolerably abundant on the grassy plains, but the process of settlement is causing their extermination. A smaller species of almost identical appearance called the wallaby is still numerous in the forest lands. Kangaroo rats, opossums, wombats, native bears, bandicoots and native cats all belong to the same class. The wombat forms extensive burrows in some districts. The native bear is a frugivorous little animal, and very harmless. Bats are numerous, the largest species being the flying fox, very abundant in some districts. Eagles, hawks, turkeys, pigeons, ducks, quail, snipe and plover are common; but the characteristic denizens of the forest are vast flocks of parrots, parakeets and cockatoos, with sulphur-coloured or crimson crests. The laughing jackass (giant kingfisher) is heard in all the country parts, and magpies are numerous everywhere. Snakes are numerous, but less than one-fourth of the species are venomous, and they are all very shy. The deaths from snake-bite do not average two per annum. A great change is rapidly taking place in the fauna of the country, owing to cultivation and acclimatization. Dingoes have nearly disappeared, and rabbits, which were introduced only a few years ago, now abound in such numbers as to be a positive nuisance. Deer are also rapidly becoming numerous. Sparrows and swallows are as common as in England. The trout, which has also been acclimatized, is taking full possession of some of the streams. Climate. — Victoria enjoys an exceptionally fine climate. Roughly speaking, about one-half of the days in the year present a bright, cloudless sky, with a bracing and dry atmosphere, pleasantly warm but not relaxing. These days are mainly in the autumn and spring. During forty-eight years, ending with 1905, there have been on an average 132 days annually on which rain has fallen more or less (chiefly in winter, but rainy days do not exceed thirty in the year. The average yearly rainfall was 25-61 in. The disagreeable feature of the Victorian climate is the occurrence of north winds, which blow on an average about sixty days in the year. In winter they are cold and dry, and have a slightly depressing effect; but in summer they are hot and dry, and generally bring with them disagreeable clouds of dust. The winds themselves blow for periods of two or three days at a time, and if the summer has six or eight such periods it becomes relaxing and produces languor. These winds cease with extraordinary suddenness, being replaced in a minute or two by a cool and bracing breeze from the south. The_ temperature often falls 40° or 50 F. in an hour. The maximum shade temperature at Melbourne in 1905 was 108-5°, and the minimum 32 , giving a mean of 56-1°. The temperature never falls below freezing-point, except for an hour or two before sunrise in the coldest month. Snow has been known to fall in Melbourne for a few minutes two or three times during a long period of years. It is common enough, however, on the plateau; Ballarat, which is over 1000 ft. high, always has a few snowstorms, and the roads to Omeo among the Australian Alps lie under several feet of snow in the winter. The general healthiness of the climate is shown by the fact that the average death-rate for the last five years has been only 12-71 of the population. Population. — As regards population, Victoria maintained the leading position among the Australasian colonies until the end of 1891, when New South Wales overtook it. The population in 1905 was 1,218,571, the proportion of the sexes being nearly equal. In 1860 the population numbered 537,847; in 1870, VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) 720,599; in 1880, 860,067; and in 1890, 1,133,266. The state had gained little, if anything, by immigration during these years, for the excess of immigration over emigration from 1861 to 1870 and from 1881 to 1890 was counterbalanced by the excess of departures during the period 1871 to 1880 and from 1891 to 1905. The mean population of Melbourne in 1905 was 511,900. The births in 1905 numbered 30,107 and the deaths 14,676, representing respectively 24-83 and 12-10 per 1000 of the popula- tion. The birth-rate has fallen markedly since 1875, as the following statement of the averages arranged in quinquennial periods shows : — Period. Births per 1000 of Population. Period. Births per 1000 of Population. 1861-65 1866-70 I87I-75 1876-80 43-30 39-27 35-69 31-43 1881-85 1886-90 1891-95 1896-1900 1901-1905 30-76 32-72 31-08 26-20 24-97 The number of illegitimate births during 1905 was 1689, which gives a proportion of 5-61 to every 100 births registered. The death-rate has greatly improved. periods the death-rates were : — Arranged in quinquennial Period. Deaths per 1000 of Population. Period. Deaths per 1000 of Population. 1861-65 1866-70 1871-75 1876-80 I7-36 16-52 15-64 14-92 1881-85 1886-90 1891-95 1896-1900 1901-1905 14-65 16-07 14-10 13-67 12-71 The marriages in 1905 numbered 8774, which represents a rate of 7-24 per 1000 persons. This was the highest number reached during a period of fourteen years, and was 564 more than in 1904 and 1 169 more than in 1903. In the five years 1871-75 the marriage- rate stood at 6-38 per 1000; in 1876-80, 6-02; in 1881-85, 7-37; in 1886^-90, 8-13; in 1901-5, 6-86. Outside Melbourne and suburbs, the most important towns are Ballarat (49,648), Bendigo (43,666), Geelong (26,642), Castlemaine (8063), Warrnambool (6600), Maryborough (6000) and Stawell (5200). Religion. — The Church of England, as disclosed at the census of 1901, had 432,704 adherents; the Roman Catholic Church came next with 263,710; the Presbyterians had 190,725; Wesleyans and Methodists, 180,272; Congregationalists, 17,141; Baptists, 32,648; Lutherans, 13,935; Jews, 5907; and the Salvation Army, whose Australian headquarters are in Melbourne, 8830. Education. — There were in 1905 1930 state schools, in which there were 210,200 children enrolled, the teachers numbering 4689. There were also 771 private schools with 2289 teachers and a net enrolment of 43,014 children; the majority of them being connected with one or other of the principal religious denominations. The total cost of primary instruction in 1905 was £676,238, being us. 2d. per head of population and £4, 143. 40!. per head of scholars in average attendance. Melbourne University maintains its high position as a teaching body. In 1905 the number of matriculants was 493 and the graduates 118. Crime is decreasing. In 1905 the number of persons brought before the magistrates was 48,345. Drunkenness accounted for 14,458, which represents 11-92 per 1000 of the population: in 1901 the proportion was 14-43. Charges against the person numbered 1932, and against property 4032. Administration. — As one of the six states of the Common- wealth, Victoria returns six senators and twenty-three repre- sentatives to the federal parliament. The local legislative authority is vested in a parliament of two chambers, both elective — the Legislative Council, composed of thirty-five members, and the Legislative Assembly, composed of sixty-eight members. One-half of the members of the Council retire every three years. The members of the Assembly are elected by universal suffrage for the term of three years, but the chamber can be dissolved at any time by the Governor in council. Members of the Assembly are paid £300 a year. The whole of Victoria in 1905 was under the control of munici- palities, with the exception of about 600 sq. m. in the mountain- ous part of Wonnangatta, and 64 sq. m. in French Island. The number of municipalities in that year was 206; they comprised ii cities, ii towns, 38 boroughs and 146 shires. Finance. — The public revenue in 1905 showed an increase on that of the three previous years, being £7,515,142, equal to £6, 45. id. per head of population; the expenditure amounted to £7,343,742, which also showed a slight increase and was equal to £6, is. 4d. per inhabitant. The public revenue in five-yearly periods since 1880 was: 1880, £4,621,282; 1885, £6,290,361; 1890, £8,519,159; 1895. £6.712.512; and 1901, £7,722,307. The chief sources of revenue in 1905 were: Customs duties (federal refunds), £2,017,378; other taxation, £979,029; railway receipts, £3,609,120; public lands, £408,836; other sources, £501,379. The main items of expenditure were: railways (working expenses), £2,004,601; public instruction, £661,794; interest and charges on public debt, £1,884,208; other services, £2,793,139. On the 3Oth of June 1005 the public debt of the state stood at £51,513,767, equal to £42, 95. ?d. per inhabitant. The great bulk of the proceeds of loans was applied to the construction of revenue-yielding works, only about three millions sterling being otherwise used. Up to 1905 the state had alienated 26,346,802 acres of the public domain, and had 17,994,233 acres underlease; the area neither alienated nor leased amounted to 11,904,725 acres. The capital value of properties as returned by the municipalities in 1905 was £210,920,174, and the annual value £11,743,270. In 1884 the values were 104 millions and £8,099,000, and in 1891, 203 millions and £13,734,000; the year last mentioned marked the highest point of inflation in land values, and during the following years there was a vast reduction, both in capital and in annual values, the lowest point touched being in 1895; since 1895 a gradual improvement has taken place, and there is every evidence that this improvement will continue. The revenues of municipalities are derived chiefly from rates, but the rates are largely supplemented by fees and licences, and contributions for services rendered. Ex- cluding government endowments and special grants, which in 1905 amounted to £90,572, the revenues of the municipalities in the years named were: 1880, £616,132; 1885, £789,429; 1890, £1-273-85.5: 1895- £1,038,720; 1900, £1,036,497; 1905, £1,345,221. In addition to the municipalities there arc other local bodies empowered to levy rates; these and their revenues in 1905 were: Melbourne Harbour Trust, £189,983; Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, £390,441; Fire Boards, £53,279. The Board of Works is the authority administering the metropolitan water and sewerage works. Excluding revenue from services rendered, the amount of taxation levied in Victoria reached in 1905 £4,621,608; of this the federal government levied £2,488,843, the state government £979,029, the municipalities £986,009, and the Melbourne Harbour "rust £167,727. Productions and Industry: Minerals. — About 25,400 persons find employment in the goldfields, and the quantity of gold won in 1905 was 810,050 oz., valued at £3,173,744, a decrease of IO_,9<>7 oz. as compared with 1904. The dividends paid by gold-mining com- panies in 1905 amounted to £454,431, which, although about the average of recent years, showed a decline of £168,966 as compared with the sum distributed in 1904. Up to the close of 1905 the total value of gold won from the first discovery in 1851 was £273,236,500. No other metallic minerals are systematically worked, although many valuable deposits are known to exist. Brown coal, or lignite, occurs extensively, and attempts have frequently been made to use the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, but without much success. Black coal is now being raised in increasingly large quantities. The principal collieries are the Outrim Howitt, the Coal Creek Proprietary, the Jumbunna and the Korumburra, all in the Gipps- land district. The production of coal in 1905 was 155,185 tons, valued at £79,060; £4100 worth of silver and £11,159 worth of tin were raised; the value of other minerals produced was !93-392, making a total mineral production (exclusive of gold) of ;i87,7il. Agriculture. — Judged by the area under tillage, Victoria ranks first among the states of the Australian group. The area under crop in 1905 was 4,269,877 acres, compared with 2,116,000 acres in 1891 and 1,435,000 acres in 1881. Wheat-growing claims the chief attention, 2,070,517 acres being under that cereal in 1905. The areas devoted to other crops were as follows: maize, 11,785 acres; oats, 312,052 acres; barley,- 40,938 acres; other cereals, 14,212 acres; hay, 591,771 acres; potatoes, 44,670 acres; vines, 26,402 acres; green foliage, 34,041 acres; other tillage, 73,574 acres; land in fallow comprised 1,049,915 acres. Victorian wheat is of exception- ally fine quality, and usually commands a high price in the London market. The average yield per acre in 1905 was 11-31 bushels; except for the year 1903, the total crop and the average per acre in 1905 were the highest ever obtained. The yield of oats was 23-18 bushels per acre, of barley 25-95, a"d of potatoes 2-58 tons. Great progress has been made in the cultivation of the grape vine, and Victoria now produces more than one-third of the wine made in Australia. Live Stock. — The number of sheep in 1905 was 11,455,115. The quality of the sheep is steadily improving. Systematic attention to stock has brought about an improvement in the weight of the fleece, and careful observations show that between 1861 and 1871 the average weight of wool per sheep increased about one-third; between 1871 and 1881 about one pound was added to the weight 42 per fleece, and there has been a further improvement since the year named. Tht following were the number of sheep depastured at the dates named: 1861, 6,240,000; 1871, 10,002,000; 1881, 10,267,000; 1891, 12,928,000; 1901, 10,841,790. The horses number 385,513, the swine 273,682, and the horned cattle 1,737,690; of these last, 649,100 were dairy cows. Butter- making has greatly increased since 1890, and a fairly large export trade has arisen. In 1905, 57,606,821 Ib of butter were made, 4,297,350 ft of cheese and 16,433,665 Ib of bacon and hams. Manufactures. — There has been a good deal of fluctuation in the amount of employment afforded by the factories, as the following figures show: hands employed, 1885, 49,297; 1890, 56,639; 1893, 39,473; 1895, 46,095; 1900, 64,207; 1905, 80,235. Of the hands last named, 52,925 were males and 27,310 females. The total number of establishments was 4264, and the horse-power of machinery actually used, 43,492. The value of machinery was returned at £6,187,919, and of land and buildings £7,771,238. The majority of the establishments were small ; those employing from 50 to 100 hands in 1905 were 161, and upwards of 100 hands, 124. Commerce. — Excluding the coastal trade, the tonnage of vessels entering Victorian ports in 1905 was 3,989,903, or about 3J tons per inhabitant. The imports in the same year were valued at £22,337,886, and the exports at £22,758,828. These figures repre- sent £18, 8s. 5d. and £18, 153. 6d. per inhabitant respectively. The domestic produce exported was valued at £14,276,961 ; in 1891 the value was £13,026,426; and in 1881, £12,480,567. The compara- tively small increase over the period named is due mainly to the large fall in prices of the staple articles of local production. There has, however, been some loss of trade due to the action of the New South Wales government in extending its railways into districts formerly supplied from Melbourne. The principal articles of local production exported during 1905 with their values were as follows : butter and cheese, £1,576,189; gold (coined and bullion), £1,078,560; wheat, £1,835,204; frozen mutton, £275,195; frozen and preserved rabbits and hares, £220,940; skins and hides, £535,086; wool, £2,501,990; horses, £278,033; cattle, £293,241; sheep, £326,526; oats, £165,585; flour, £590,297; hay and chaff, £97,471; bacon and ham, £89,943; jams and jellies, £73,233; fruit (dried and fresh), £125,330. The bulk of the trade passes through Melbourne, the imports in 1905 at that port being £18,112,528. Defence. — The Commonwealth defence forces in Victoria nuipber about 5700 men, 4360 being partially paid militia and 1000 unpaid volunteers. There are also 18,400 riflemen belonging to rifle clubs. Besides these there are 200 naval artillerymen, capable of being employed either as a light artillery land force, or on board war vessels. The total expenditure in 1905 for purposes of defence in the state was £291,577. Railways. — The railways have a total length of 3394 m., and the cost of their construction and equipment up to the 3Oth of June 1905 was £41,259,387; this sum was obtained by raising loans, mostly in London, on the security of the general revenues of the state. In 1905 the gross railway earnings were £3,582,266, and the working expenses £2,222,279; so that the net earnings were £1,359,987, which sum represents 3-30% on the capital cost. Posts and Telegraphs. — Victoria had a length of 6338 m. of tele- graph line in operation in 1905; there were 969 stations, and the business done was represented by 2,256,482 telegrams. The post- offices, properly so-called, numbered 1673; during that year 119,689,000 letters and postcards and 59,024,000 newspapers and packets passed through them. The postal service is carried on at a profit; the revenue in 1905 was £708,369, and the expenditure £627,735. Telephones are widely used; in 1905 the length of telephone wire in use was 28,638 m., and the number of telephones 14,134; the revenue from this source for the year was £102,396. Banking. — At the end of 1905 the banks of issue in Victoria, eleven in number, had liabilities to the extent of £36,422,844, and assets of £40,511,335. The principal items among the liabilities were: notes in circulation, £835,499; deposits bearing interest, £23,055,743; and deposits not bearing interest, £12,068,153. The chief assets were: coin and bullion, £8,056,666; debts due, £29,918,226; property, £1,919,230; other assets, £617,213. The money in deposit in the sayings banks amounted to £10,896,741, the number of depositors being 447,382. The total sum on deposit in the state in 1905 was, therefore, £46,020,637, which represents £37, 155. 4d. per head of population. AUTHORITIES. — J. Bonwick, Discovery and Settlement of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1856), Early Days of Melbourne (Melbourne, 1857), and Port Phillip Settlement (London, 1883) ; Rev. J. D. Lang, Historical Account of the Separation of Victoria from New South Wales (Sydney, 1870); Victorian Year-Booh (annually, 1873- 1905, Melbourne) ; F. P. Labilliere, Early History of the Colony of Victoria (London, 1878); G. W. Rusden, Discovery, Survey and Settlement of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1878); R. B. Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria (2 vols., Melbourne, 1878); J. J. Shillinglaw, Historical Records of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1879); David Blair, Cyclopaedia of Australasia (Melbourne, 1881); E. Jenks, The Government of Victoria (London, 1881); E. M. Curr, The Australian Race: its Origin, Language, Customs, &c. (Melbourne, 1886-87); Edmund Finn, Chronicles of Early Melbourne (Melbourne, 1889); VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) Philip Mennell, The Dictionary of Australasian Biography (Melbourne, 1892); T. A. Coghlan, Australia and New Zealand (1903-4). (T. A. C.) History. — The first discoverer of Victoria was Captain Cook, in command of H.M.S. " Endeavour," who sighted Cape Everard, about half-way between Cape Howe and the mouth of the Snowy river, on the ipth of April 1770, a few days prior to his arrival at Botany Bay. The first persons to land in Victoria were the supercargo and a portion of the crew of the merchant ship " Sydney Cove," which was wrecked at the Furneaux Islands in Bass Strait on the 9th of February 1797. In the same year, Mr Bass, a surgeon in the navy, discovered the strait which bears his name and separates Victoria from Tasmania. Lieut. Grant in the" Lady Nelson" surveyed the south coast in 1800, and in 1801 Port Phillip was for the first time entered by Lieut. Murray. In 1802 that harbour was surveyed by Captain Flinders, and in the same year Mr Grimes, the surveyor-general of New South Wales, explored the country in the neighbour- hood of the present site of Melbourne. In 1804 Lieut.-Colonel Collins, who had been sent from England, formed a penal settlement on the shores of Port Phillip, but after remaining a little more than three months near Indented Head, he removed his party to Van Die-men Land. Victoria was visited in 1824 by two sheep farmers named Hume and Hovell, who rode overland from Lake George, New South Wales, to the shores of Corio Bay. In 1826 a convict establishment was attempted by the government of New South Wales at Settlement Point, near French Island, Western Port Bay, but it was abandoned shortly afterwards. In 1834 Messrs Edward and Francis Henty, who had taken part in the original expedition to Swan river, West Australia, and afterwards migrated to Van Diemen Land, crossed Bass Strait, established a shore whaling station at Portland Bay, and formed sheep and cattle stations on the river Wannon and Wando rivulet, near the site of the present towns of Merino, Casterton and Coleraine. In 1835 a number of flock owners in Van Diemen Land purchased through Batman from the aborigines a tract of 700,000 acres on the shores of Port Phillip. The sale was repudiated by the British government, which regarded all unoccupied land in any part of Australia as the property of the crown, and did not recognize the title of the aborigines. Batman, however, remained at Port Phillip, and commenced farming within the boundaries of the present city of Melbourne. He was followed by John Pascoe Fawkner and other settlers from Van Diemen Land, who occupied the fertile plains of the new territory. In 1836 Captain Lonsdale was sent to Melbourne by the government of New South Wales to act as resident magis- trate in Port Phillip. The first census taken in 1838 showed that the population was 3511, of whom 3080 were males and 431 females. In 1839 Mr Latrobe was appointed superintendent of Port Phillip, and a resident judge was nominated for Melbourne, with jurisdiction over the territory which now forms the state of Victoria. The years 1840 and 1841 were periods of depression owing to the decline in the value of all descriptions of live stock, for which the first settlers had paid high prices; but there was a steady immigration from Great Britain of men with means, attracted by the profits of sheep-farming, and of labourers and artisans who obtained free passages under the provisions of the Wakefield system, under which half the proceeds from the sale and occupation of crown lands were expended upon the introduction of workers. The whole district was occupied by sheep and cattle graziers, and in 1841 the population had increased to 11,738. Melbourne was incorporated as a town in 1842, and was raised to the dignity of a city in 1847. In that same year the first Anglican was ordained, and in 1848 the first Roman Catholic bishop. The third census (taken in 1846) showed a population of 32,870. The elective element was introduced into the Legislative Council of New South Wales in 1842, in the proportion of twenty-four members to twelve nominated by the crown, and the district of Port Phillip, including Melbourne, returned six members. But the colonists were not satisfied with government VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA) from and by Sydney; an agitation in favour of separation commenced, and in 1851 Victoria was formed into a separate colony with an Executive Council appointed by the crown, and a Legislative Council, partly elective and partly nominated, on the same lines as that of New South Wales. The population at that date was 77,435. Gold was discovered a few weeks after the colony had entered upon its separate existence, and a large number of persons were attracted to the mines, first from the neighbouring colonies — some of which, such as South Australia, Van Diemen's Land and West Australia, were almost denuded of able-bodied men and women — and subsequently from Europe and America. Notwithstanding the difficulties with which the local government had to contend, the task of maintaining law and order was fairly grappled with; the foundations of a liberal system of primary, secondary and university education were laid; roads, bridges and telegraphs were constructed, and Melbourne was provided with an excellent supply of water. Local self-government was introduced in 1853, and the Legislature found time to discuss a new Constitution, which not Local sell- only eliminated the nominee element from the Legis- govern- lature, but made the executive government responsible to the people. The administration of the gold-fields was not popular, and the miners were dissatisfied at the amount charged for permission to mine for gold, and at there being no representation for the gold-fields in the local Legislature. The discontent culminated, at Ballarat in December 1854, in riots in which there was a considerable loss of life both amongst the miners and the troops. Eventually, an export duty on gold was substituted for the licence fee, but every miner had to take out a right which enabled him to occupy a limited area of land for mining, and also for residence. The census taken in 1854 showed a population of 236,778. The new Constitution was proclaimed in 1855, and the old Executive Council was gazetted as the first responsible ministry. It held office for about sixteen months, and was succeeded by an administration formed from the popular party. Several changes were made in the direction of democratizing the government, and vote by ballot, manhood suffrage and the abolition of the property qualification followed each other in rapid succession. To several of these changes there was strenuous opposition, not so much in the Assembly which represented the manhood, as in the Council in which the property of the colony was supreme. The crown lands were occupied by graziers, termed locally " squatters," who held them under a licence renewable annually at a low rental. These licences were very valuable, and the goodwill of a grazing farm or " run " commanded a high price. Persons who desired to acquire freeholds for the purpose of tillage could only do so by purchasing the land at auction, and the local squatters, unwilling to be deprived of any portion of a valuable property, were generally willing to pay a price per acre with which no person of small means desirous of embarking upon agricultural pursuits could compete. The result was that although the population had increased in 1861 to 540,322, the area of land under crop had not grown proportionately, and Victoria was dependent upon the neighbouring colonies and even more distant countries for a considerable portion of its food. A series of Land Acts was passed, the first in 1860, with the view of encouraging a class of small freeholders. The principle underlying all these laws was that residence by landowners on their farms, and their cultivation, were more important to the state than the sum realized by the sale of the land. The policy was only partially successful, and by a number of ingenious evasions a large proportion of the best land in the colony passed into the posses- sion of the original squatters. But a sufficient proportion was purchased by small farmers to convert Victoria into a great agricultural country, and to enable it to export large quantities of farm and dairy produce. The greater portion of the revenue was raised by the taxation through the customs of a small number of products, such as spirits, tobacco, wine, tea, coffee, &c. But an agitation arose in favour of such an adjustment of the import duties as would protect the manufactures which at that time were being com- 43 menced. A determined opposition to this policy was made by a large minority in the Assembly, and by a large majority in the Council, but by degrees the democratic party triumphed. The victory was not gained without a number of political crises which shook the whole fabric of society to its foundations. The Assembly tacked the tariff to the Appropriation Bill, and the Council threw out both. The result was that there was no legal means of paying either the civil servants or the contractors, and the government had recourse to an ingenious though questionable system by which advances were made by a bank which was recouped through the crown " confessing " that it owed the money, whereupon the governor issued his warrant for its payment without any recourse to parliament. Similar opposition was made by the Council to payment of members, and to a grant made to Lady Darling, the wife of Governor Sir Charles Darling, who had been recalled by the secretary of state on the charge of having shown partiality to the democratic party. Indeed on one occasion the dispute between the government and the Council was so violent that the former dismissed all the police, magistrates, county court judges and other high officials, on the ground that no provision had been made by the Council, which had thrown out the Appropriation Bill, for the payment of salaries. Notwithstanding these political struggles, the population of the colony steadily increased, and the Legislature found time to pass some measures which affected the social life and the commercial position of the colonies. State aid to religion was abolished, and divorce was made comparatively easy. A system of free, compulsory and secular primary education was introduced. The import duties were increased and the transfer of land was simplified. In 1880 a fortnightly mail service via Suez between England and Melbourne was introduced, and in 1880 the first International Exhibition ever held in Victoria was opened. In the following year the census showed a popu- lation of 862,346, of whom 452,083 were males and 410,263 females. During the same year the lengthy dispute between the two houses of parliament, which had caused so much incon- venience, so many heartburnings and so many political crises, was brought to an end by the passage of an act which reduced the qualifications for members and the election of the Legis- lative Council, shortened the tenure of their seats, increased the number of provinces to fourteen and the number of members to forty-two. In 1883 a coalition government, in which the Liberal or protectionist and the Conservative or free-trade party were represented, took office, and with some changes remained in power for seven years. During this political truce several important changes were made in the Constitution. An act for giving greater facilities for divorce was passed, and with some difficulty obtained the royal assent. The Victorian railways were handed over to the control of three commissioners, who to a considerable extent were made independent of the govern- ment, and the civil service was placed under the supervision of an independent board. In 1887 the representatives of Victoria met those of the other British colonies and of the United Kingdom in London, under the presidency of Lord Knutsford, in order to discuss the questions of defence, postal and telegraphic com- munication, and the contribution of Australia to the Imperial navy. In 1888 a weekly mail service was established via Suez by the steamers of the P. & O. and the Orient Companies, and the second Victorian International Exhibition was opened. In 1890 all the Australian colonies, including New South Wales and New Zealand, sent representatives to a conference at Melbourne, at which resolutions were passed in favour of the establishment of a National Australian Convention empowered to consider and report upon an adequate scheme for the Federal Constitution. This Convention met in Sydney in 1891 and took the first step towards federation (see AUSTRALIA). In 1891 the coalition government resigned and a Liberal administration was formed. An act passed in that year placed the railways again under the control of the government. Measures of a democratic and collectivist tendency have since obtained the assent of the Legislature.' The franchise of 44 VICTORIA— VICTORIA FALLS Crisis Of 1892. property-holders not resident in an electorate was abolished and the principle of " one man one vote " was established. Acts have been passed sanctioning Old Age Pensions; pro- hibiting shops, except those selling perishable goods, from keeping open more than eight hours; compelling the pro- prietors to give their assistants one half-holiday every six days; preventing persons from working more than forty-eight hours a week; and appointing for each trade a tribunal com- posed of an equal number of employers and employed to fix a minimum wage. (See AUSTRALIA.) Victoria enjoyed a large measure of prosperity during the later 'eighties and earlier 'nineties, and its financial prosperity enabled the government to expend large sums in extending railway communication to almost every locality and to com- mence a system of irrigation. The soil of Victoria is on the whole more fertile than in any other colony on the mainland of Australia, and in no portion of the continent is there any locality equal in fertility to the western district and some parts of Gippsland. The rainfall is more equable than in any portion of Australia, but the northern and north-western districts, which are the most remote from the sea and the Dividing Range, are subject to droughts, which, although not so severe or so frequent as in the interior of the continent, are sufficiently disastrous in their effects. The results of the expenditure upon irrigation have not been so successful as was hoped. Victoria has no mountains covered with snow, which in Italy and South America supply with water the rivers at the season of the year when the land needs irrigation, and it was necessary to construct large and expensive reservoirs. The cost of water is therefore greater than the ordinary agriculturist who grows grain or breeds and fattens stock can afford to pay, although the price may not be too high for orchardists and vine-growers. In 1892 the prosperity of the colony was checked by a great strike which for some months affected produc- tion, but speculation in land continued for some time longer, especially in Melbourne, which at that time contained nearly half the population, 500,000 out of a total of 1,140,105. There does not seem to have been any other reasons for this increase in land values, for there was no immigration, and the value of every description of produce had fallen — except that the working classes were prosperous and well paid, and that the purchase of small allotments in the suburbs was a popular mode of investment. In 1893 there was a collapse. The value of land declined enormously, hundreds of persons believed to be wealthy were ruined, and there was a financial panic which caused the suspension of all the banks, with the exception of the Australasia, the Union of Australia, and the New South Wales. Most of them resumed payment, but three went into liquidation. It was some years before the normal condition of prosperity was restored, but the great resources of the colony and the energy of its people discovered new markets, and new products for them, and enabled them materially to increase the export trade. (G. C. L.) VICTORIA, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the state of Espirito Santo, on the W. side of an island at the head of the Bay of Espirito Santo, 270 m. N.E. of Rio de Janeiro, in lat. 20° 18' S., long. 40° 20' W. Pop. (1902, estimated) 9000. The city occupies the beach and talus at the base of a high, wooded mountain. The principal streets follow the water-line, rising in terraces from the shore, and are crossed by narrow, steep, roughly paved streets. The buildings are old and of the colonial type. The governor's residence is an old convent, with its church at one side. The entrance to the bay is rather tortuous and difficult, but is sufficiently deep for the largest vessels. It is defended by five small forts. The harbour is not large, but is safe and deep, being completely shut in by hills. A large quay, pier, warehouses, &c., facilitate the hand- ling of cargoes, which were previously transported to and from the anchorage by lighters. Victoria is a port of call for coasting steamers and a shipping port in the coffee trade. The other exports are sugar, rice and mandioca (manioc) to home ports. Victoria was founded in 1535 by Vasco Fernando Coutinho, on the S. side and nearer the entrance to the bay, and received the name of Espirito Santo. The old site is still occupied, and is known as Villa Velha (Old Town). The name of Victoria was adopted in 1558 in commemoration of a crushing defeat inflicted by Fernando da Sa on the allied tribes of the Aimores, Tapininguins and Goitacazes in that year. It was attacked (1592) by the freebooter Cavendish, who was repelled by one of the forts at the entrance to the bay. VICTORIA, the capital of British Columbia and the principal city of Vancouver Island, in the S.E. corner of which it is finely situated (48° 25' 20" N., 123° 22' 24" W.), on a small arm of the sea, its harbour, however, only admitting vessels drawing 18 ft. Pop. (1906) about 25,000. It is the oldest city in the province. It has fine streets, handsome villas and public buildings, government offices and churches. The high school is affiliated with McGill University, in Montreal. Victoria is connected with the mainland by cable, and is a favourite tourist resort for the whole west coast of North America. Till 1858 Victoria was a post of the Hudson's Bay Company. The city was incorporated in 1862, and according to the census of 1886 the population was 14,000, including Chinese and Indians, spread over an area of 4 sq. m. Until the redistribution of the fleet in 1905, the headquarters of the British Pacific squadron was at Esquimalt, a fine harbour about 3 m. W. of Victoria. This harbour, though spacious, is not much used by merchant vessels. It is provided with a large dry-dock and is defended by fortifications of a modern type. VICTORIA FALLS, the greatest waterfall in the world, forming the most remarkable feature of the river Zambezi, Central Africa. The falls are about midway in the course of the Zambezi in 17° 51' S., 25° 41' E. For a considerable dis- tance above the falls the river flows over a level sheet of basalt, its valley bounded by low and distant sandstone hills. Its VICTORIA FALLS R i u e r v-*R~.r2r. i, vsX£"i Bowjy Walkc* K. clear blue waters are dotted with numerous tree-clad islands. These islands increase in number as the river, without quicken- ing its current, approaches the falls, whose nearness is indicated only by a veil of spray. At the spot where the Zambezi is at its widest — over 1860 yds. — it falls abruptly over the edge of an almost vertical chasm with a roar as of continuous thunder, VICTORIA NYANZA 45 sending up vast columns of vapour. Hence the native name Musi-oa-tunya, " Smoke does sound there." The chasm ex- tends the whole breadth of the river and is more than twice the depth of Niagara, varying from 256 ft. at the right bank 10343 ft. in the centre. Unlike Niagara the water does not fall into an open basin but is arrested at a distance of from 80 to 240 ft. by the opposite wall of the chasm. Both walls are of the same height, so that the falls appear to be formed by a huge crack in the bed of the river. The only outlet is a narrow channel cut in the barrier wall at a point about three- fifths from the western end of the chasm, and through this gorge, not more than 100 ft. wide, the whole volume of the river pours for 130 yds. before emerging into an enormous zigzag trough (the Grand Canon) which conducts the river past the basalt plateau. The tremendous pressure to which the water is subjected in the confinement of the chasm causes the perpetual columns of mist which rise over the precipice. The fall is broken by islands on the lip of the precipice into four parts. Close to the right bank is a sloping cataract 36 yds. wide, called the Leaping Water, then beyond Boaruka Island, about 300 yds. wide, is the Main Fall, 473 yds. broad, and divided by Livingstone Island from the Rainbow Fall 535 yds. wide. At both these falls the rock is sharp cut and the river maintains its level to the edge of the precipice. At the left bank of the river is the Eastern Cataract, a millrace resembling the Leaping Water. From opposite the western end of the falls to Danger Point, which overlooks the entrance of the gorge, the escarpment of the chasm is covered with great trees known as the Rain Forest; looking across the gorge the eastern part of the wall (the Knife Edge) is less densely wooded. At the end of the gorge the river has hollowed out a deep pool, named the Boiling Pot. It is some 500 ft. across; its surface, smooth at low water, is at flood-time troubled by slow, enormous swirls and heavy boilings. Thence the channel turns sharply westward, beginning the great zigzag mentioned. This grand and gloomy canon is over 40 m. long. Its almost perpendicular walls are over 400 ft. high, the level of the escarp- ment being that of the lip of the falls. A little below the Boiling Pot, and almost at right angles to the falls, the canon is spanned by a bridge (completed in April 1905) which forms a link in the Cape to Cairo railway scheme. This bridge, 650 ft. long, with a main arch of 500 ft. span, is slightly below the top of the gorge. The height from low-water level to the rails is 420 ft. The volume of water borne over the falls varies greatly, the level of the river in the canon sinking as much as 60 ft. between the full flood of April and the end of the dry season in October. When the river is high the water rolls over the main falls in one great unbroken expanse; at low water (when alone it is possible to look into the grey depths of the great chasm) the falls are broken by crevices in the rock into numerous cascades. The falls are in the territory of Rhodesia. They were dis- covered by David Livingstone on the i;th of November 1855, and by him named after Queen Victoria of England. Living- stone approached them from above and gained his first view of the falls from the island on its lip now named after him. In 1860 Livingstone, with Dr (afterwards Sir John) Kirk, made a careful investigation of the falls, but until the opening of the railway from Bulav/ayo (1905) they were rarely visited. The land in the vicinity of the falls is preserved by the Rhodesian government as a public park. See Livingstone's Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (London, 1857) for the story of the discovery of the falls, and the Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries 1858-1864 (London, 1894) 'or a fuller description of the falls and a theory as to their origin. How I crossed Africa, by Major Serpa Pinto (English trans., London, 1881), contains a graphic account of the visit paid to the falls by the Portuguese explorer. In the Geographical Journal for January 1905 is an article by A. J. C. Molyneux on " The Physical History of the Victoria Falls." The article is illustrated by excellent photo- graphs and gives a bibliography. Consultalso" The Gorge and Basin of the Zambesi below the Victoria Falls," by G. W. Lamplugh in the Geog. Jour. (1908), vol. xxxi. (F. R. C.) VICTORIA NYANZA, the largest lake in Africa and chief reservoir of the Nile, lying between o° 20' N. to 3° S. and 31° 40' to 34° 52' E. Among the fresh-water lakes of the world it is exceeded in size by Lake Superior only and has an area of over 26,000 sq. m., being nearly the size of Scotland. In shape it is an irregular quadrilateral, but its shores, save on the west, are deeply indented. Its greatest length, taking into account the principal gulfs. N. to S. is 250 m., its greatest breadth 200 m. Its coast-line exceeds 2000 m. It fills a depression in the central part of the great plateau which stretches between the western (Albertine) and eastern rift-valleys (see AFRICA, § i), and has an elevation of about 3720 ft. above the sea.1 Its greatest ascertained depth is some 270 ft., which compares with soundings of 2000 ft. on Tanganyika and 2500 ft. on Nyasa. Victoria Nyanza is remarkable for the severe and sudden storms which sweep across it, rendering navigation dangerous. It contains many groups of islands, the majority being near the coast-line. The lake is full of reefs, many just below the surface of the water, which is clear and very fresh. It is abundantly stocked with fish. Geological research shows that the land surrounding the lake consists of gneiss, quartz and schistose rocks, covered, in the higher regions, with marl and red clay, and in the valleys with a rich black loam. Shores and Islands. — The shores of the lake present varied aspects. The western coast, which contains no large indentations, is, in its southern part, backed by precipices of 300 or more ft. high, behind which rise downs to thrice the height of the cliffs. Going north, the hills give way to papyrus and ambach swamps, which mark the delta of the Kagera. Beyond the mouth of that river the hills reappear, and increase in height, till on reaching the N.W. corner of the nyanza they rise some 500 ft. above the water. This western shore is marked by a continuous fault line which runs parallel to the lake at a short distance inland. The northern coast of the lake is very deeply indented and is marked throughout its length by rocky headlands jutting into the waters. This high land is very narrow, and the streams which rise on its northern face within a mile or two of the nyanza drain north away from the lake. On a promontory about 30 m. east of the Katonga (see below) is Entebbe, the port of Uganda and seat of the British administration. The chief indenta- tions on the north side are Murchison Bay and Napoleon Gulf, the entrance to the last named being partly filled by the triangular- shaped island of Buvuma or Uvuma (area 160 sq. m.). Napoleon Gulf itself is deeply indented, one bay, that of Jinja, running N.W. and being the outlet of the Nile, the water here forcing its way through the rock-bound shore of the lake. The north-east corner of the lake is flat and bare. A narrow channel, partly masked by islands, leads into Kavirondo Gulf, which, with an average width of 6 m., extends 45 m. E. of the normal coast-line — a fact taken advantage of in building the railway from Mombasa to the lake. A promontory, 174 ft. above lake-level, jutting into the small bay of Ugowe, at the north-east end of Kavirondo Gulf, is the point where the railway terminates. The station is known as Port Florence. On the south side of the gulf tall hills approach, and in some cases reach, the water's edge, and behind them towers the rugged range of Kasagunga with its saw-like edge. Proceeding south the shore trends generally south-west and is marked with many deep inlets, the coast presenting a succession of bold bluffs, while inland the whole district is distinctly mountainous. At the S.E. corner of the lake Speke Gulf projects eastward, and at the S.W. corner Emin Pasha Gulf pushes southward. Here the coast is barren and hilly, while long ridges of rock run into the lake. The largest island in the lake, Ukerewe, on the S.E. coast, imme- diately north of Speke Gulf, is almost a peninsula, but the strip of land connecting it with the shore is pierced by two narrow channels about j of a mile long. Ukerewe is 25 m. long, and 12 broad at its greatest width. It is uninhabited, wooded and hilly, rising 650 ft. above the lake. At the N.W. corner of the nyanza is the Sess6 archipelago, consisting of sixty-two islands. The largest island jn this group, namely, Bugala, is narrow, resembling the letter S in shape, and is almost cut in two in the middle. Most of these islands are densely forested, and some of them attain considerable elevation. Their scenery is of striking beauty. Forty-two were inhabited.1 Buvuma Island, at the entrance of Napoleon Gulf, has already been mentioned. Between it and as far as the mouth of Kavirondo Gulf are numerous other islands, of which the chief are Bugaia, Lolui, Rusunga and Mfwanganu. In general char- acteristics and the beauty of their scenery these islands resemble those of the Sesse' archipelago. The islands are of ironstone forma- tion overlying quartzite ana crystalline schists. Rivers. — The Kagera, the largest and most important of the lake 1 For the altitude see Geog. Jour., March 1907 and July 1908. * To prevent the spread of sleeping sickness the inhabitants were removed to the mainland (1909). 46 VICTORINUS— VICTOR-PERRIN affluents, which has its rise in the hill country east of Lake Kivu, and enters the west side of the nyanza just north of I ° S., is described in the article NILE, of which it is the most remote head-stream. The other rivers entering Victoria Nyanza from the west are the Katonga and Ruizi, both north of the Kagera. The Katonga rises in the plateau east of the Dweru branch of Albert Edward Nyanza, and after a sluggish course of 155 m. enters Victoria Nyanza in a wide swamp at its N.W. corner. The Ruizi (180 m.) is a deep, wide and swift stream with sinuous course flowing in part through great gorges and in part through large swamps. It rises in the Ankole district and reaches the nyanza a little north of the Kagera. Be- tween the Katonga and the Nile outlet, the rivers which rise close to the lake drain away northward, the watershed being the lake shore. On the N.E. side of the nyanza, however, several con- siderable streams reach the lake — notably the Sio, Nzoia and Lukos (or Yala). The Nzoia (150 m.), the largest of the three, rises in the foothills of the Elgeyo escarpment and flows swiftly over a rocky bed in a south-westerly direction, emptying into the lake south of Berkeley Bay. On the east side the Mara Dabagh enters the lake between 1° and 2° S. It is, next to the Kagera, the largest of the lake tributaries. All the rivers mentioned are per- ennial, and most of them bring down a considerable volume of water, even in the dry season. On the S., S.E. and S.W. shores a number of short rivers drain into the lake. They traverse a tree- less and arid region, have but an intermittent flow, and are of little importance in the hydrography of the district. The only outlet of the lake is the Nile (q.v.). Drainage Area, Rainfall and Lake Level. — The very important part played by the Victoria Nyanza in the Nile system has led to careful study of its drainage basin and rainfall and the perplexing variations in the level of the lake. The area drained by the lake covers, with the lake itself, 92,240 sq. m. In part it is densely forested, part consists of lofty mountains, and a considerable portion is somewhat arid tableland. According to the calculations of Sir William Garstin the rainfall over the whole area averages 50 in. a year. Allowing that as much as 25 % of this amount enters the lake, this is equivalent to a total of 138,750,000,000 cub. metres in a year. Measurements at the Ripon Falls show that 18,000,000,000, or some 13% of this amount, is taken off by the Nile, and when allow- ance has been made for the annual rise and fall of the lake-level it is apparent that by far the greater part of the water which enters the nyanza is lost by evaporation; in fact, that the amount drawn off by the river plays a comparatively small part in the annual oscillation of the water surface. Rain falls more or less in every month, but is heaviest during March, April, May and again in September, October and November. The level of the lake is chiefly affected by the autumn rains and generally reaches its maximum in July. The annual rise and fall is on an average from I to 3 ft., but between November 1900 and June 1901 a difference of 42 in. was recorded. Considerable speculation was caused by the fact that whereas in 1878-79 the lake-level was high, from 1880 to 1890 the level was falling, and that after a few years (1892-95) of higher level there was, from 1896 to 1902, again a steady fall, amounting in seven years to 30 in. in the average levels of the lake. In 1903, however, the level rose and everywhere the land gained from the lake in the previous years was flooded. These variations are attributed by Sir William Garstin to deficiency or excess of rainfall. Any secular shrinking of the lake in common with the lakes of Central Africa generally must be so gradual as to have no practical importance. It must also be remembered that in such a vast sheet of water as is the nyanza the wind exercises an influence on the level, tending to pile up the water at different parts of the lake. The winds may also be the cause of the daily variation of level, which on Speke Gulf has been found to reach 20 in.; but this may also partake of the character of a " seiche." Currents setting towards the north or north-west have been observed in various parts of the lake. Discovery and Exploration. — The quest for the Nile sources led to the discovery of the lake by J. H. Speke in 1858, and it was by him named Victoria in honour of the queen of England. In 1862 Speke and his companion, J. A. Grant, partially explored the N.W. shore, leaving the lake at the Nile outlet. Great differences of opinion existed as to its size until its circum- navigation in 1874 by H. M. Stanley, which proved it to be of vast extent. The invitation sent by King Mtesa of Uganda through Stanley to the Christian missionaries led to the despatch from England in 1876 of the Rev. C. T. Wilson, to whom we owe our first detailed knowledge of the nyanza. Mr Wilson and Lieut. Shergold Smith, R.N., made, in 1877, the first voyage across the nyanza. Lieut. Smith and a Mr O'Neill, both members of the Church Missionary Society, were in the same year murdered on Ukerewe Island. In 1889 Stanley further explored the lake, discovering Einin Pasha Gulf, the entrance to which is masked by several islands. In 1890 the ownership of the lake was divided by Great Britain and Germany, the first degree of south latitude being taken as the boundary line. The southern portion, which fell to Germany, was visited and described by scientists of that nation, whose objects, however, were not primarily geographic. At the instance of the British Foreign Office a survey of the northern shores of the lake was carried out in 1899-1900 by Commander B. Whitehouse, R.N. The same officer, in 1903, undertook, in agreement with the German government, a survey of the southern shores. Com- mander Whitehouse's work led to considerable modification of the previously accepted maps. He discovered numerous islands and bays whose existence had previously been unknown. Previously to 1896 navigation was confined to Arab dhows, which trade between the. south end of the lake and Uganda, and to canoes. In the year named a small steamer (the" Ruwen- zori ") was launched on the lake by a Zanzibar firm, .while in 1900 a somewhat larger steamer (the " William Mackinnon" ), built in Glasgow at the instance of Sir W. Mackinnon, and afterwards taken over by the British government, made her first trip on the lake. In 1903, the year in which the railway from Mombasa to the lake was completed, a steamer of 600 tons burden was launched at Port Florence. Since that date trade has considerably increased. See NILE and UGANDA and the British Blue-book Egypt No. 2 (1904), which is a Report by Sir Wm. Garstin upon the Basin of the Upper Nile. This report, besides giving (pp. 4-24) much original information upon the Victoria Nyanza, summarizes the informa- tion of previous travellers, whose works are quoted. In 1908 the British Admiralty published a chart of the lake (scale 4 in. to the mile) from the surveys of Commander Whitehouse. Non-official books which deal with the lake include: C. T. Wilson, Uganda and the Soudan (London, 1882) ; (Sir) F. D. Lugard, The Rise of our East African Empire, vol. ii. (London, 1893) ; Franz Stuhlmann, Mil Emin Pasha, &c. (Berlin, 1894); Paul Kollmann, The Victoria Nyanza (English translation; London, 1899); E. G. Ravenstein, " The Lake-level of the Victoria Nyanza," Geographical Journal, October 1901 ; Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902). In most of these publications the descriptions of the lake occupy but a small part. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.) VICTORINUS, GAIUS MARIUS (4th century A.D.), Roman grammarian, rhetorician and neo-Platonic philosopher, an African by birth (whence his surname Afer), lived during the reign of Constantius II. He taught rhetoric at Rome (one of his pupils being Jerome), and in his old age became a convert to Christianity. His conversion is said to have greatly influenced that of Augustine. When Julian published an edict forbidding Christians to lecture on polite literature, Victorinus closed his school. A statue was erected in his honour as a teacher in the Forum Trajanum. His translations of platonic writers are lost, but the treatise De Definilionibus (ed. T. Stangl in Tulliana et Mario-Victoriniana, Munich, 1888) is probably by him and not by Boetius, to whom it was formerly attributed. His manual of prosody, in four books, taken almost literally from the work of Aphthonius, is extant (H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi.). It is doubtful whether he is the author of certain other extant treatises attributed to him on metrical and grammatical subjects, which will be found in Keil. His com- mentary on Cicero's De Inventions (in Halm's Rhetores Latini Minores, 1863) is very diffuse, and is itself in need of commentary. His extant theological writings, which will be found in J. P. Migne, Cursus Patrologiae Latinae, viii., include commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians and Philippians; De Trinitate contra Arium; Ad Juslinum Manichaeum de Vera Came Christi; and a little tract on " The Evening and the Morning were one day " (the genuineness of the last two is doubtful). Some Christian poems under the name of Victorinus are probably not his. See G. Geiger, C. Marius Victorinus Afer, ein neuplalonischer Philosoph (Metten, 1888); G. Koffmann, De Mario Victorino philosopho Christiana (Breslau, 1880); R. Schmid, Marius Vic- torinus Rhetor und seine Beziehungen zu Augustin (Kiel, 1895) ; Gore in Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, iv. I (1904); Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr., 1900), 408. VICTOR-PERRIN, CLAUDE, DUKE OF BELLUNO (1764- 1841), marshal of France, was born at La Marche (Vosges) on the 7th of December 1764. In 1781 he entered the army as a private soldier, and after ten years' service he received his discharge and settled at Valence. Soon afterwards he joined the local volunteers, and distinguishing himself in the war on the Alpine frontier, in less than a year he had risen to the VICTUAL— VIDAME 47 command of a battalion. For his bravery at the siege of Toulon in 1793 he was raised to -the rank of general of brigade. He afterwards served for some time with the army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Italian campaign of 1796-97 he so acquitted himself at Mondovi, Roveredo and Mantua that he was promoted to be general of division. After commanding for some time the forces in the department of La Vendee, he was again employed in Italy, where he did good service against the papal troops, and he took a very important part in the battle of Marengo. In 1802 he was governor of the colony of Louisiana for a short time, in 1803 he commanded the Batavian army, and afterwards he acted for eighteen months (1805-6) as French plenipotentiary at Copenhagen. On the outbreak of hostilities with Prussia he joined the V. army corps (Marshal Lannes) as chief of the general staff. He distinguished himself at Saalfeld and Jena, and at Friedland he commanded the I. corps in such a manner that Napoleon gave him the marshal- ate. After the peace of Tilsit he became governor of Berlin, and in 1808 he was created duke of Belluno. In the same year he was sent to Spain, where he took a prominent part in the Peninsular War (especially at Espinosa, Talavera, Barrosa and Cadiz), until his appointment in 1812 to a corps command in the invasion of Russia. Here his most important service was in protecting the retreating army at the crossing of the Beresina. He took an active part in the wars of 1813-14, till in February of the latter year he had the misfortune to arrive too late at Montereau-sur-Yonne. The result was a scene of violent recrimination and his supersession by the emperor, who transferred his command to Gerard. Thus wounded in his amour-propre, Victor now transferred his allegiance to the Bourbon dynasty, and in December 1814 received from Louis XVIII. the command of the second military division. In 1815 he accompanied the king to Ghent, and on the second restoration he was made a peer of France. He was also president of a commission which inquired into the conduct of the officers during the Hundred Days, and dismissed Napoleon's sympathizers. In 1821 he was appointed war minister and held this office for two years. In 1830 he was major-general of the royal guard, and after the revolution of that year he retired altogether into private life. His death took place at Paris on the ist of March 1841. His papers for the period 1793-1800 have been published (Paris, 1846). VICTUAL, food, provisions, most commonly in the plural, "victuals." The word and its pronunciation came into English from the O. Fr. vitaille. The modern French and English spelling are due to a pedantic approximation to the Latin original, victualia, a neuter plural substantive formed from viclualis, victus, nourishment, provisions (vivere, to live). The most familiar use of the term is in " licensed victualler," to which the Licensing Act 1872 (§ 27) has applied the wide significance of any person selling any intoxicating liquor under a licence from a justice of the peace. Properly a " victualling house " is one where persons are provided with food and drink but not lodgings, and is thus distinct from an inn, which also provides the last. VICUGflA, one of the two wild living South American re- presentatives of the camel-tribe, a Came- lidae (see TYLOPODA). From its relative the guanaco the vicugna (Lama vicunia) differs by its inferior stature, more slender build and shorter head, as well as by the absence of bare patches or Head of Vicugna. callosities on the hind limbs. The general colour of the woolly coat is orange-red. Vicugnas live in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various parts of Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia. The wool is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is not great. VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (c. 1489-1566), Italian scholar and Latin poet, was born at Cremona shortly before the year 1490. He received the name of Marcantonio in baptism, but changed this to Marco Girolamo when he entered the order of the Canonici Regolari Lateranensi. During his early manhood he acquired considerable fame by the composition of two didactic poems in the Latin tongue, on the Came of Chess (Scacchiae Ludus) and on the Silkworm (Bombyx). This reputa- tion induced him to seek the papal court in Rome, which was rapidly becoming the headquarters of polite learning, the place where students might expect advancement through their literary talents. Vida reached Rome in the last years of the pontificate of Julius II. Leo X., on succeeding to the papal chair (1513), treated him with marked favour, bestowed on him the priory of St Sylvester at Frascati, and bade him compose a heroic Latin poem on the life of Christ. Such was the origin of the Christiad, Vida's most celebrated, if not his best, per- formance. It did not, however, see the light in Leo's lifetime. Between the years 1520 and 1527 Vida produced the second of his masterpieces in Latin hexameters, a didactic poem on the Art of Poetry (see Baldi's edition, WUrzburg, 1881). Clement VII. raised him to the rank of apostolic protonotary, and in 1532 conferred on him the bishopric of Alba. It is probable that he took up his residence in this town soon after the death of Clement ; and here he spent the greater portion of his remain- ing years. Vida attended the council of Trent, where he enjoyed the society of Cardinals Cervini, Pole and Del Monte, together with his friend the poet Flaminio. A record of their conversations may be studied in Vida's Latin dialogue De Republica. Among his other writings should be mentioned three eloquent orations in defence of Cremona against Pavia, composed upon the occasion of some dispute as to precedency between those two cities. Vida died at Alba on the 2 7th of September 1566. See the Life by Lancetti (Milan. 1840). VIDAME (Lat. vice-dominus) , a French feudal title. The vidame was originally, like the avoue (advocatus), an official chosen by the bishop of the diocese, with the consent of the count (see ADVOCATE). Unlike the advocate, however, the vice-dominus was at the outset an ecclesiastic, who acted as the bishop's lieutenant (locum tenens) or vicar. But the causes that changed the character of the advocatus operated also in the case of the vidame. During the Carolingian epoch, indeed, advocatus and vice-dominus were interchangeable terms; and it was only in the nth century 'that they became generally differentiated: the title of avoue being commonly reserved for nobles charged with the protection of an abbey, that of vidame for those guarding an episcopal see. With the crystallization of the feudal system in the i2th century the office of vidame, like that of avou6, had become an hereditary fief. As a title, however, it was much less common and also less dignified than that of avoufi. The advocali were often great barons who added their function of protector of an abbey to their own temporal sovereignty; whereas the vidames were usually petty nobles, who exercised their office in strict subordination to the bishop. Their chief functions were: to protect the temporalities of the see, to represent the bishop at the count's court of justice, to exercise the bishop's temporal jurisdiction in his name (placitum or curia vice-dominf) and to lead the episcopal levies to war. In return they usually had a house near the episcopal palace, a domain within and without the city, and sometimes the right to levy certain dues on the city. The vidames usually took their title from the see they represented, but not infrequently they styled themselves, not after their official fief, but after VIDIN— VIDYASAGAR their private seigneuries. Thus the vidame de Picquigny was the representative of the bishop of Amiens, the vidame de Gerberoy of the bishop of Beauvais. In many sees there were no vidames, their function being exercised by viscounts or chitelains. With the growth of the central power and of that of the municipalities the vidames gradually lost all importance, and the title became merely honorary See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franc.aises (Paris, 1892); Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. Niort, 1887), s. " Vice-dpminus " ; A. Mallet, " Etude hist, sur les avou£s et les vidames," in Position des theses de l'£cole des chartes (an. 1870-72). VIDIN (formerly written WIDIN or WIDDIN), a fortified river-port and the capital of a department in the extreme N.E. of Bulgaria; on the right bank of the river Danube, near the Servian frontier and 151 m. W.N.W. of Sofia. Pop. (1906) 16,168, including about 3000 Turks and 1500 Spanish Jews — descendants of the refugees who fled hither from the Inquisition in the i6th century. Vidin is an episcopal see and the head- quarters of a brigade; it was formerly a stronghold of some importance, and was rendered difficult to besiege by the sur- rounding marshes, formed where the Topolovitza and other streams join the Danube. A steam ferry connects it with Calafat, on the Rumanian bank of the Danube, and there is a branch railway to Mezdra, on the main line Sofia-Plevna. The city consists of three divisions — the modern suburbs extending beside the Danube, the citadel and the old town, still sur- rounded by walls, though only four of its nine towers remain standing. The old town, containing several mosques and synagogues and a bazaar, preserves its oriental appearance; the citadel is used as a military magazine. There are a modern cathedral, a school of viticulture and a high school, besides an ancient clock- tower and the palace (Konak) formerly occupied by the Turkish pashas. Vidin exports cereals and fruit, and is locally celebrated for its gold and silver filigree. It has important fisheries and manufactures of spirits, beer and tobacco. Vidin stands on the site of the Roman town of Bononia in Moesia Superior, not to be confounded with the Pannonian Bononia, which stood higher up the Danube to the north of Sirmium. Its name figures conspicuously in the military annals of medieval and recent times; and it is specially memorable for the overthrow of the Turks by the imperial forces in 1689 and for the crushing defeat of the hospodar Michael Sustos by Pasvan Oglu in 1801. It was again the scene of stirring events during the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1854-55 and 1877-78, and successfully resisted the assaults of the Servians in the Servo-Bulgarian War of 1886-87. VIDOCQ, FRANCOIS EUGENE (1775-1857), French detective, was born at Arras in 1775 (or possibly 1773). After an adven- turous youth he joined the French army, where he rose to be lieutenant. At Lille he was imprisoned as the result of a quarrel with a brother officer, and while in gaol became involved, possibly innocently, in the forgery of an order for the release of another prisoner. He was sentenced to eight years' hard labour, and sent to the galleys at Brest, whence he escaped twice but was recaptured. For the third time he succeeded in getting free, and lived for some time in the company of thieves and other criminals in Paris and elsewhere, making a careful study of their methods. He then offered his services as a spy to the Paris police (1809). The offer was accepted, on condition that he should extend his knowledge of the criminal classes by himself serving a further term in prison in Paris, and subse- quently Vidocq was made chief of the reorganized detective department of the Paris police, with a body of ex-convicts under his immediate command. In this capacity Vidocq was ex- tremely successful, for he possessed unbounded energy and a real genius for hunting down criminals. In 1827, having saved a considerable sum of money, he retired from his post and started a paper-mill, the work-people in which were drawn entirely from ex-convicts. The venture, however, was a failure, and in 1832 Vidocq re-entered the police service and was em- ployed mainly in political work, though given no special office. Anxious to get back to his old detective post he himself foolishly organized a daring theft. The authorities were unable to trace the thieves, who at the proper moment were " discovered " by Vidocq. His real part in the matter became known, however, and he was dismissed from service. He subsequently started a private inquiry agency, which was indifferently successful, and was finally suppressed. Vidocq died in great poverty in 1857. Several volumes have been published under his name, the best known of which is Memoires de Vidocq (1828). It is, however, extremely doubtful whether he wrote any of them. See Charles Ledru, La Vie, la mart et les derniers moments de Vidocq (Paris, 1857). VIDYASAGAR, ISWAR CHANDRA (1820-1891), writer and social reformer of Bengal, was born at Birsinha in the Midnapur district in 1820, of a Kulin Brahman family. He was removed to Calcutta at the age of nine, was admitted into the Sanskrit College, and carried on his studies in the midst of privations and extreme poverty. In 1839 he obtained the title of Vidyasagar ( = " Ocean of learning ") after passing a brilliant examination, and in 1850 was appointed head pandit of Fort William College. In 1846 appeared his first work in Bengali prose, The Twenty- Five Tales of a Rctal. This was succeeded by his Sakuntala in 1855, and by his greatest work, The Exile of Sila, in 1862. These are marked by a grace and beauty which Bengali prose had never known before. The literature of Bengal, previous to the igth century, was entirely in verse. Ram Mohan Roy, the religious reformer of Bengal, created the literary prose of Bengal early in the igth century by his numerous translations and religious tracts; and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his fellow- worker, Akhay Kumar Datta, added to its power and beauty about the middle of that century. These three writers are generally re- cognized as the fathers of Bengali prose literature. As a social reformer and educationist, too, Iswar Chandra made his mark. He associated himself with Drinkwater Bethune in the cause of female education; and the management of the girls' school, called after Bethune, was entrusted to him in 1851. And when Rosomoy Datta resigned the post of secretary to the Sanskrit College of Calcutta, a new post of principal was created, and Iswar Chandra was appointed to it. Iswar Chandra's influence in the education department was now unbounded. He simpli- fied the method of learning Sanskrit, and thus spread a know- ledge of that ancient tongue among his countrymen. He was consulted in all educational matters by Sir Frederick Halliday, the first lieutenant-governor of Bengal. And when the great scheme of education under Sir Charles Wood's despatch of 1854 was inaugurated in India, Iswar Chandra established numerous aided schools under that scheme in the most advanced districts of Bengal. In 1858 he resigned his appointment under govern- ment, and shortly afterwards became manager of the Metro- politan Institution, a private college at Calcutta. But a greater task than literary work or educational reforms claimed his attention. He had discovered that the ancient Hindu scriptures did not enjoin perpetual widowhood, and in 1855 he startled the Hindu world by his work on the Remarriage of Hindu Widows. Such a work, from a learned and presumably orthodox Brahman, caused the greatest excitement, but Iswar Chandra remained unmoved amidst a storm of indignation. Associating himself with the most influential men of the day, like Prosonno Kumar Tagore and Ram Gopal Ghosh, he appealed to the British government to declare that the sons of remarried Hindu widows should be considered legitimate heirs. The British govern- ment responded; the act was passed in 1856, and some years after Iswar Chandra's own son was married to a widow. In the last years of his life Iswar Chardra wrote works against Hindu polygamy. He was as well known for his charity and wide philanthropy as for his educational and social reforms. His large income, derived from the sale of school-books, was devoted almost entirely to the succour of the needy; hundreds of young men owed their education to him; hundreds of widows depended on him for their daily bread. The Indian government made him a Companion of the Indian Empire in 1880. He died on the 29th of July 1891. (R. C. D.) VIEIRA 49 VIEIRA, ANTONIO (1608-1697), Portuguese Jesuit and writer, the " prince of Catholic pulpit-orators of his time," was born in Lisbon on the 6th of February 1608. Accompanying his parents to Brazil in 1615 he received his education at the Jesuit college at Bahia. He entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1625, and two years later pronounced his first vows. At the age of eighteen he was teaching rhetoric, and a little later dogmatic theology, at the college of Olinda, besides writing the " annual letters " of the province. In 1635 he received the priesthood. He soon began to distinguish himself as an orator, and the three patriotic sermons he delivered at Bahia (1638-40) are remarkable for their imaginative power and dignity of language. The sermon for the success of the arms of Portugal against Holland was considered by the Abb6 Raynal to be " perhaps the most extraordinary discourse ever heard from a Christian pulpit." When the revolution of 1640 placed John IV. on the throne of Portugal, Brazil gave him its allegi- ance, and Vieira was chosen to accompany the viceroy's son to Lisbon to congratulate the new king. His talents and aptitude for affairs impressed John IV. so favourably that he appointed him royal preacher, gave him free access to the palace and constantly consulted him on the business of the state. Pos- sessed of great political sagacity and knowledge of the lessons of history, Vieira used the pulpit as a tribune from which he propounded measures for improving the general and particularly the economic condition of Portugal. His pen was as busy as his voice, and in four notable pamphlets he advocated the crea- tion of companies of commerce, the abolition of the distinction between Old and New Christians, the reform of the procedure of the Inquisition and the admission of Jewish and foreign traders, with guarantees for their security from religious per- secution. Moreover, he did not spare his own estate, for in his Sexagesima sermon he boldly attacked the current style of preaching, its subtleties, affectation, obscurity and abuse of metaphor, and declared the ideal of a sermon to be one which sent men away " not contented with the preacher, but discon- tented with themselves." In 1647 Vieira began his career as a diplomat, in the course of which he visited England, France, Holland and Italy. In his Papel Forte he urged the cession of Pernambuco to the Dutch as the price of peace, while his mission to Rome in 1650 was undertaken in the hope of arranging a marriage between the heir to the throne of Portugal and the only daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain. His success, freedom of speech and reforming zeal had made him enemies on all sides, and only the intervention of the king prevented his expulsion from the Company of Jesus, so that prudence coun- selled his return to Brazil. In his youth he had vowed to consecrate his life to the con- version of the negro slaves and native Indians of his adopted country, and arriving in Maranhao early in 1653 he recom- menced his apostolic labours, which had been interrupted during his stay of fourteen years in the Old World. Starting from Par and sin 0/45, was resolved by him at once, all the twenty-three positive roots of which the said equation was capable being given at the same time (see TRIGONOMETRY). Such was the first encounter of the two scholars. A second took place when Vieta pointed to Apollonius's problem of taction as not yet being mastered, and Adriaan van Roomen gave a solution by the hyperbola. Vieta, however, did not accept it, as there existed a solution by means of the rule and the compass only, which he published himself in his Apollonius Callus (1600). In this paper Vieta made use of the centre of similitude of two circles. Lastly he gave an infinite product for the number v (see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF). Vieta's collected works were issued under the title of Opera Mathematica by F. van Schooten at Leiden in 1646. (M CA ) VIEUXTEMPS, HENRI (1820-1881), Belgian violinist and composer, was born at Venders, on the 2oth of February 1820. Until his seventh year he was a pupil of Lecloux, but when De Beriot heard him he adopted him as his pupil, taking him to appear in Paris in 1828. From 1833 onwards he spent the greater part of his life in concert tours, visiting all parts of the world with uniform success. He first appeared in London at a Philharmonic concert on the 2nd of June 1834, and in the following year studied composition with Reicha in Paris, and began to produce a long series of works, full of formidably difficult passages, though also of pleasing themes and fine musical ideas, which are consequently highly appreciated by violinists. From 1846 to 1852 he was solo violinist to the tsar, and professor in the conservatorium in St Petersburg. From 1871 to 1873 he was teacher of the violin class in the Brussels Conservatoire, but was disabled by an attack of paralysis in the latter year, and from that time could only superintend the studies of favourite pupils. He died at Mustapha, in Algiers, on the 6th of June 1881. He had a perfect command of technique, faultless intonation and a marvellous command of the bow. His staccato was famous all over the world, and his tone was exceptionally rich and full. VIGAN, a town and the capital of the province of Ilocos Sur, Luzon, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Abra river, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. of the municipality (1903) 14,945; after the census of 1903 was taken there were united to Vigan the municipalities of Bantay (pop. 7020), San Vicente (pop. 5060), Santa Catalina (pop. 5625) and Coayan (pop. 6201), making the total population of the municipality 38,851. Vigan is the residence of the bishop of Nueva Segovia and has a fine cathedral, a substantial court-house, other durable public buildings and a monument to Juan de Salcedo, its founder. It is engaged in farming, fishing, the manufacture of brick, tile, cotton fabrics and furniture, and the building of boats. The language is Ilocano. VIGlJE-LEBRUN, MARIE-ANNE ELISABETH (1755-1842), French painter, was born in Paris, the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first instruction, though she bene- fited more by the advice of Doyen, Greuze, Joseph Vernet and other masters of the period. When only about twenty years of age she had already risen to fame with her portraits of Count Orloff and the duchess of Orleans, her personal charm making her at the same time a favourite in society. In 1776 she married the painter and art-critic J. B. P. Lebrun, and in 1783 her picture of " Peace bringing back Abundance" (now at the Louvre) gained her the membership of the Academy. When the Revolution broke out in 1789 she escaped first to Italy, , where she worked at Rome and Naples. At Rome she painted the portraits of Princesses Adelaide and Victoria, and at Naples the " Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante " now in the collection of Mr Tankerville Chamberlayne; and then jour- neyed to Vienna, Berlin and St Petersburg. She returned to Paris in 1781, but went in the following year to London, where she painted the portraits of Lord Byron and the prince of Wales, and in 1808 to Switzerland. Her numerous journeys, and the vogue she enjoyed wherever she went, account for the numerous portraits from her brush that are to be found in the great collections of many countries. Having returned to France from Switzerland, she lived first at her country house near Marly and then in Paris, where she died at the age of eighty-seven, in 1842, having been widowed for twenty-nine years. She published her own memoirs under the title of Souvenirs (Paris, 1835-37). Among her many sitters was VIGEVANO— VIGILANCE COMMITTEE 59 Marie Antoinette, of whom she painted over twenty portraits between 1779 and 1789. A portrait of the artist is in the hall of the painters at the Uffizi, and another at the National Gallery. The Louvre owns two portraits of Mme Lebrun and her daughter, besides five other portraits and an allegorical com- position. A full account of her eventful life is given in the artist's Souvenirs, and in C. Fillet's Mme Vigee-Le Brun (Paris, 1890). The artist's autobiography has been translated by Lionel Strachey, Memoirs of Mme Vigee-Lebrun (New York, 1903), fully illustrated. VIGEVANO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Pavia, on the right bank of the Ticino, 24 m. by rail S.W. from Milan on the line to Mortara, 381 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,043 (town); 23,560 (commune). It is a medieval walled town, with an arcaded market-place, a cathedral, the Gothic church of S. Francesco, and a castle of the Sforza family, dating from the I4th century and adorned with a loggia by Bramante and a tower imitating that of Filarete in the Castello Sforzesco at Milan. It is a place of some importance in the silk trade and also produces excellent macaroni. There is a steam tramway to Novara. VfGFtiSSON. GtiDBRANDR (1828-1889), the foremost Scandinavian scholar of the igth century, was born of a good and old Icelandic family in BreiSaf jord in 1828. He was brought up, till he went to a tutor's, by his kinswoman, Kristm Vigfuss- dottir, to whom, he records, he " owed not only that he became a man of letters, but almost everything." He was sent to the old and famous school at Bessastad and (when it removed thither) at Reykjavik; and in 1849, already a fair scholar, he came to Copenhagen University as a bursarius in the Regense College. He was, after his student course, appointed stipendiarius by the Arna-Magnaean trustees, and worked for fourteen years in the Arna-Magnaean Library till, as he said, he knew every scrap of old vellum and of Icelandic written paper in that whole collection. During his Danish life he twice revisited Iceland (last in 1858), and made short tours in Norway and South Germany with friends. In 1866, after some months in London, he settled down in Oxford, which he made his home for the rest of his life, only quitting it for visits to the great Scandi- navian libraries or to London (to work during two or three long vacations with his fellow-labourer, F. Y. Powell), or for short trips to places such as the Isle of Man, the Orkneys and Shetlands, the old mootstead of the West Saxons at Downton, the Roman station at Pevensey, the burial-place of Bishop Brynjulf's ill-fated son at Yarmouth, and the like. He held the office of Reader in Scandinavian at the university of Oxford (a post created for him) from 1884 till his death. He was a Jubilee Doctor of Upsala, 1877, and received the Danish order of the Dannebrog in 1885. Vigfusson died of cancer on the 3ist of January 1889, and was buried in St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford, on the 3rd of February. He was an excellent judge of literature, reading most European languages well and being acquainted with their classics. His memory was remarkable, and if the whole of the Eddie poems had been lost, he could have written them down from memory. He spoke English well and idiomatically, but with a strong Icelandic accent. He wrote a beautiful, distinctive and clear hand, in spite of the thousands of lines of MS. copying he had done in his early life. By his Tunatdl (written between October 1854 and April 1855) he laid the foundations for the chronology of Icelandic history, in a series of conclusions that have not been displaced (save by his own additions and corrections), and that justly earned the praise of Jacob Grimm. His editions of Icelandic classics (1858-68), Biskopa Sogur, Bardar Saga, Forn Sogur (with Mobius), Eyrbyggia Saga and Flateyar-bok (with Unger) opened a new era of Icelandic scholar- ship, and can only fitly be compared to the Rolls Series editions of chronicles by Dr Stubbs for the interest and value of their prefaces and texts. Seven years of constant and severe toil (1866-73) were given to the Oxford Icelandic-English Dictionary, incomparably the best guide to classic Icelandic, and a monumental example of single-handed work. His later series of editions (1874-85) included Orkneymga and Hdconar Saga, the great and complex mass of Icelandic historical sagas, known as Sturlunga, and the Corpus Poeticum Boreale, in which he edited the whole body of classic Scandinavian poetry. As an introduction to the Sturlunga, he wrote a complete though concise history of the classic Northern literature and its sources. In the introduction to the Corpus, he laid the foundations of a critical history of the Eddie poetry and Court poetry of the North in a series of brilliant, original and well- supported theories that are gradually being accepted even by those who were at first inclined to reject them. His little Icelandic Prose Reader (with F. York Powell) (1879) furnishes the English student with a pleasant and trustworthy path to a sound knowledge of Icelandic. The Grimm Centenary Papers (1886) give good examples of the range of his historic work, while his Appendix on Icelandic currency to Sir G. W. Dasent's Burnt Njal is a model of methodical investigation into an intricate and somewhat import- ant subject. As a writer in his own tongue he at once gained a high position by his excellent and delightful Relations of Travel in Norway and South Germany. In English, as his " Visit to Grimm " and his powerful letters to The Times show, he had attained no mean skill. His life is mainly a record of well-directed and efficient labour in Denmark and Oxford. (F. Y. P.) VIGIL (Lat. vigtiia, "watch"), in the Christian Church, the eve of a festival. The use of the word is, however, late, the vigiliae (pernoctationes, ira.vwx(Jt>K) having originally been the services, consisting of prayers, hymns, processions and some- times the eucharist, celebrated on the preceding night in pre- paration for the feast. The oldest of the vigils is that of Easter Eve, those of Pentecost and Christmas being instituted somewhat later. With the Easter vigil the eucharist was specially asso- ciated, and baptism with that of Pentecost (see WHITSUNDAY). The abuses connected with nocturnal vigils1 led to their being attacked, especially by Vigilentius of Barcelona (c. 400), against whom Jerome fulminated in this as in other matters. The custom, however, increased, vigils being instituted for the other festivals, including those of saints. In the middle ages the nocturnal vigtiia were, except in the monasteries, gradually discontinued, matins and vespers on the preceding day, with fasting, taking their place. In the Roman Catholic Church the vigil is now usually celebrated on the morning of the day preceding the festival, except at Christmas, when a midnight mass is celebrated, and on Easter Eve. These vigils are further distinguished as privileged and unprivileged. The former (except that of the Epiphany) have special offices; in the latter the vigil is merely commemorated. The Church of England has reverted to early custom in so fa.r as only " Easter Even " is distinguished by a special collect, gospel and epistle. The other vigils are recognized in the calendar (including those of the saints) and the rubric directs that " the collect appointed for any Holy-day that hath a Vigil or Eve, shall be said at the Evening Service next before." VIGILANCE COMMITTEE, in the United States, a self- constituted judicial body, occasionally organized in the western frontier districts for the protection of life and property. The first committee of prominence bearing the name was organized in San Francisco in June 1851, when the crimes of desperadoes who had immigrated to the gold-fields were rapidly increasing in numbers and it was said that there were venal judges, packed juries and false witnesses. At first this committee was com- posed of about 200 members; afterwards it was much larger. The general committee was governed by an executive committee and the city was policed by sub-committees. Within about thirty days four desperadoes were arrested, tried by the execu- tive committee and hanged, and about thirty others were banished. Satisfied with the results, the committee then quietly adjourned, but it was revived five years later. Similar committees were common in other parts of California and in the mining districts of Idaho and Montana. That in Montana exterminated in 1863-64 a band of outlaws organized under Henry Plummer, the sheriff of Montana City, twenty-four of the outlaws were hanged within a few months. Committees or societies of somewhat the same nature were formed in the Southern states during the Reconstruction period (1865-72) to protect white families from negroes and " carpet-baggers," and besides these there were the Ku-Klux-Klan (q.v.) and its branches; the Knights of the White Camelia, the Pale Faces, and the Invisible Empire of the South, the principal object of which was to control the negroes by striking them with terror. 1 The 35th canon of the council of Elvira (305) forbids women to attend them. 6o VIGILANTIUS— VIGLIUS See H. H. Bancroft, Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); and T. J. Dimsdale, The Vigilantes of Montana (Virginia City, 1866). VIGiLANTIUS (fl. c. 400), the presbyter, celebrated as the author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious prac- tices, which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous of Jerome's polemical treatises, was born about 370 at Cala- gurris in Aquitania (the modern Cazeres or perhaps Saint Bertrand de Comminges in the department of Haute-Garonne) , where his father kept a " static " or inn on the great Roman road from Aquitania to Spain. While still a youth his talent became known to Sulpicius Severus, who had estates in that neighbourhood, and in 395 Sulpicius, who probably baptized him, sent him with letters to Paulinus of Nola, where he met with a friendly reception. On his return to Severus in Gaul he was ordained; and, having soon afterwards inherited means through the death of his father, he set out for Palestine, where he was received with great respect by Jerome at Bethlehem. The stay of Vigilantius lasted for some time; but, as was almost inevitable, he was dragged into the dispute then raging about Origen, in which he did not see fit wholly to adopt Jerome's attitude. On his return to the West he was the bearer of a letter from Jerome to Paulinus, and at various places where he stopped on the way he appears to have expressed himself about Jerome in a manner that when reported gave great offence to that father, and provoked him to write a reply (Ep. 61). Vigilantius -now settled for some time in Gaul, and is said by one authority (Gennadius) to have afterwards held a charge in the diocese of Barcelona. About 403, some years after his return from the East, Vigilantius wrote his celebrated work against superstitious practices, in which he argued against relic worship, as also against the vigils in the basilicas of the martyrs, then so common, the sending of alms to Jerusalem, the rejection of earthly goods and the attribution of special virtue to the unmarried state, especially in the case of the clergy. He thus covers a wider range than Jovinian, whom he surpasses also in intensity. He was especially indignant at the way in which spiritual worship was being ousted by the adoration of saints and their relics. All that is known of his work is through Jerome's treatise Contra Vigilantiwn, or, as that contro- versialist would seem to prefer saying, " Contra Dormitantium." Notwithstanding Jerome's exceedingly unfavourable opinion, there is no reason to believe that the tract of Vigilantius was exceptionally illiterate, or that the views it advocated were exceedingly "heretical." Soon, however, the great influence of Jerome in the Western Church caused its leaders to espouse all his quarrels, and Vigilantius gradually came to be ranked hi popular opinion among heretics, though his influence long remained potent both in France and Spain, as is proved by the polemical tract of Faustus of Rhegium (d. c. 490). VIGILIUS, pope from 537 to 555, succeeded Silverius and was followed by Pelagius I. He was ordained by order of Belisarius while Silverius was still alive; his elevation was due to Theodora, who, by an appeal at once to his ambition and, it is said, to his covetousness, had induced him to promise to disallow the council of Chalcedon, in connexion with the " three chapters " controversy. When, however, the time came for the fulfilment of his bargain, Vigilius declined to give his assent to the condemnation of that council involved in the imperial edict against the three chapters, and for this act of disobedience he was peremptorily summoned to Con- stantinople, which he reached in 547. Shortly after his arrival there he issued a document known to history as his Judicalum (548), in which he condemned indeed the three chapters, but expressly disavowed any intentions thereby to disparage the council of Chalcedon. After a good deal of trimming (for he desired to stand well with his own clergy, who were strongly orthodox, as well as with the court), he prepared another docu- ment, the Constitutum ad Imperatorem, which was laid before the so-called fifth " oecumenical " council in 553, and led to. his condemnation by the majority of that body, some say even to his banishment. Ultimately, however, he was induced to assent to and confirm the decrees of the council, and was allowed after an enforced absence of seven years to set out for Rome. He died, however, at Syracuse, before he reached his destination, on the 7th of June 553. VIGINTISEXVIRI, in Roman history, the collective name given in republican times to " twenty-six " magistrates of in- ferior rank. They were divided into six boards, two of which were abolished by Augustus. Their number was thereby reduced to twenty and their name altered to VIGINTIVIRI (" the twenty "). They were originally nominated by the higher magistrates, but subsequently elected in a body at a single sitting of the comitia tributa; under the empire they were chosen by the senate. The following are the names of the six boards: (i) Tresviri capitales (see TRESVIRI); (2) Tresviri monetales; (3) Quatuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, who had the care of the streets and roads inside the city; (4) Duoi'iri viis extra urbem purgandis (see DUOVIRI), abolished by Augustus; (5) Decemviri stlitibus judicandis (see DECEMVIRI); (6) Quatuor praefecti Capuam Cumas, abolished by Augustus. The members of the last-named board were appointed by the praetor urbanus of Rome to administer justice in ten Campanian towns (list in Mommsen), and received their name from the two most important of these. They were subsequently elected by the people under the title of quatuorviri jure dicundo, but the date is not known. See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. (1887), p. 592. VIGLIUS, the name taken by WIGLE VAN AYTTA VAN ZTHCHEM (1507-1577), Dutch statesman and jurist, a Frisian by birth, who was born on the igth of October 1507. He studied at various universities — Louvain, Dole and Bourges among others — devoting himself mainly to the study of jurisprudence, and after- wards visited many of the principal seats of learning in Europe. His great abilities attracted the notice of Erasmus and other celebrated men, and his renown was soon wide and general. Having lectured on law at the universities of Bourges and Padua, he accepted a judicial position under the bishop of Miinster which he resigned in 1535 to become assessor of the imperial court of justice (ReichskammergerichC). He would not, however, undertake the post of tutor to Philip, son of the emperor Charles V.; nor would he accept any of the many lucrative and honourable positions offered him by various European princes, preferring instead to remain at the uni- versity of Ingolstadt, where for five years he occupied a pro- fessorial chair. In 1542 the official connexion of Viglius with the Netherlands began. At the emperor's invitation he became a member of the council of Mechlin, and some years later president of that body. Other responsible positions were entrusted to him, and he was soon one of the most trusted of the ministers of Charles V., whom he accompanied during the war of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546. His rapid rise in the emperor's favour was probably due to his immense store of learning, which was useful in asserting the imperial rights where disputes arose between the empire and the estates. He was generally regarded as the author of the edict against toleration issued in 1550; a charge which he denied, maintaining, on the contrary, that he had vainly tried to induce Charles to modify its rigour. When the emperor abdicated in 1555 Viglius was anxious to retire also, but at the instance of King Philip II. he remained at his post and was rewarded by being made coadjutor abbot of St Bavon, and hi other ways. In 1559, when Margaret, duchess of Parma, became regent of the Netherlands, Viglius was an important member of the small circle who assisted her in the work of government. He was president of the privy council, member, and subsequently president, of the state council, and a member of the committee of the state council called the consulta. But his desire to resign soon returned. In 1565 he was allowed to give up the presi- dency of the state council, but was persuaded to retain his other posts. However, he had lost favour with Margaret, who accused him to Philip of dishonesty and simony, while his ortho- doxy was suspected. When the duke of Alva arrived in the Netherlands Viglius at first assisted him; but he subsequently VIGNE— VIGNY 61 opposed the duke's scheme of extortion, and sought to induce Philip himself to visit the Low Countries. His health was now impaired and his work was nearly over. Having suffered a short imprisonment with the other members of the state council in 1576, he died at Brussels on the sth of May 1577, and was buried in the abbey of St Bavon. Viglius was an advocate of peace and moderation, and as such could not expect support or sympathy from men engaged in a life-and-death struggle for liberty, or from their relentless enemies. He was undoubtedly avaricious, and accumulated great wealth, part of which he left to found a hospital at his native place, Zwichem, and a college at the university of Louvain. He married a rich lady, (Jacqueline Damant, but had no children. He wrote a Tagebuch des Schmalkaldischen Donaukriegs, edited by A. von Druffel (Munich, 1877), and some of his lectures were published under the title Commentarii in decent Institulionum tilulos (Lyons, 1564). His Vita et opera historica are given in the AnalectaBelgicaolC. P. Hoynck van Papendrecht (the Hague, 1743). See L. P. Gachard, Carres pondance de Philippe II. sur les affaires des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1848-79) ; and Correspondance de Marguerite d'Autriche, duchesse de Parme, avec Philippe II. (Brussels, 1867-81) ; and E. Poullet, Correspondance de cardinal de GranveUe (Brussels, 1877-81). VIGNE, PAUL DE (1843-1901), Belgian sculptor, was born at Ghent. He was trained by his father, a statuary, and began by exhibiting his " Fra Angelico da Fiesole " at the Ghent Salon in 1868. In 1872 he exhibited at the Brussels Salon a marble statue, " Heliotrope " (Ghent Gallery), and in 1875, at Brussels, " Beatrix " and " Domenica." He was employed by the government to execute caryatides for the conservatoire at Brussels. In 1876 at the Antwerp Salon he had busts of E. Hiel and W. Wilson, which were afterwards placed in the communal museum at Brussels. Until 1882 he lived in Paris, where he produced the marble statue " Immor- tality " (Brussels Gallery), and " The Crowning of Art," a bronze group on the facade of the Palais des Beaux-Arts at Brussels. His monument to the popular heroes, Jean Breydel and Pierre de Coninck, was unveiled at Bruges in 1887. At his death he left unfinished his principal work, the Anspach monu- ment, which was erected at Brussels under the direction of the architect Janlet with the co-operation of various sculptors. Among other notable works by De Vigne may be mentioned " Volumnia " (1875); " Poverella " (1878); a bronze bust of " Psyche " (Brussels Gallery), of which there is an ivory replica; the marble statue of Marnix de Ste Aldegonde in the Square du Sablon, Brussels; the Metdepenningen monument in the cemetery at Ghent; and the monument to Canon de Haerne at Courtrai. See E. L. Detage, Les Artistes Beiges contemporains (Brussels), and O. G. Destree, The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium (London, 1895). VIGNETTE (Fr. for " little vine "), in architecture, a running ornament, representing, as its name imports, a little vine, with branches, leaves and grapes. It is common in the Tudor period, and runs or roves in a large hollow or casement. It is also called trayle. From the transference of the term to book- illustration resulted the sense of a small picture, 'vanishing gradually at the edge. VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1797-1863), French poet, was born at Loches (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of March 1797. Sainte- Beuve, in the rather ill-natured essay which he devoted to Vigny after his death, expresses a doubt whether the title of count which the poet bore was well authenticated, and hints that no very ancient proofs of the nobility of the family were forthcoming; but it is certain that in the i8th century persons of the name occupied positions which were not open to any but men of noble birth. For generations the ancestors of Alfred de Vigny had been soldiers, and he himself joined the army, with a commission in the Household Troops, at the age of sixteen. But the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were over, and after twelve years of life in barracks he retired, preserving, however, a very high estimate of the duties and career of the soldier. While still serving he had made his mark, if as yet unrecognized, by the publication in 1822 of a volume of poems, and in 1826 by another, together with the famous prose romance of Cinq-Mars. Sainte-Beuve asserts that the poet antedated some of his most remarkable work. This may or may not be the case; he certainly could not ante- date the publication. And it so happens that some of his most celebrated pieces — Eloa, Dolorida, Mdise — appeared (1822-23) before the work of younger members of the Romantic school whose productions strongly resemble these poems. Nor is this originality limited to the point which he himself claimed in the Preface to his collected Poems in 1837 — that they were " the first of their kind in France, in which philosophic thought is clothed in epic or dramatic form." Indeed this claim is disputable in itself, and has misled not a few of Vigny's recent critics. It is in poetic, not philosophic quality, that his idiosyn- crasy and precursorship are most remarkable. It is quite certain that the other Alfred — Alfred de Mussel — felt the influence of his elder namesake, and an impartial critic might discern no insignificant marks of the same effect in the work of Hugo himself. Even Lamartme, considerably Vigny's elder and his predecessor in poetry, seems rather to have been guided by Vigny than Vigny by him. No one can read Dolo- rida or Le Cor without seeing that the author had little to learn from any of his French contemporaries and much to teach them. At the same time Vigny, from whatever cause, hardly made any further public appearance in poetry- proper during the more than thirty years of his life, and his entire poems, including posthumous fragments, form but one very small pocket volume. Cinq-Mars, which at least equalled the poems in popularity, will hardly stand the judgment of posterity so well. It had in its favour the support of the Royalist party, the immense vogue of the novels t>f Walter Scott, on which it was evidently modelled, the advantages of an exquisite style, and the taste of the day for the romance as opposed to the novel of analysis. It therefore gained a great name both in France and abroad. But any one who has read it critically must acknowledge it to be disappointing. The action is said to be dramatic; if it be so, it can only be said that this proves very conclusively that the action of drama and the action of the novel are two quite different things. To the reader who knows Scott or Dumas the story is singularly uninteresting (far less interesting than as told in history); the characters want life; and the book generally stagnates. Its author, though always as a kind of outsider (the phrase constantly applied to him in French literary essays and histories being that he shut himself up in a tour d'ivoire), attached himself more or less to the Romantic movement of 1830 and the years immediately preceding and following it, and was stimulated by this movement both to drama and to novel- writing. In the year before the revolution of July he pro- duced at the Thdatre Francais a translation, or rather paraphrase, of Othello, and an original piece, La Martchale d'Ancre. In 1832 he published the curious book Stfllo, contain- ing studies of unlucky youthful poets — Gilbert, Chatterton, Chenier — and in 1835 he brought out his drama of Chatterton, which, by the hero's suicide, shocked French taste even after five years of Romantic education, but had a considerable success. The same year saw the publication of Servitude et grandeur militaires, a singular collection of sketches rather than a con- nected work in which Vigny's military experience, his idea of the soldier's duties, and his rather poetical views of history were all worked in. The subjects of Chatlerton and Othello naturally suggest a certain familiarity with English, and in fact Alfred de Vigny knew English well, lived in England for some time and married in 1828 an Englishwoman, Lydia Bunbury. His father-in-law was, according to French gossip, so conspicuous an example of insular eccentricity that he never could remember his son-in-law's name or anything about him, except that he was a poet. By this fact, and the kindness of casual Frenchmen who went through the list of the chief living poets of their country, he was sometimes able to dis- cover his daughter's husband's designation. In 1845 Alfred de VIGO— VIKING Vigny was elected to the Academy, but made no compromise in his " discourse of reception," which was unflinchingly Romantic. Still, he produced nothing save a few scraps; and, beyond the work already enumerated, little has to be added except his Journal d'un poete and the poems called Les Destinies, edited, with a few fragments, by Louis Ratisbonne after his death. Among his dramatic work, however, should be mentioned Qutite pour la peur and an adaptation of the Merchant of Venice called Shylock. Les Deslinees excited no great admiration in France, but they contain some exceedingly beautiful poetry of an austere kind, such as the magnificent speech of Nature in " La Maison du berger " and the remarkable poem entitled " La Colere de Samson." Vigny died at Paris on the 1 7th of September 1863. His later life was almost wholly uneventful, and for the most part, as has been said, spent in retirement. His reputation, however, is perfectly secure. It may, and probably will, rest only on his small volume of poems, though it will not be lessened, as far as qualified literary criticism is concerned, should the reader proceed to the rest of the work. The whole of his non-dramatic verse does not amount to 5000 lines; it may be a good deal less. But the range of subject is comparatively wide, and extraordinary felicity of execution, not merely in language, but in thought, is evident throughout. Vigny, as may be seen in the speech of Nature referred to above, had the secret — very uncommon with French poets — of attaining solemnity without grandiosity, by means of an almost classical precision and gravity of form. The defect of volubility, of never leaving off, which mars to some extent his great contemporary Hugo, is never present in him, and he is equally free from the looseness and disorders of form which are sometimes blemishes in Musset, and from the effeminacy of Lamartine, while once more his nobility of thought and plentifulness of matter save him from the reproach which has been thought to rest on the technically perfect work of Theophile Gautier. The dramatic work is, perhaps, less likely to interest English than French readers, the local colour of Chatterton being entirely false, the sentiment conventional in the extreme, and the real pathos of the story exchanged for a commonplace devotion on the poet's part to his host's wife. In the same way, the finest passages of Othello simply disappear in Vigny's version. In his remaining works the defect of skill in managing the plot and characters of prose fiction, which has been noticed in Cinq-Mars, reappears, together (in the case of the Journal d'un poete and elsewhere) with signs of the fastidious and slightly affected temper which was Vigny's chief fault as a man. In his poems proper none of these faults appears, and he is seen wholly at his best. It should be said that of his posthu- mous work not a little had previously appeared piecemeal in the Revue des deux mondes, to which he was an occasional contributor. The prettiest of the complete editions of his works (of which there are several)is to be found in what is called thePetite bibliothequeCharpentier. For many years the critical attention paid to him was not great. Recently there has been a revival of interest as shown by mono- graphs: M. Paleologue's " Alfred de Vigny " in the Grands ecrivains francflis (180,1); L. Dorison's Alfred de Vigny, poete-philosophe (1892) and Un symbole social (1894); G. Asse's Alfred de Vigny et les editions originates de sa poesie (1895); E. Dupuy's La Jeunesse des Romantiques (1905); and E. Lauvriere's Alfred de Vigny (Paris, 1910). But in most of these rather excessive attention has been paid to the " philosophy " of a pessimistic kind which succeeded Vigny's early Christian Romanticism. This, though not unnote- worthy, is separable from his real poetical quality, and concentra- tion on it rather obscures the latter, which is of the rarest kind. It should be added that an interesting sidelight has been thrown on Vigny by the publication (1905) of his Fragments inedits sur P. et T. Corneille. (G. SA.) VIGO, a seaport and naval station of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra; on Vigo Bay (Ria de Vigo) and on a branch of the railway from Tuy to Corunna. Pop. (1900) 23,259. Vigo Bay, one of the finest of the Galician fjords, extends inland for 19 m., and is sheltered by low mountains and by the islands (Islas de Cies, ancient Insulae Siccae) at its mouth. The town is built on the south-eastern shore, and occupies a hilly site dominated by two obsolete forts. The older streets are steep, narrow and tortuous, but there is also a large modern quarter. Vigo owes its importance to its deep and spacious harbour, and to its fisheries. It is a port of call for many lines trading between Western Europe and South America. Shipbuilding is carried on, and large quanti- ties of sardines are canned for export. In 1909, 2041 ships of 2,710,691 tons (1,153,564 being British) entered at Vigo; the imports in that year, including tin and tinplate, coal, machinery, cement, sulphate of copper and foodstuffs, were valued at £481,752; the exports, including sardines, mineral waters and eggs, were valued at £554,824. The town contains flour, paper and sawmills, sugar and petroleum refineries, tanneries, distilleries and soap works; it has also a large agri- cultural trade and is visited in summer for sea-bathing. Vigo was attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and 1589. In 1702 a combined British and Dutch fleet under Sir George Rooke and the duke of Ormonde destroyed a Franco-Spanish fleet in the bay, and captured treasure to the value of about £1,000,000; numerous attempts have been made to recover the larger quantity of treasure which was supposed, on doubtful evidence, to have been sunk during the battle. In 1719 Vigo was captured by the British under Viscount Cobham. VIJAYANAGAR, or BIJANAGAR ("the city of victory"), an ancient Hindu kingdom and ruined city of southern India. The kingdom lasted from about 1336 to 1565, forming during all that period a bulwark against Mahommedan invasion from the north. Its foundation, and even great part of its history, is obscure; but its power and wealth are attested by more than one European traveller, and also by the character of the existing ruins. At the beginning of the I4th century Mahommedan raiders had effectually destroyed every Hindu principality throughout southern India, but did not attempt to occupy the country permanently. In this state of desolation Hindu nationality rose again under two brothers, named Harihara and Bukka, of whom little more can be said than that they were Kanarese by race. Hence their kingdom was afterwards known as the Carnatic. At its widest extent, it stretched across the peninsula from sea to sea, from Masulipatam to Goa; and every Hindu prince in the south acknowledged its supremacy. The site of the capital was chosen, with strategic skill, on the right bank of the river Tungabhadra, which here runs through a rocky gorge. Within thirty years the Hindu Rayas of Vijayanagar were able to hold their own against the Bahmani sultans, who had now established their independence of Delhi in the Deccan proper. Warfare with the Mahommedans across the border in the Raichur doab was carried on almost unceasingly, and with varying result. Two, or possibly three, different dynasties are believed to have occupied the throne of Vijayanagar as time went on; and its final downfall may be ascribed to the domestic dissensions thus produced. This occurred in 1565, when the confederate sultans of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda, who had divided amongst themselves the Bahmani dominions, over- whelmed the Vijayanagar army in the plain of Talikota, and sacked the defenceless city. The Raya fled south to Penukonda, and later to Chandragiri, where one of his descendants granted to the English the site of Fort St George or Madras. The city has ever since remained a wilderness of immense ruins, which are now conserved by the British government. See R. Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (1900) ; and B. S. Row, History of Vijayanagar (Madras, 1906). VIKING. The word " Viking," in the sense in which it is used to-day, is derived from the Icelandic (Old Norse) Vikingr (m.), signifying simply a sea-rover or pirate. There is also in Icelandic the allied word viking (f.), a predatory voyage. As a loan-word viking occurs in A.S. poetry (vicing or wiring), e.g. in Widsilh, Byrnoth, Exodus. During the Saga Age (900-1050), in the beginning of Norse literature, vikingr is not as a rule used to designate any class of men. Almost every young Icelander of sufficient means and position, and a very large number of young Norsemen, made one or more viking expedi- tions. We read of such a one that he went "a-viking" (fara i viking, vera i viking, or very often fara, &c., vestan i viking). The procedure was almost a recognized part of education, and was analogous to the grand tour made by our great-grandfathers in the i8th century. But the use of vtkingr in a more generic sense is still to be found in the Saga Age. If the designation of this or that personage as mikill vtkingr or rauda vikingr (red viking) be not reckoned an instance of such use, we have it at all events in the name of a small quasi-nationality, the Jomsvi- kingar, settled at Jomsborg on the Baltic (in modern Pomerania), VIKING to whom a saga is dedicated: who possessed rather peculiar institutions evidently the relic of what is now called the Viking Age, that preceded the Saga Age by a century. Another instance of such more generic use occurs in the following typical passage from the Landnamabik (Sturlab6k), where it is recorded how Harald Fairhair harried the vikings of the Scottish isles — that famous harrying which led to most of the settlement of Iceland and the birth of Icelandic literature: — " Haraldr en harfari herjaSi vestr am haf . . . Hann lagfli " undir sig allar Sudreyjar. ... En er hann f6r vestann slogust " i eyjernar vikingar ok Skotar ok Irar ok herjuftu ok raentu " (Landn., ed. Jonsson, 1906, p. 135). It is in this more generic sense that the word " viking " is now generally employed. Historians of the north have dis- tinguished as the " Viking Age " ( Vikingertiden) the time when he Scandinavian folk first by their widespread piracies brought hemselves forcibly into the notice of all the Christian peoples oi western Europe. We cannot to-day determine the exact 3mcs or provenance of these freebooters, who were a terror Jike to the Prankish empire, to England and to Ireland and vest Scotland, who only came into view when their ships nchored in some Christian harbour, and who were called now Normanni, now Dacii, now Danes, now Lochlannoch; which last, the Irish name for them, though etymologically " men of the lakes or bays," might as well be translated " Norsemen," seeing that Lochlann was the Irish for Norway. The exact etymology of vlkingr itself is not certain: for we do not know vhether vik is used in a general sense (bay, harbour) in this onnexion, or in a particular sense as the Vik, the Skagerrack and Christiania Fjord. The reason for using " viking " in a more generic sense than is warranted by the actual employ- ment of the word in Old Norse literature rests on the fact that we have no other word by which to designate the early Scandi- navian pirates of the pth and the beginning of the loth century. We cannot tell for the most part whether they came from Denmark or Norway, so that we cannot give them a national ame. " Normanner " is used by some Scandinavian writers (as by Steenstrup in his classical work Normannerne). But " Normans " has for us quite different associations. And even those who have preferred not generally to use the word " vikings " to designate the pirates and invaders, have adhered to the term " Viking Age " for the period in which they were most active (cf. Munch, Del Norske Folks Historic, Deel I. Bd. i. p. 356; Steenstrup and others, Danmarks Riges Historic, bk. ii. &c.). At the same time, the significance which the word " viking " has had in our language is due in part to a false etymology, connecting the word with "king"; the effect of which still remains in the customary pronunciation vi-king instead of vik-ing, now so much embedded in the language that it is a pedantry to try and change it. We may fairly reckon the " Viking Age " to lie between the date of the first recorded appearance of a northern pirate fleet (A.D. 789) and the settlement of the Normans in Normandy by the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 911 or 91 2. l For a few years previous to that date our chief authority for the history of the piracies and raids in the Prankish empire fails us:2 we know that the Norsemen had a few years before that date been driven in great numbers out of Ireland ; and England had been in a sense pacified through the concession of a great part of the island to the invaders by the peace of Wedmore, A.D. 878. Although, outside the information we get from Christian chroniclers, this age is for the people of the north one of complete obscurity, it is evident that the Viking Age corresponds with some universal disturbance or unrest among the Scandinavian nations, strictly analogous to the unrest among more southern Teutonic nations which many centuries before had heralded the break-up of the Roman empire, an epoch known as that of the Folk-wanderings (Volkenvander- ungen). We judge this because we can dimly see that the 1 W. Vogel gives the former date; 912 is that more commonly accepted. 1 The Annales Vedastini. impulse which was driving part of the Norse and Danish peoples to piracies in the west was also driving the Swedes and perhaps a portion of the Danes to eastward invasion, which resulted in the establishment of a Scandinavian kingdom (GarSariki) in what is now Russia, with its capital first at Novgorod, after- wards at Kiev.8 This was, in fact, the germ of the Russian empire. If we could know the Viking Age from the other, the Scandinavian side, it would doubtless present far more interest than in the form in which the Christian chroniclers present it. But from knowledge of this sort we are almost wholly cut off. We have to content ourselves with what is for the greater part of this age a mere catalogue of embarka- tions and plunderings along all the coasts of western Europe without distinctive characteristics. The Viking Raids. — The detail of these raids is quite beyond the compass of the present article, and a summary or synopsis must suffice. For all record which we have, the Viking Age was inaugurated in A.D. 789 by the appearance in England on our Dorset coast of three pirate ships " from Haerethaland " (Hardeland or Hardyssel in Denmark or Hordeland in Norway), which are said in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to be " the first ships of the Danish men " who sought the land of England. They killed the port-reeve, took some booty and sailed away. Other pirates appeared in 793 on a different coast, Northumbria, attacked a monastery on Lindisfarne (Holy Island), slaying and capturing the monks; the following year they attacked and burnt Jarrow; after that they were caught in a storm, and all perished by shipwreck or at the hands of the country- men. In 795 a fleet appeared off Glamorganshire. They attacked Man in 798 and lona in 802. But after this date for the lifetime of a generation the chief scene of viking exploits was Ireland, and probably the western coasts and islands of Scotland. The usual course of procedure among the northern adven- turers remains the same to whatever land they may direct their attacks, or during whatever years of the 9th century these attacks may fall. They begin by more or less desultory raids, in the course of which they seize upon some island, which they generally use as an arsenal or point d'appui for attacks on the mainland. At first the raids are made in the summer: the first wintering in any new scene of plunder forms an epoch so far as that country or region is concerned. Almost always for a period all power of resistance on the part of the inhabitants seems after a while and for a limited time to break down, and the plunderers to have free course wherever they go. Then they show an ambition to settle in the country, and some sort of division of territory takes place. After that the northerners assimilate themselves more or less to the other inhabitants of the country, and their history merges to a less or greater extent in that of the country at large. This course is followed in the history of the viking attacks on Ireland, the earliest of their continuous series of attacks. Thus they begin by seizing the island of Rechru (now Lambay) in Dublin Bay (A.D. 795); in the course of about twenty years we have notice of them on the northern, western and southern coasts; by A.D. 825 they have already ventured raids to a considerable distance inland. And in A.D. 832 comes a large fleet (" a great royal fleet." say the Irish annals) of which the admiral's name is given, Turgesius (Thorgeis or Thorgisl?). The new invader, though with a somewhat chequered course, extended his conquests till in A.D. 842 one-half of Ireland (called Lethcuinn, or Con's Half) seems to have submitted to him; and we have the curious picture of Turgesius establishing his wife Ota as a sort of volva, or priestess, in what had been one of Ireland's most famous and most literary monasteries, Clonmacnoise. Turgesius was, however, killed very soon after this (in 845); and though in A.D. 853 Olaf the White was over-king of Ireland, the vikings' power on the whole diminished. In the end, territory was — if by no formal treaty — ceded to their influence; and the (Irish) kingdoms of Dublin and Waterford were established on the island. 1 The word garVr (fort) is preserved in the " gorod " of Novgorod. 64 VIKING This brief sketch may be taken as the prototype of viking invasion of any region of western Christendom which was the object of their continuous attacks. Of such regions we may distinguish five. Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came others, probably also from Norway, on the western regions (coasts and islands) of Scotland. Plunderings of lona are mentioned in A.D. 802, 806. In the course of a genera- tion almost all the monastic communities in western Scotland had been destroyed. But details of these viking plunderings are wanting. On the continent there were three distinct regions of attack. First the mouth of the Scheldt. There the Danes very early settled on the island of Walcheren, which bad in fact been given by the emperor Louis the Pious in fief to a Danish fugitive king, Harald by name, who sought the help of Louis, and adopted Christianity. After the partition of the territory of Charlemagne's empire among the sons of Louis the Pious, Walcheren and the Scheldt-mouth fell within the possessions of the emperor Lothair, and in the region sub- sequently distinguished as Lotharingia. From this centre, the Scheldt, the viking raids extended on either side; some- times eastward as far as the Rhine, and so into Germany proper, the territory assigned to Louis the German; at other times westward to the Somme, and thus into the territory of Charles the Bald, the future kingdom of France. In the event, toward the end of the Qth century all Frisia between Walcheren and the German Ocean seems to have become the permanent possession of the invaders. In like fashion was it with the next district, that of the Seine, only that here no important island served the pirates for their first arsenal and winter quarters. The serious attacks of the pirates in any part of the empire distant from their own lands begin about the time of the battle of Fontenoy between Louis' sons (A.D. 841). The first wintering of the vikings in the Seine territory (A.D. 850) was in " Givoldi fossa," the tomb of one Givoldus, not far from the mouth of the river, but no longer exactly determinable. Their first attack on Paris was in A.D. 845: a much more important but unsuccessful one took place in A.D. 885-87, un- successful that is so far as the city itself was concerned; but the invaders received an indemnity for raising the siege and leave to pass beyond Paris into Burgundy. The settlement of Danes under Rollo or Rolf on the lower Seine, i.e. in Normandy, dates from the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 912 (or 911). The third region is the mouth of the Loire. Here the island point d'appui was Noirmoutier, an island with an abbey at the Loire mouth. The northmen wintered there in A.D. 843. No region was more often ravaged than that of the lower Loire, so rich in abbeys — St Martin of Tours, Marmoutiers, St Bene- dict, &c. But the country ceded to the vikings under Hasting at the Loire mouth was insignificant and not in permanent occupation. Near the end of the gth century, however, the plundering expeditions which emanated from these three sources became so incessant and so widespread that we can signalize no part of west France as free from them, at the same time that the vikings wrought immense mischief in the Rhine country and in Burgundy. The defences of west France seem quite to have broken down, as did the Irish when Turgesius took " Con's half," or when in A.D. 853 Olaf the White became over-king of Ireland. Unfortunately at this point our best authority ceases; and we cannot well explain the changes which brought about the Christianization of the Normans and their settlement in Normandy as vassals, though recalcitrant ones, of the West Frankish kings. For the viking attacks in the sth (or 6th) territory, our own country, the course of events is much clearer. As a part of English history it is, however, sufficiently known, and the briefest summary thereof must suffice. That will show how in its general features it follows the normal course. The first appearance of the vikings in England we saw was in A.D. 789. The first serious attacks do not begin till 838. The island of Sheppey, however, was attacked in 835, and in the following year the vikings entrenched themselves there. The first wintering of the pirates in England was on the contiguous island of Thanet in A.D. 850. The breakdown of the English defences in all parts of the country save Wessex dates from 868: in Wessex that occurs in 877-88. But the position is suddenly recovered by Alfred in 878, by the battle of Aethandune, as suddenly though not so unaccountably as it was later in West Francia. As Rollo was to do in 912, the Danish leader Guthorm received baptism, taking the name of Aethelstan, and settled in his assigned territory, East Anglia, according to the terms of the peace of Wedmore. But the forces which Alfred de- feated at Aethandune represented but half of the viking army in England at the time. The other half under Halfdan (Ragnar Lodbrog's son?) had never troubled itself about Wessex, but had taken firm possession in Northumbria. The six territories which we have signalized — Ireland, Western Scotland, England, the three in West Francia which merge into each other by the end of the 9th century — do not comprise the whole field of viking raids or attempted invasion. For farther still to the east they twice sailed up the Elbe (A.D. 851, 880) and burnt Hamburg. Southwards they plundered far up the Garonne, and in the north of Spain; and one fleet of them sailed all round Spain, plundering, but attempting in vain to establish themselves in this Arab caliphate. They plundered on the opposite African coast, and at last got as far as the mouth of the Rhone, and thence to Luna in Italy. What we found in the case of the Irish raids, that at first they are quite anonymous, but that presently the names of the captains of the expeditions emerge, is likewise the case in all other lands. In Ireland, besides the important and successful Turgesius, we read of a Saxulf who early met his death, as well as of Ivar (Ingvar) , famous also in England and called the son of Ragnar Lodbrog, and of Oisla, Ivar's comrade; finally (the vikings in Ireland being mostly of Norse descent) of the well- known Olaf the White, who became king of all the Scandinavian settlements in Ireland. In France, Oscar is one of the earliest and most successful of the invaders. Later the name of Ragnar (probably Ragnar Lodbrog) appears, along with Weland, Hast- ing and one of the sons of Ragnar, Bjorn. Farther to the east we meet the names of Rurik, Godfred and Siegfried. In the eastern region the viking leaders seem to have been closely connected with one of the Danish royal families, the kings of Jutland. The practical though short-lived conquest of England begins under Ivar, Ubbe and Halfdan, reputed sons of Ragnar, and is completed by the last of the three in conjunction with the Guthorm above mentioned. This is, of course, what we should expect, that larger acquaintance gives to the Christian chroniclers more knowledge of their enemy. Precisely the same process in a converse sense develops the casual raids of early times into a scheme of conquest. For at the outset the Christian world was wholly strange to these northmen. We have, it has been said, hardly any means of viewing these raids from the other side. But one small point of light is so suggestive that it may be cited here. The mythical saga of Ragnar Lodbrog is undoubtedly concerned with the Viking Age, though it is im- possible now to identify most of the expeditions attributed to this northern hero, stories of conquest in Sweden, in Finland, in Russia and in England, which belong to quite a different age from this one. In the Christian chronicles the name of Ragnar is associated with an attack on Paris in A.D. 845, when the adventurers were (through the interposition of St Germain, say the Christians) suddenly enveloped in darkness — in a thick fog ? — and fell before the arms of the defenders. In Saxo Grammaticus's account of Ragnar Lodbrog, this event seems to be reflected in the story of an expedition of Ragnar's to Bjarma- land or Perm in Russia. For Bjarmaland, though it gained a local habitation, is also in Norse tradition a wholly mythical and mythological place, more or less identical with the under- world (Niflhel, mist-hell). So it appears in the history given by Saxo Grammaticus of the voyage to Bjarmaland of one " Gorm the old." It " looks like a vaporous cloud " and is full of tricks and illusions of sense. We see then that in virtue of some quite historical misfortune to the viking invaders, VIKING connected with a mist and with a great sickness which invaded the army, the place they have come to (in reality Paris) is in Scandinavian tradition identified with the mythic Bjarmaland; and later, in the history of Saxo Grammaticus, it is identified with the geographical Bjarmaland or Perm. (Saxo Grammat., 11 ht. Dan. p. 452, Gylfaginning (Edda Snorra); Acta SS. i8th May and nth Oct.; Steenstrup, Normannerne, i. p. 97 seq.; Kfary, The Vikings in Western Christendom, pp. 162, 260.) No example could better than this bring home to us the strangeness of the Christian world to the first adventurers from the north, nor better explain the process of familiarity which gradually extended the sphere of their ambition. The expedition which we have made mention of took place almost in the middle of the 9th century, and exactly fifty years after the effective opening of the Viking Age. But after this date events developed rapidly. It was fourteen years later (in A.D. 859) that Ragnar's son Bjorn Ironside and Hasting made their great expedition round Spain to the Mediterranean. In 865 or 866 came to England what we know as the Army, or the Great Army, whose first attacks were in the north of England. Five kings are mentioned in connexion with this veritable invasion of England, and many earls. Their course was not unchequered ; but it was only in Wessex that they met with any effective resistance, and the victory of Ashdown (871) put no end to their advance; for, as we know, Alfred himself had at last to wander a fugitive in the fastnesses of Selwood Forest. Much was retrieved by the victory of Aethandune; yet even after the peace of Wedmore as large a part of the land lay under the power of the Danes as of the English. It is from this time that we discern two distinct tendencies in the viking people. While one section is ready to settle down and receive territory at the hands of the Christian rulers, with or without homage, another section still adheres to a life of mere adventure and of plunder. A large portion of the Great Army refused to be bound by the peace of Wedmore, made some further attempts on England which were frustrated by Alfred's powerful new-built fleet, and then sailed to the continent and spread devastation far and wide. We see them under command of two Danish " kings," Godfred and Siegfried, first in the country of the Rhine-mouth or the Lower Scheldt; after- wards dividing their forces and, while some devastate far into Germany, others extend their ravages on every side in northern France down to the Loire. The whole of these vast countries, Northern Francia, with part of Burgundy, and the Rhineland, seem to lie as much at their mercy as England had done before Aethandune, or Ireland before the death of Turgesius. But in every country alike the wave of viking conquest now begins to recede. The settlement of Normandy was the only permanent outcome of the Viking Age in France. In England under Edward the Elder and Aethelflaed, Mercia recovered a great portion of what had been ceded to the Danes. In Ireland a great expulsion of the invaders took place in the beginning of the roth century. Eventually the Norsemen in Ireland con- tented themselves with a small number of colonies, strictly confined in territory around certain seaports which they them- selves had created: Dublin, Waterford and Wexford; though as the whole of Ireland was divided into petty kingdoms, it might easily happen that the Norse king in Ireland rose to the position — not much more than nominal — of over-king (Ard-RS) for the whole land. Character of the Vikings. — Severe, therefore, as were the viking raids in Europe, and great as was the suffering they inflicted — on account of which a special prayer, A furore Normannorum libera nos, was inserted in some of the litanies of the West — if they had been pirates and nothing more their place in history would be an insignificant one. If they had been no more than what the Illyrian pirates had been in the early history of Rome, or than the Arabic corsairs were at this time in southern Europe, the disappearance of the evil would have been quickly followed by its oblivion. But even at the out- set the vikings were more than isolated bands of freebooters. As we have seen, the viking outbreak was probably part of a xxvm. 3 national movement. We know that at the same time that some Scandinavian folk were harrying all the western lands, others were founding Garflarfki (Russia) in the east; others were pressing still farther south till they came in contact with the eastern empire in Constantinople, which the northern folk knew as MikillgarSr (Mikklegard) ; so that when Hasting and Bjorn had sailed to Luna in the gulf of Genoa the northern folk had almost put a girdle round the Christian world. There is every evidence that the vikings were not a mere lawless folk — that is, in their internal relations — but that a system of laws existed among them which was generally respected. The nearest approach to it now preserved is probably the code of laws attributed to the mythic king Fro5i (the Wise) and preserved in the pages of Saxo Grammaticus. It contains provisions for the partition of booty, punishments for theft, desertion and treachery. But some of the clauses securing a comparative liberty for women appear less characteristic of the Viking Age (cf . Alexa nder Bugge, Vikingerne, vol. i. p. 49). Women, indeed, did not take part in their first expeditions. In the constitution of the Jomborg state and again in that of the eastern Vaerings (a Scandinavian body in the service of the East Roman Empire) we see a constitution which looks like the foretaste of that of the Templars or the Teutonic Knights. Steenstrup thinks the code cited by Saxo may be identical with the laws which Rollo promulgated for his Norman subjects. In any case, they fall more near the viking period than any other northern table of laws. A certain republicanism was professed by these ad- venturers. " We have no king," one body answered to some Prankish delegates. We do read frequently of kings in the accounts of their hosts; but their power may not have extended beyond the leadership of the expedition; they may have been kings ad hoc. On the other hand, the whole character of northern tradition (Teutonic and Scandinavian tradition alike) forbids us to suppose that any would be elected to that office who was not of noble or princely blood. They were not entirely un- lettered; for the use of runes dates back considerably earlier than the Viking Age. But these were used almost exclusively for lapidary inscriptions. What we can alone describe as a literature, first the early Eddie verse, next the habit of narrat- ing sagas: these things the Norsemen learned probably from their Celtic subjects, partly in Ireland, partly in the western islands of Scotland; and they first developed the new literature on the soil of Iceland. Nevertheless, some of the Eddie songs do seem to give the very form and pressure of the viking period.1 In certain material posse'ssions — those, in fact, belonging to their trade, which was war and naval adventure — these viking folk were ahead of the Christian nations: in shipbuilding, for example. There is certainly a historical connexion between the ships which the tribes on the Baltic possessed in the days of Tacitus and the viking ships (Keary, The Vikings in Western Europe, pp. 108-9): a fact which would lead us to believe that the art of shipbuilding had been better preserved there than elsewhere in northern Europe. Merchant vessels must of course have plied between England and France or Frisia. But it is certain that even Charlemagne possessed no adequate navy, though a late chronicler tells us how he thought of building one. His descendants never carried out his designs. Nor was any English king before Alfred stirred up to undertake the same task. And yet the Romans, when threatened by the Carthaginian power, built in one year a fleet capable of holding its own against the, till then, greatest maritime nation in the world. The viking ships had a character apart. They may have owed their origin to the Roman galleys: they did without doubt owe their sails to them.1 Equally certain it is that this special type of shipbuilding was developed in the Baltic, if not before 1 More especially the beautiful series contained in book iii. of the Corpus Poeticum Boreale, and ascribed by the editors of that collection to one poet — " the Helgi Poet." Here vikings are mentioned by name — e.g. : — " Vai* 4ra ymr, ok iarna glymr; Brast r6nd viS rond; rero vlkingar." 1 " Sail " in every Teutonic language is practically* the same word, and derived from the Latin sagulum. 66 VIKRAMADITYA— VILAS the time of Tacitus, l9ng before the dawn of the Viking Age. Their structure is adapted to short voyages in a sea well studded with harbours, not exposed to the most violent storms or most dangerous tides. To the last, judging by the specimens of Scandinavian boats which have come down to us, they must have been not very seaworthy; they were shallow, narrow in the beam, pointed at both ends, and so eminently suitable for manoeuvring (with oars) in creeks and bays. The viking ship had but one large and heavy square sail. When a naval battle was in progress, it would depend for its manceuvring on the rowers. The accounts of naval battles in the sagas show us, too, that this was the case. The rowers in each vessel, though among the northern folk these were free men and warriors, not slaves as in the Roman and Carthaginian galleys, would yet need to be supplemented by a contingent of fighting men, marines, in addition to their crew. Naturally the ship- building developed: so that vessels in the viking time would be much smaller than in the Saga Age. In saga literature we read of craft (of " long ships ") with 20 to 30 benches of rowers, which would mean 40 to 60 oars. There exist at the museum in Christiania the remains of two boats which were found in the neighbourhood: one, the Gokstad ship, is in very tolerable preservation. It belongs probably to the nth century. On this boat there are places for 16 oars a side. It is not probable that the largest viking ships had more than 10 oars a side. As these ships must often, against a contrary wind, have had to row both day and night, it seems reasonable to -imagine the crew divided into three shifts (as they call them in mining districts), which would give double the number of men available to fight on any occasion as to row.1 Thus a zo-oared vessel would carry 60 men. But some 40 men per ship seems, for this period, nearer the average. In 896, toward the end of our age, it is incidentally mentioned in one place that five vessels carried 200 vikings, an average of 40 per ship. Elsewhere about the same time we read of 12,000 men carried in 250 ships, an average of 48. The round and painted shields of the warriors hung outside along the bulwarks: the vessel was steered by an oar at the right side (as whaling boats are to-day), the steerboard or star- board side. Prow and stern rose high; and the former was carved most often into the likeness of a snake's or dragon's head: so generally that " dragon " or " worm " (snake) became synony- mous with a war-ship. The warriors were well armed. The byrnie or mail-shirt is often mentioned in Eddie songs: so are the axe, the spear, the javelin, the bow and arrows and the sword. The Danes were specially renowned for their axes; but about the sword the most of northern poetry and mythology clings. An immense joy in battle breathes through the earliest Norse literature, which has scarce its like in any other literature; and we know that the language recognized a peculiar battle fury, a veritable madness by which certain were seized and which went by the name of " berserk's way " (berserksgangr).* The courage of the vikings was proof against anything, even as a rule against superstitious terrors. " We cannot easily realize how all-embracing that courage was. A trained soldier is often afraid at sea, a trained sailor lost if he has not the pro- tecting sense of his own ship beneath him. The viking ventured upon unknown waters in ships very ill-fitted for their work. He had all the spirit of adventure of a Drake or a Hawkins, all the trained valour of reliance upon his comrades that mark a soldiery fighting a militia " (The Vikings in Western Christendom, p. 143). He was unfortunately hardly less marked for cruelty and faithlessness. Livy's words, " inhumana crudelitas, per- fidia plus quam Punica," might, it is to be feared, have been applied as justly to the vikings as to any people of western 1 Steenstrup (Normannerne, i. p. 352), to get the number of men on (say) a 3O-oared vessel, adds but some 20 more. This seems an unlikely limitation, throwing an impossible amount of work upon the crew, and leaving each ship terribly weak supposing a naval battle had to be undertaken — as with some rival viking fleet, even* before any Christian nation possessed a fleet. J Cf. Grett. S. en. 42, Njila, ch. 104, &c., and many other sources. Europe. It is also true, however, that they showed a great capacity for government, and in times of peace for peaceful organization. Normandy was the best -governed part of France in the nth century; and the Danes in East Anglia and the Five Burgs were in many regards a model to their Saxon neigh- bours (Steenstrup, op. cit. iv. ch. 2). Of all European lands England is without doubt that on which the Viking Age has left most impression: in the number of original settlers after 878; in the way which these prepared for Canute's conquest; and finally in that which she absorbed from the conquering Normans. England's gain was France's loss: had the Normans turned their attention in the other direction, they might likely enough have gained the kingdom in France and saved that country from the intermittent anarchy from which it suffered from the nth till the middle of the I5th century. Sources of Viking History. — These are, as has been said, almost exclusively the chronicles of the lands visited by the vikings. For Ireland we have, as on the whole our best authority, the Annales Ultonienses (C. O'Conor, Scr. Rev. Hib. iv.), supplemented by the Annals of the Four Masters (ed. O'Donovan) and the Chronicon Scottorum (ed. Henessy). Finally, The War of the Gaidhill with the Gaill (ed. Todd); Three Fragments of Irish History (O'Donovan); cf. W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, for England the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Annales Lindisfarnenses (in Pertz, Monumenta, vol. xix.) ; Simeon of Durham, Historia Dunelmi Ecclesiae. For the Prankish empire the chief sources of our information are The Annales Regnl Francorum, Annales Bertiani (Pertz, vol. i.) in three parts (the first anonymous, the second by Prudentius, the third by Hincmar, A.D. 830-82). The Annales Xantenses (A.D. 876, 873; Pertz, vol. ii.) are the authorities for the northern and eastern regions, and the Annales Fuldenses (which begin with Pipin of Herestel and go down to A.D. 900; Pertz, vol. i.) for Germany. Toward the end of the 9th century the Annales Vedastini (Pertz, yols. i. and ii.) are almost the exclusive authority for the western raids. In the historians of Normandy, especially in Dudo of St Quentin, much incidental matter may be found. References to the Viking Age in a general way are to be found in a vast number of books, especially histories of the Scandinavian countries, of which Munch's Del Norske Folks Historie (1852, &c.) is the most distinguished; J. J. A. Worsaae has written Minder om de Danske og Nord-Mcendene i England, Skotland oglrland (1851), an antiquarian rather than an historical study; G. B. Depping, L'Histoire des expeditions maritimes des Normands (1843), a not very critical work, and E. Mabille, " Les Invasions Normandes dans la Loire " (Ecole des chartes bibl. t. 30, 1869). A completer work than either of these is W. Vogel's Die Normannen und das Fran- kische Reich (1906). It does not, however, break any fresh ground. J. C. H. Steenstrup's Normannerne (1876-82), in four volumes, is not a continuous history, but a series of studies of great learning and value; C. F. Keary, The Vikings in Western Europe (1891) is a history of the viking raids on all the western lands, but ends A.D. 888. A. Bugge's Vikingerne (1904-6) is a study of the moral and social side of the vikings, or, one should rather say, of the earliest Scandi- navian folk. (C. F. K.) VIKRAMADITYA, a legendary Hindu king of Uzjain, who is supposed to have given his name to the Vikram Samvat, the era which is used all over northern India, except in Bengal, and at whose court the " nine gems " of Sanskrit literature are also supposed to have flourished. The Vikram era is reckoned from the vernal equinox of the year 57 B.C., but there is no evidence that that date corresponds with any event in the life of an actual king. As a matter of fact, all dates in this era down to the loth century never use the word Vikram, but that of Malava instead, that being the tribe that gives its name to Malwa, The name Vikramaditya simply means " sun of power," and was adopted by several Hindu kings, of whom Chand- ragupta II. (Chandragupta Vikramaditya), who ascended the throne of the Guptas about A.D. 375, approaches most nearly to the legend. See Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras (1883); and Vincent Smith, Early History of India (.1904). VILAS, WILLIAM FREEMAN (1840-1908), American political leader and lawyer, was born in Chelsea, Vermont, on the 9th of July 1840. His father, Levi B. Vilas, a lawyer and Democratic politician, emigrated in 1851 to Madison, Wisconsin. William graduated at the university of Wisconsin in 1858, and at the Albany (New York) Law School in 1860, and began to practise law in Madison with his father. In 1862 he recruited and be- came captain of Company A of the Twenty-Third Wisconsin VILL— VILLACH Volunteers, of which he was made lieutenant-colonel in 1863, and which he commanded in the siege of Vicksburg. In August 1863 he resigned his commission and resumed his law practice. He was professor of law in the university of Wisconsin in 1868-85, and again in 1889-92, and in 1875-78 was a member of the commission which revised the statutes of Wisconsin. From 1876 to 1886 he was a member of the National Democratic Committee, and virtually the leader of his party in his state; he was a delegate to the National Democratic Conventions of 1876, 1880 and 1884, and was permanent chairman of the last. In 1885 he was a member of the state Assembly. He was postmaster-general in President Grover Cleveland's cabinet from March 1885 until January 1888, and was then secretary of the interior until March 1889. From 1891 until 1897 he was a member of the United States Senate, in which, during President Cleveland's second term, he was recognized as the chief defender of the Administration, and he was especially active in securing the repeal of the silver- purchase clause of the Sherman Act. He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1896, but withdrew after the adoption of the free-silver plank. He then became one of the chief organizers of the National (or Gold) Democratic party, attended the convention at Indianapolis, and was chairman of its committee on resolutions. In 1881-85 and in 1898-1905 he was a regent of the university of Wisconsin; and he was a member (1897-1903) of the commission which had charge of the erection of the State Historical Library at Madison, and in 1906-8 of the commission for the con- struction of the new state capitol. He died at Madison on the 27th of August 1908. With E. E. Bryant he edited vols. i. to xx., except vol. v., of the Reports of the Wisconsin Supieme Court. VILL, the Anglicized form of the word villa, used in Latin documents to translate the Anglo-Saxon tun, township, " the unit of the constitutional machinery, the simplest form of social organization " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. § 39). The word did not always and at all times have this meaning in Latin- English documents, but " vill " and " township " were ultimately, in English law, treated as convertible terms for describing a village community, and they remained in use in legal nomenclature until the ecclesiastical parishes were con- verted into areas for civil administration under the Poor Law Acts. This technical sense is derived from the late Latin use of villa for vicus, a village. Thus Fleta (vi. c. 51), writing in the time of Edward I., distinguishes the villa, as a collection of habitations and their appurtenances, from the mansio, a single house, nulli vicina, and the manor, which may embrace one or more vittae. In classical Latin villa had meant " country- house," " farm," " villa " (see VILLA); but the word was pro- bably an abbreviation of vicula, diminutive of vicus, and in the sense of vicus it is used by Apuleius in the 2nd century. Later it even displaced civitas, for city; thus Rutilius Numa- tianus in his Itinerarium speaks of vittae ingentes, oppida parva; whence the French ville (see Du Cange, Glossarium lot. s.v. Villa). In the Prankish empire villa was also used of the royal and imperial palaces or seats with their appurtenances. In the sense of a small collection of habitations the word came into general use in England in the French form "village." From villa, too, are derived villein and villenage (q.v.) (see also VILLAGE COMMUNITIES). VILLA, the Latin word (diminutive of vicus, a village) for a country-house. This term, which in England is usually given to a small country-house detached or semi-detached in the vicinity of a large town, is being gradually superseded by such expressions as " country " or " suburban house," " bungalow," &c., but in Italy it is still retained as in Roman times and means a summer residence, sometimes being of great extent. References to the villa are constantly made by Roman writers. Cicero is said to have possessed no less than seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, which he inherited. Pliny the younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. There is too wide a divergence in the various conjectural restorations to make them of much value, but the remains of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, which covered an area over seven miles long and in which reproductions were made of all the most celebrated buildings he had seen during his travels, those in Greece seeming to have had the most attraction for him, and the villas of the i6th century on similar sites, such as the Villa d'Este near Tivoli, enable one to form some idea of the exceptional beauty of the positions selected and of the splendour of the structures which enriched them. According to Pliny, there were two kinds of villas, the villa urbana, which was a country seat, and the villa rustica, the farm-house, occupied by the servants who had charge generally of the estate. The Villa Boscoreale near Pompeii, which was excavated in 1893-94, was an example of the villa rustica, in which the principal room was the kitchen, with the bakery and stables beyond and room for the wine presses, oil presses, hand mill, &c. The villas near Rome were all built on hilly sites, so that the laying out of the ground in terraces formed a very important element in their design, and this forms the chief attraction of the Italian villas of the i6th century, among which the following are the best known: the Villa Madama, the design of which, attributed to Raphael, was carried out by Giulio Romano in 1520; the Villa Medici (1540); the Villa Albani, near the Porta Salaria; the Borghese; the Doria Pamphili (1650); the Villa di Papa Giulio (1550), designed by Vignola; the Aldobrandini (1592); the Falconieri and the Montdragon Villas at Frascati, and the Villa d'Este near Tivoli, in which the terraces and staircases are of great importance. In the proximity of other towns in Italy there are numerous villas, of which the example best known is that of the Villa Rotunda or Capra near Vicenza, which was copied by Lord Burlington in his house at Chiswick. The Italian villas of the i6th and i?th century, like those of Roman times, included not only the country residence, but the whole of the other buildings on the estate, such as bridges, casinos, pavilions, small temples, rectangular or circular, which were utilized as summer-houses, and these seem to have had a certain influence in England, which may account for the numerous examples in the large parks in England of similar erections, as also the laying out of terraces, grottos and formal gardens. In France the same influence was felt, and at Fontainebleau, Versailles, Meudon and other royal palaces, the celebrated Le N6tre transformed the parks surrounding them and introduced the cascades, which in Italy are so important a feature, as at St Cloud near Paris. (R. P. S.) VILLACH, a town in Carinthia, Austria, 24 m. W. of Klagen- furt by rail. Pop. (1900) 9690. It is situated on the Drave, near its confluence with the Gail, in a broad fertile basin at the foot of the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107 ft.). The parish church is an interesting Gothic edifice of the isth century. The principal industry of Villach consists in the fabrication of various lead wares, and is mostly dependent on the lead mines of Bleiberg, which is situated about 9 m. to the west. This village (pop. 3435) is one of the richest lead-mining centres in Europe. The ores found here comprise silver-free galena, sulphate of zinc and calamine. The mines were already worked during the middle ages. Warmbad Villach, a watering-place with hot sulphur baths, and Mittewald, a favourite summer resort, whence the ascent of the Dobratsch can be made, are in the neighbour- hood of Villach. Some of the prettiest Carinthian lakes are to be found near Villach, as the Ossiacher-see, on whose southern shore stands the ruined castle of Landskron, dating from the middle of the i6th century, the Worther-see and the small but lovely Faaker-see. Villach is an old town, which was given by Heinrich II. to the bishopric of Bamberg in 1007. During the middle ages it was an important centre of commerce between Germany and Italy. With the advent of new trade routes at the beginning of modern times the town lost its importance, and in 1745 the citizens nearly decided to emigrate en masse. Its trade revived during the French occupation of 1800-13, and it 68 VILLA DEL PILAR— VILLAGE COMMUNITIES continued to improve during the igth century. The Turks were defeated here in 1492 by Maximilian I., and an engagement between the Austrians and the French took place here on the 2ist of August 1813. VILLA DEL PILAR, a city of Paraguay, 104 m. S. by E. of Asuncion, on the left bank of the navigable river Paraguay, which receives the Bermejo from the right immediately opposite. Pop. (1910) about 10,000. Villa del Pilar is a thriving modern city, containing barracks, law courts, a national college, several schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank. It has a fine harbour, and is one of the principal centres in the republic for the exportation of oranges. VILLAFRANCA DI VERONA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, n m. S.S.W. of Verona, on the railway to Mantua, 174 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 5037 (town); 9635 (commune). It has considerable silk industries. Here preliminaries of peace were signed between Napoleon III. and the Austrians in 1859 after the battle of Solferino. Five miles to the N. is Custozza, where the Italians were defeated by the Austrians in 1848 and 1866. Villafranca is a common place name in Italy. VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. The study of village communities has become one of the fundamental methods of discussing the ancient history of institutions. It would be out of the question here to range over the whole field of human society in search for communal arrangements of rural life. It will be sufficient to confine the present inquiry to the varieties presented by nations of Aryan race, not because greater importance is to be attached to these nations than to other branches of humankind, although this view might also be reasonably urged, but principally because the Aryan race in its history has gone through all sorts of experiences, and the data gathered from its historical life can be tolerably well ascertained. Should the road be sufficiently cleared in this particular direction, it will not be difficult. to connect the results with similar researches in other racial surroundings. The best way seems to be to select some typical examples, chiefly from the domain of Celtic, Slavonic and Germanic social history, and to try to interpret them in regard to the general conditions in which communal institutions originate, grow and decay. As the principal problem will consist in ascertaining how far land was held in common instead of being held, as is usual at present, by individuals, it is advisable to look out for instances in which this element of holding in common is very clearly expressed. We ought to get, as it were, acclima- tized to the mental atmosphere of such social arrangements in order to counteract a very natural but most pernicious bent prompting one to apply to the conditions of the past the key of our modern views and habitual notions. A certain acquaint- ance with the structure of Celtic society, more especially the society of ancient Wales, is likely to make it clear from the out- set to what extent the husbandry and law of an Aryan race may depend on institutions in which the individual factor is greatly reduced, while the union first of kinsmen and then of neighbours plays a most decisive part. F. Seebohm has called our attention to the interesting surveys of Welsh tracts of country made in the I4th century, soon after these regions passed into the hands of English lords. The frag- ments of these surveys published by him and his commentary on them are very illuminating, but further study of the docu- ments themselves discloses many important details and helps to correct some theories propounded on the subject. Let us take up a concrete and simple case, e.g. the description of Astret Canon, a trev or township (villata) of the honour of Denbigh, surveyed in 1334. In the time of the native Welsh princes it was occupied entirely by a kindred (progenies) of free tribesmen descended from a certain Canon, the son of Lawaurgh. The kindred was subdivided into four gavells or bodies of joint- tenants. On the half-gavell of Monryk ap Canon, e.g. there are no less than sixteen coparceners, of whom eight possess houses. The peculiarity of this system of land tenure consists in the fact that all the tenants of these gavells derive their position on the land from the occupation of the township by their kindred, and have to trace their rights to shares in the original unit. Although the village of Astret Canon was occupied under the Survey by something like fifty-four male tenants, the majority of whom were settled in houses of their own, it continued to form a unit as well in regard to the payment of tungpound, that is, of the direct land tax and other services and pay- ments, but also in respect of the possession and usage of the soil. On the other hand, movable property is owned in severally. Services have to be apportioned among the members of the kindreds according to the number of heads of cattle owned by them. From the description of another township — Pireyon — we may gather another important feature of this tribal tenure. The population of this village also clustered in gavells, and we hear that these gavells ought to be considered as equal shares in respect of the arable, the wood and the waste of the town- ship. If the shares were reduced into acres there would have fallen to each of the eight gavells of Pireyon ninety-one acres, one rood and a half and six perches of arable and woodland, and fifty-three and one-third of an acre and half a rood of waste land. But as a matter of fact the land was not divided in such a way, and the rights of the tenants of the gavell were realized not through the appropriation of definite acres, but as propor- tionate opportunities in regard to tillage and as to usages hi pasture, wood and waste. Pastoral habits must have greatly contributed to give the system of landholding its peculiar character. It was not necessary, it would have been even harmful, to subdivide sharply the area on which the herds of cows and the flocks of sheep and goats were grazing. Still Welsh rural life in the i4th century had already a definite though subordinate agricultural aspect, and it is important to notice that individual appropriation had as yet made very slight progress in it. We do not notice any systematic equalization between members of the tribal communities of the trevs. In fact, both differences in the ownership of cattle and differences of tribal standing, established by complex reckonings of pedigree and of social rank, led to marked inequalities. But there was also the notion of birthright, and we find in the laws that every free tribesman considered himself entitled to claim from his kindred grazing facilities and five erws for tillage. Such a claim could be made unconditionally only at a time when there was a superabundance of land to dispose of. In the i4th century, to which our typical descriptions refer, this state of things had ceased to be universal. Although great tracts of Welsh land were undoubtedly still in a state of wilderness, the soil in more conveniently situated regions was beginning to be scarce, and considerable pressure of population was already felt, with a consequent transition from pastoral pursuits to agriculture. The tract appropriated to the township of Astret Canon, for instance, contained only 574 acres of land of all kinds. In this case there was hardly room for the customary five erws per • head of grown-up males besides commons. And yet although the population lived on a small pittance, the system of tribal tenure was not abandoned. Although there are no rearrangements or redivision within the tribe as a whole, inside every gavell, representing more narrow circles of kinsmen, usually the descendants of one great- grandfather, i.e. second cousins, the shares are shifted and readjusted according to one of two systems. In one case, that of the trevcyvriv or joint-account village, every man receives " as much as another yet not of equal value " — which means, of course, that the members of such communities were provided with equal allotments, but left to make the best of them, each according to chance and ability. This practice of reallotment was, however, restricted in the I4th century to taeog trevs, to villages occupied by half-free settlers. The free tribesmen, the priodarii of Wales, held by daddenhud, and reallotted shares within the trev on the coming of each new generation or, conversely, on the going out, the dying out, of each older generation. In other words: at the demise of the last of the grandfathers in a gavell, all the fathers took VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 69 equal rank and claimed equal shares, although formerly some of the portions had been distributed equally only between the grandfathers or their offspring (stirps). The right to claim redivision held good only within the circle of second cousins. Members of the kindred who stood further than that from each other, that is, third cousins, were not entitled to reallot- ment on the strength of daddenhud. Another fact which is brought out with complete evidence by the Welsh Surveys is that the tenure is ascribed to com- munities of kinsmen and not to chiefs or headmen. The latter certainly existed and had exerted a powerful influence on the disposal of common land as well as on government and justice. But in the view of 14th-century surveys each township is owned not by this or the other elder, but by numerous bodies of coparceners. The gavell of Owen Gogh, for instance, contained twenty-six coparceners. In this way there is a clear attribution of rights of communal ownership, if we like to use the term, and not merely of rights of maintenance. Nor is there any warrant for a construction of these arrangements on a supposed patriarchal system. Let us now compare this description of Celtic tribal tenure with Slavonic institutions. The most striking modern ex- amples of tribal communities settled on a territorial basis are presented by the history of the Southern Slavs in the Balkan Peninsula and in Austria, of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and Bul- garians,, but it is easy to trace customs of the same kind in the memories of Western Slavs conquered by Germans, of the Poles and of the different subdivisions of the Russians. A good clue to the subject is provided by a Serb proverb which says that a man by himself is bound to be a martyr. One might almost suggest that these popular customs illustrate the Aristo- telian conception of the single man seeking the " autarkeia," a complete and self-sufficient existence in the society of his fellow-men, and arriving at the stage of the tribal village, the 7eyos, which is also a KUHIJ, as described in the famous intro- ductory chapter of the Greek philosopher's Politics. The Slavs of the mountainous regions of the Balkans and of the Alps in their stubborn struggle with nature and with human enemies have clustered and still cluster to some extent (e.g. in Montenegro) in closely united and widely spreading brother- hoods (bratstva) and tribes (plemena). Some of these brother- hoods derive their names from a real or supposed common ancestor, and are composed of relatives as well as of affiliated strangers. They number sometimes hundreds of members,1 of guns, as the fighting males are characteristically called. Such are — the Vukotici, Kovacevici, as one might say in Old English — the Vukotings or Kovachevings, of Montenegro. The dwell- ings, fields, and pasturages of these brotherhoods or kindreds are scattered over the country, and it is not always possible to trace them in compact divisions on the map. But there was the closest union in war, revenge, funeral rites, marriage ar- rangements, provision for the poor and for those who stand in need of special help, as, for instance, in case of fires, inunda- tions and the like. And corresponding to this union there existed a strong feeling of unity in regard to property, especially property in land. Although ownership was divided among the different families, a kind of superior or eminent domain stretched over the whole of the bratstvo, and was expressed in the participation in common in pasture and wood, in the right to control alienations of land and to exercise pre-emption. If any of the members of the brotherhood wanted to get rid of his share he had to apply first to his next of kin within the family and then to the further kinsmen of the bratstvo. As the Welsh kindred (progenies) were subdivided into gavells formed of extended family communities, even so the Bosnian, Montenegrin, Servian, Slovene tribes fell into house communities, Kucas, Zadrugas, which were built up on the principle of keeping blood-relatives and their property to- gether as long as possible. They consisted generally of some 13 to 20 grown-up persons, some 6 or 7 first and second cousins with their wives and children, living in a hamlet around the 1 They range from 80 or 90 to 700. central house of the domatin, the house leader. In some in- stances the number of coparceners increased to 50 or even to 70. The members of the united house community, which in fact is a small village or hamlet, joined in meals and work. Their rights in the undivided household of the hamlet were apportioned according to the pedigree, i.e. this apportion- ment took account first of the stirpes or extant descendants of former scions of the family, so that, say, the offspring of each of two grandfathers who had been brothers were considered as equal sharers although the stirps, the stock, of one was represented only by one person, while the stirps of the other had grown to consist of two uncles and of three nephews all alive. There was no resettlement of shares, as in the case of Wales, but the life of the house community while it existed unbroken led to work in common, the contributions to which are regulated by common consent and supervised by the leader. Grounds, houses, implements of agriculture (ploughs, oxen, carts) and of viniculture — casks, cauldrons for the making of brandy, &c., are considered to be common capital and ought not to be sold unless by common consent. Divisions were not prohibited. Naturally a family had to divide sooner or later, and the shares have to be made real, to be converted into fields and vineyards. But this was an event which marks, as it were, the close of the regular existence of one union and the birth of similar unions derived from it. As a rule, the kuta kept together as long as it could, because co-operation was needed and isola- tion dangerous — for economic considerations as well as for the sake of defence. Attention, however, should be called more particularly to the parallel phenomena hi the social history of the Russians, wnere the conditions seem to stand out in specially strong contrast with those prevailing among the mountain Slavs of the Balkans and of the Alps. In the enormous extent of Russia we have to reckon with widely different geographical and racial areas, among other, with the Steppe settlements of the so-called Little Russians in the Ukraina and the forest settlements of the Great Russians in the north. In spite of great divergencies the economic history of all these branches of Slavonic stock gravitates towards one main type, viz. towards rural unions of kinsmen, on the basis of .enlarged households. In the south the typical village settlement is the dvoriife, the big court or hamlet consisting of some four to eight related families holding together; in the north it is the petiste, the big oven, a hamlet of somewhat smaller size in which three to five families are closely united for purposes of common husbandry. It is interesting to notice that even the break-up of the joint household does not lead to an entire severance of the ties between its members. They mostly continue in another form, viz. in the shape of an open-field system with intermixture of strips, compulsory rotation of crops, commons of pasture, of wood, sometimes shifting allotments as regards meadows. There is, e.g. an act of division between six brothers from the north of Russia "of the year 1640. They agree to divide bread and salt, house and liberties, money, cloth and stores of all kinds and to settle apart. As to arable, Shumila is to take the upper strip in the field by the settlement, and next to him Tretjak, then Maxim, then Zaviala, then Shestoy, then Luke. In the big harvest furlong likewise, and in the small likewise, and by the meadow likewise and so on through all the furlongs. So that in this case and in innumerable other cases of the same kind the open-field system with its inconvenient intermixture of plots and limited power of every husbandman to manage his land appears as a direct continuation of the joint tribal households. Another fact to be noticed is the tendency to form artificial associations on the pattern of the prevailing unions of kinsmen. People who have no blood-relations to appeal to for clearing the waste, for providing the necessary capital in the way of cattle and plough implements, for raising and fitting out buildings, join in order to carry on these economic under- takings, and also to help each other against enemies and aggressors. The members of these voluntary associations, VILLAGE COMMUNITIES which at once call to mind German, Norse and English gilds, are called " siabri," " skladniki," and the gilds themselves " spolkie," in south Russia. In a district of the Ukraina called the " Ratensky Sharostvo " there were no fewer than 278 such gilds interchanging with natural kindreds. The organization of all these unions could in no way be called patriarchal. Even in cases when there is a definite elder or headman (bol- shoy), he was only the first among equals and exercised only a limited authority over his fellows: all the important decisions had to be taken by the council of the community. In Great Russia, in the districts gathered under the sway of the Moscow tsars, the basis of the household community and of the rural settlements which sprang from it was modified in another direction. The entire agricultural population was subjected to strict supervision and coercive measures for purposes of military organization and taxation. Society was drilled into uniformity and service on the principle that every man has to serve the tsar, the upper class in war and civil administration, the lower class by agricultural labour. A consequence of the heavy burden laid on the land and of the growth of a landed aristocracy somewhat resembling the gentry and the noblesse of the West was a change in the management of land allotments. They became as much a badge of service and a basis for fiscal requirements as a means of livelihood. The result was the practice of reallotments according to the strength and the needs of different families. The shifting of arable (peredel) was not in this case a reapportionment of rights, but a consequence of the correspondence between rights and obligations. But although this admeasurement of claims appears as a comparatively recent growth of the system, the fundamental solidarity between kinsmen or neighbourly asso- ciates grouped into villages was In no way an invention of the tsars or of their officials: it was rooted in traditional customs and naturally suggested by the practices of joint households. When these households become crowded in cer- tain areas, open-field systems arise; when they are burdened with public and private service their close co-operation pro- duces occasional or periodical redivisions of the soil between the shareholders. Let us now pass to village communities in Teutonic countries, including England. A convenient starting-point is afforded by the social and economic conditions of the southern part of Jutland. Now the Saxon or Ditmarschen portion of this region gives us an opportunity of observing the effects of an extended and highly systematized tribal organization on Germanic soil. The independence of this northern peasant republic, which reminds one of the Swiss cantons, lasted until the time of the Reformation. We find the Ditmarschen organized in the isth, as they had been in the loth century, in a number of large kindreds, partly composed of relatives by blood and partly of " cousins " who had joined them. The membership of these kindreds is based on agnatic ties — that is, on relationship through males — or on affiliation as a substitute for such agnatic kinship. The families or households are grouped into brother- hoods, and these again into clans or " Schlachten " (Geschlechter), corresponding to Roman gentes. Some of them could put as many as 500 warriors in the field. They took their names from ancestors and chief tains: the Wollersmannen, Henne- mannen, Jerremannen, &c. — that is, the men of Woll, the men of Henne, the men of Jerre. In spite of these personal names the organization of the clans was by no means a monarchical one: it was based on the participation of the full-grown fight- ing men in the government of each clan and on a council of co-opted elders at the head of the entire federation. We need not repeat here what has already been stated about the mutual support which such clans afforded to their members in war and in peace, in judicial and in economic matters. Let us notice the influence of this tribal organization on husbandry and property. The regular economic arrangement was an open-field one based on a three-field and similar systems. The furlongs were divided into intermixed strips with com- pulsory rotation on the usual pattern. And it is interesting to notice that in these economic surroundings indivisible holdings corresponding to the organic unities required for efficient agriculture arose of themselves. In spite of the equal right of all coheirs to an estate, this estate does not get divided according to their numbers, but either remains undivided or else falls into such fractions, halves or fourths, which will enable the farming to be carried on successfully, without mischievous interruption and disruption. Gradually the people settled down into the custom of united succession for agrarian units. The Hufe or Hof, the virgate, as might have been said in England, goes mostly to the eldest son, but also sometimes to the youngest, while the brothers of the heir either remain in the same household with him, generally unmarried, or leave the house after having settled with the heir, who takes charge of the holding, as to an indemnity for their relinquished claims. This indemnity i; not equivalent to the market price, but is fixed, in case of dispute or doubt, by an award of impartial and expert neighbours, who have to consider not only the claims of interested persons but also the economic quality and strength of the holding. In other words, the heir has to pay so much as the estate can conveniently provide without being wrecked by the outlay. This evidence is of decisive importance in regard to the formation of unified holdings; we are on entirely free soil, with no vestige whatever of manorial organization or of coercion of tenants by the lord, and yet the Hufe, the normal holding, comes to the fore as a result of the economic situation, on the strength of considerations drawn from the efficiency of the farming. This " Anerben " system is widely spread all through Germany. The question whether the eldest or the youngest succeeds is a subordinate one. Anyhow, manorial authority is not necessary to produce the limitation of the rights of succes- sion to land and the creation of the system of holdings, although this has been often asserted, and one of the arguments for a servile origin of village communities turns on a supposed incom- patibility between unified succession and the equal "rights of free coheirs. We need not speak at any length about other parts of Germany, as space does not permit of a description of the innumerable combinations of communal and individual elements in German law, the various shapes of manorial and political institutions with which the influence of blood relationship, gild and neigh- bourly union had to struggle. But we must point out some facts from the range of Scandi- navian customs. In the mountainous districts of Norway we notice the same tendency towards the unification of holdings as in the plains and hills of Schleswig and Holstein. The bonder of Gudbrandsdalen and Telemarken, the free peasantry tilling the soil and pasturing herds on the slopes of the hills since the days of Harold Harfagr to our own times, sit in Odal- gaards, or freehold estates, from which supernumerary heirs are removed on receiving some indemnity, and which are pro- tected from alienation into strange hands by the privilege of pre-emption exercised by relatives of the seller. Equally suggestive are some facts on the Danish side of the Straits, viz. the arrangements of the bids which correspond to the hides and virgates of England and to the Hufen of Germany. Here again we have to do with normal holdings independent of the number of coheirs, but dependent on the requirements of agriculture — on the plough and oxen, on certain constant relations between the arable of an estate and its outlying com- mons, meadows and woods. The bol does not stand by itself like the Norwegian gaard, but is fitted into a very close union with neighbouring bols of the same kind. Practices of coaration, of open-field intermixture, of compulsory rotation of lot-meadows, of stinting the commons, arise of themselves in the villages of Denmark and Sweden. Laws compiled in the I3th century but based on even more ancient customs give us most inter- esting and definite information as to Scandinavian practices of allotment. We catch a glimpse, to begin with, of a method of dividing VILLAGE COMMUNITIES fields which was considered archaic even in those early times. The Swedish laws use the expression " forniskift," which means ancient mode of allotment, and another term corre- sponding to it is " hamarskift," which may possibly be con- nected with throwing the hammer in order to mark the boundary of land occupied by a man's strength. The two principal features of forni or hamar skift are the irregularity of the resulting shapes of plots and the temporary character of their occupation. The first observation may be substantiated by a description like that of Laasby in Jutland: " These lands are to that extent scattered and intermixed by the joint owners that it cannot be said for certain what (or how much) they are." Swedish documents, on the other hand, speak expressly of practices of shifting arable and meadows periodically, some- times year by year. Now the uncertainty of these practices based on occupa- tion became in process of time a most inconvenient feature of the situation and evidently led to constant wrangling as to rights and boundaries. The description of Laasby which I have just quoted ends with the significant remark: " They should be compelled to make allotment by the cord." This making of allotments by the cord is the process of rebning, from reb, the surveyor's cord, and the juridical procedure necessary for it was called " solskift " — because it was a division following the course of the sun. The two fundamental positions from which this form of allotment proceeds are: (i) that the whole area of the village is common land (faelksjord), which has to be lotted out to the single householders; (2) that the partition should result in the creation of equal holdings of normal size (b61s). In some cases we can actually recognize the effect of these allotments by ancient solskift in the i8th century, at a time when the Danish enclosure acts produced a second general revolution in land tenure. The oldest twelve inhabitants, elected as sworn arbitrators for effecting the allotment, begin their work by throwing to- gether into one mass all the grounds owned by the members of the community, including dwellings and farm-buildings, with the exception of some privileged plots. There is a close correspondence between the sites of houses and the shares in the field. The first operation of the surveyors consists in marking out a village green for the night-rest and pasture of the cattle employed in the tillage (fortd), and to assign sites to the houses of the coparceners with orchards appendant to them (tofts); every householder getting exactly as much as his neighbour. From the tofts they proceed to the fields on the customary notion that the toft is the mother of the field. The fields are disposed into furlongs and shots, as they were called in England, and divided among the members of the village with the strictest possible equality. This is effected by assigning to every householder a strip in every one of the furlongs constituting the arable of the village. Meadows were often treated as lot-meadows in the same way as in Eng- land. According to the account of a solrebning executed in 1513 (Oester Hoejsted), every otting, the eighth part of a b61 (corresponding to the English oxgang or bovate), got a toft of 40 roods in length and 6 in breadth. One of the coparceners received, however, 8 roods because his land was worse than that of his neighbours. Of the arable there were allotted to each otting two roods' breadth for the plough in each furlong and appendant commons " in damp and in dry " — in meadow and pasture. After such a "solskift" the peasants held their tenements in undisturbed ownership, but the eminent demesne of the village was recognized and a revision of the allotment was possible. Many such revisions did actually take place, and in such cases all rights and claims were apportioned, accord- ing to the standard of the original shares. Needless to say that these shares were subjected to all the usual limitations of champion farming. After having said so much about different types of village communities which occur in Europe it will be easier to analyse the incidents of English land tenure which disclose the work- ing of similar conceptions and arrangements. Features which have been very prominent in the case of the Welsh, Slavs, Germans or Scandinavians recur in the English instances some- times with equal force and at other times in a mitigated shape. There are some vestiges of the purely tribal form of com- munity on English soil. Many of the place-names of early Saxon and Anglican settlements are derived from personal names with the suffix ing, as designations like Oakington, the town of the Hockings. True, it is just possible to explain some of these place-names as pointing to settlements belonging to some great man and therefore taking their designation from him with the adjunct of an ing indicating possession. But the group of words in question falls in exactly with the common patronymics of Saxon and German families and kindreds, and therefore it is most probable, as Kemble supposed, that we have to do in most of these instances with tribal and family settlements, although the mere fact of belonging to a great landowner or a monastery may have been at the root of some cases. A very noticeable consequence of tribal habits in regard to landownership is presented by the difficulties which stood in the way of alienation of land by the occupiers of it. The Old English legal system did not originally admit of any aliena- tion of folkland, land held by folkright, or, in other words, of the estates owned under the ordinary customary law of the people. Such land could not be bequeathed out of the kindred and could not be sold without the consent of the kinsmen. Such complete disabilities could not be upheld indefinitely, however, in a growing and progressive community, and we find the ancient folkright assailed from different points of view. The Church insists on the right of individual possessors to give away land for the sake of their souls; the kings grant exemption from folkright and constitute privileged estates held by book and following in the main the rules of individualized Roman law; the wish of private persons to make provision for daughters and to deal with land as with other commodities produces con- stant collisions with the customary tribal views. Already, by the end of the Saxon period transfer and alienation of land make their way everywhere, and the Norman conquest brings these features to a head by substituting the notion of tenure — that is, of an estate burdened with service to a superior — for the ancient notion of tribal folkland. But although the tribal basis of communal arrangements was shaken and removed in England in comparatively early times, it had influenced the practices of rural husbandry and landholding, and in the modified form of the village com- munity it survived right through the feudal period, leaving characteristic and material traces of its existence down to the present day. To begin with, the open-field system with intermixture of strips and common rights in pasture and wood has been the prevailing system in England for more than a thousand years. Under the name of champion farming it existed everywhere in the country until the Inclosure Acts of the i8th and igth centuries put an end to it; it may be found in operation even now in some of its features in backward districts. It would have been absurd to build up these practices cf compulsory rotation of crops, of a temporary relapse of plots into common pasture between harvest and ploughing time, of the interdependence of thrifty and negligent husbandmen in respect of weeds and times of cultivation, &c., from the point of view of individual appropriation. On the other hand, it was the natural system for the apportionment of claims to the shareholders of an organic and perpetual joint-stock company. Practices of shifting arable are seldom reported in English evidence. There are some traces of periodical redivisions of arable land in Northumberland: under the name of runrig system such practices seem to have been not uncommon in the outer fields, the non-manured portions of townships in Scotland, both among the Saxon inhabitants of the lowlands and the Celtic population of the highlands. The joining of small tenants for the purpose of coaration, for the formation of the big, VILLAGE COMMUNITIES heavy ploughs, drawn by eight oxen, also produced sometimes the shifting in the possession of strips between the coparceners of the undertaking. But, as a rule, the arable was held in severally by the different members of the township. On the other hand, meadows were constantly owned by entire townships and distributed between the tenements entitled to shares from year to year either by lot or according to a definite order. These practices are in full vigour in some places even at the present day. Any person living in Oxford may witness the distribution by lot on Lammas day (ist of August) of the Lammas meadows, that is, the meadows inclosed for the sake of raising hay-grass in the village of Yarnton, some three miles to the north of Oxford. Let us, however, return for a moment to the arable. Although held in severally by different owners it was subjected to all sorts of interference on the part of the village union as repre- sented in later ages by the manorial court framing by-laws and settling the course of cultivation. It might also happen that in consequence of encroachments, disputes and general uncertainty as to possession and boundaries, the whole distri- bution of the strips of arable in the various fields had to be gone over and regulated anew. In an interesting case reported from •a Cartulary of Dunstable in Bedfordshire, all the possessions of the villagers in a place called Segenhoe were thrown together in the i2th century and redivided according to an award of experts chosen by a meeting of the villagers from among the oldest and wisest inhabitants. Exactly as in the Danish examples quoted before, the strips were apportioned, not to the single owners, but to the normal holdings, the hides, and the actual owners had to take them in proportion to their several rights in the hides. This point is very important. It gives the English village community its peculiar stamp. It is a community not between single members or casual households, but between determined holdings con- structed on a proportional scale. Although there was no provision for the admeasurement and equalization of the claims of Smith and of Brown, each hide or ploughland of a township took as much as every other hide, each virgate or yardland as every other yardland, each bovate or oxgang as every other oxgang. Now the proportions themselves, although vaiying in respect of the number of acres included in each of these units in different places, were constant in their relation to each other. The yardland was almost everywhere one-fourth of the hide or ploughland, and corresponded to the share of two oxen in an eight-oxen plough; the oxgang was reckoned at one-half of the yardland, and corresponded to the share of one ox in the same unit of work. The constant repetition of these fractions and units proves that we have to do in this case with phenomena arising not from artificial devices but from the very nature of the case. Nor can there be a doubt that both the unit and the fractions were produced by the application to land of the chief factor of working strength in agrarian husbandry, the power of the ploughteam for tillage. The natural composition of the holdings has its counterpart, as in Schleswig-Holstein and as in the rest of Germany, in the customs of united succession. The English peasantry worked out customary rules of primogeniture or of so-called Borough English or claim of the youngest to the land held by his father. The German examples adduced in the beginning of this article teach us that the device is not suggested primarily by the inte- rest of the landlord. Unified succession takes the place of the equal rights of sons, because it is the better method for preserving the economic efficiency of the household and of the tenement corresponding to it. There are exceptions, the most notorious being that of Kentish gavelkind, but in agricultural districts the holding remains undivided as long as possible, and if it gets divided, the division follows the lines not of the casual number of coheirs, but of the organic elements of the ploughlands. Fourths and eighths arise in connexion with natural fractions of the ploughteam of eight oxen. One more feature of the situation remains to be noticed, and it is the one which is still before our eyes in all parts of the country, that is, the commons which have survived the wholesale process of inclosure. They were an integral part of the ancient village community from the first, not only because the whole ground of a township could not be taken up by arable and meadows, at a time when population was scanty, but because there existed the most intimate connexion between the agricultural and pastoral part of husbandry in the time of the open-field system. Pasture was not treated as a commodity by itself but was mostly considered as an adjunct, as appendant to the arable, and so was the use of woods and of turf. This fact was duly emphasized, e.g. in an Elizabethan case reported by Coke — Tyrringham's case. The problem of admeasurement of pasture was regulated in the same way as that of the appor- tionment of arable strips, by a reference to the proportional holdings, the hides, yardiands and oxgangs of the township, and the only question to be decided was how many heads of cattle and how many sheep each hide and yardland had the right to send to the common pasturage grounds. When in course of time the open-field system and the tenure of arable according to holdings were given up, the right of free- holders and copyholders of the old manors in which the ancient townships were, as it were, encased, still held good, but it became much more difficult to estimate and to apportion such rights. In connexion with the individualistic policy of inclosure the old writ of admeasurement of commons was abolished in 1837 (3 & 4 Will. IV.). The ordinary expedient is to make out how much commonable cattle could be kept by the tene- ments claiming commons through the winter. It is very characteristic and important that in the leading modern case on sufficiency of commons — in Robertson v. Hartopp — it was admitted by the Court of Appeal that the sufficiency has to be construed as a right of turning out a certain number of beasts on the common, quite apart from the number which had been actually turned out at any given time. Now a vested right has to be construed from the point of view of the time when it came into existence. The standards used to estimate such rights ought not to be drawn from modern practice, which might help to dispense altogether with commons of pasture by stable feeding, substitutes for grass, &c., but ought to correspond to the ordinary usages established at a time when the open-field system was in full vigour. The legal view stands thus at present, but we cannot conceal from ourselves that after all the inroads achieved by individual appropriation it is by no means certain that the reference to the rights and rules of a previous period will continue to be recognized. However this may be, in the present commons we have certainly a system which draws its roots from customs, as to the origin of which legal memory does not ran. We may, in conclusion, summarize very briefly the principal results of our inquiry as to the history of European village communities. It seems that they may be stated under the following heads: (i) Primitive stages of civilization disclose in human society a strong tendency towards mutual support in economic matters as well as for the sake of defence. (2) The most natural form assumed by such unions for defence and co-operation is that of kinship. (3) In epochs of pastoral husbandry and of the beginnings of agriculture land is mainly owned by tribes, kindreds and enlarged households, while individuals enjoy only rights of usage and possession. (4) In course of time unions of neighbours are substituted for unions of kinsmen. (5) In Germanic societies the community of the township rests on the foundation of efficient holdings— bols, hides, hufen — kept together as far as possible by rules of united or single succession. (6) The open-field system, which prevailed in the whole of Northern Europe for nearly a thousand years, was closely dependent on the customs of tribal and neighbourly unions. (7) Even now the treatment of commons represents the last manifestations of ancient communal arrangements, and it can only be reasonably and justly interpreted by reference to the law and practice of former times. AUTHORITIES. — Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communities in the East and West (1872) ; E. de Laveleye, Das Ureigenthum, ubers. von VILLALBA— VILLANELLE 73 K. Biicher (Leipzig, 1879) ; A. Mcitzen, Siedelung und Agrarwesen der Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Romer, Finnen undSlaven. Wanderungen, Anbau und Agrarrecht der Volker Europas nordlich der Alpen (4 vols., Berlin, 1895); F. de Coulanges, Les Origines de la propriele (Paris, 1893) ; M. Kovalewsky, Die okonomische Enturicklung Europas bis zum Beginn der kapital^schen Wirtsclutftsform (Berlin, 1901); B. H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community (London, 1896); The Land Systems of British India (Oxford, 1892); J. Jolly, Tagore Lectures on the Law of Inheritance and Succession tn India; Tn. Mommsen, Romische Forschungen (Berlin, 1864); P. ( .uiraud, La Propriele fonciere en Grecejusqu' a la conquete Romaine (Paris, 1893); R. Pohlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und Socialismus (Miinchen, 1893); F. de Coulanges, La Cite antique (Paris, l872);F. Seebohm, The Tribal System in Wales (London, 1904) ; H. S. Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institutions (London, 1875) ; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille celtique (Paris, 1905) ; Cours de litterature celtique (Paris, 1902) ; R. Anderson, History of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1874) ; C. Innes, Lectures on Scotch Legal Anti- quities (Edinburgh, 1872); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1880); A. Dopsch, Die dltere Sozial- und Wirtschaftsverfassung der Alpenslaven (Weimar, 1909); J. Peisxer, Die alteren Beziehungen der Slawen zu Turkotataren und Germanen und ihre sozialgeschichtliche Bedeutung (Stuttgart, 1905) ; G. Cohn, Gemeindenschaft und Hausgenossenschaft (Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Rechtswissen- schaft, XII!., 1899) ; Bogisic, Zborniken (Servian Collection of modern legal customs of the Southern Slavs (Agram, 1874) ; De la forme dite Inokosna de lafamille rurale chez les Serbes et IKS Creates (Paris, 1884) ; T. T. Smirnoff, Sketch of Culture History of the Southern Slavs (Kazan, 1900) (Russian) ; F. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Sudslaven (Wien, 1885); A. Tschuproff, Die Feldgemeinschaft (Strassburg, 1902); A. Efimenko, Southern Russia (Russian), vol. i. (1901); Peasant Land-tenure in the Extreme North, I. (Russian) (1884) ; B. Ciderin, Essays on the History of Russian Law (Russian) ; V. Sergievic, Antiquities of Russian Law, III. (Russian) (St Petersburg, 1903); Kocarovsky, The Russian Village Community (Russian) (1906) ; A. Kaufmann, The Russian Village Community, I. (Russian) (Moscow, 1908) ; G. L. von Maurer, Einleitung zur Geschichle der Mark-, Hof-, Dorf- und Stadtverfassung und der offentlichen Gewall (Munchen, 1854) ; Geschichle der Markenverfassung in Deutschland (Erlangen, 1856); Geschichte der Fronhofe, der Bauernhcfe und der Hofycr- fassung in Deutschland (4 vols., Erlangen, 1862); Geschichte der D&rfverfassung in Deutschland (2 vols,, Erlangen, 1865); F. de Coulanges, Histcire des institutions poliiiques de I'ancienne France (Paris, 1875-91); J. Flach, Les Origines de I'ancienne France (Paris, 1893); E. Glasson, Les Communaux et le domaine rurale a I'epoque franque: reponse d M. Fustel de Coulanges (Paris, 1890); K. Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalier (4 vols., Leipzig, 1885); F. Knapp, Grundherrschaft und Riltergut (Leipzig, 1897); W. Wittich, Die Grundherrschaft in Nordwest Deutschland (Leipzig, 1896) ; Rhamm, Die Grosshafen der Nordger- manen (1905); G. Haussen, Agrarhistorische Abhandlungen (2 yols., Leipzig, 1880); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1887); R. Schroder, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., 1894); Fr. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (London, 1902); M. Sering, Erbrecht und Agrarverfassung in Schleswig-Holstein (Berlin, 1908) ; F. W. Maitland and Sir F. Pollock, The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I. (Cambridge, 1895) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essa.ys in the Early History of England (Cambridge, 1897); Township and Borough (Cam- bridge, 1898) ; Fr. Seebohm, The English Village Community (London, 1884); P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892); The Growth of the Manor (London, 1905) ; English Society in the nth Century (Oxford, 1907); G. L. Gomme, The Village Community (London, 1890) ; C. I. Elton, A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands (London, 1868); Th. E. Scrutton, Commons and Commonfields (Cambridge, 1887); J. Williams, Rights of Commons (London); T. Stecnstrup, Studier over Kong Valdemars Jordebog (Copenhagen); Lauridsen, Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, II Raekke, vol. ii. (Copenhagen, 1896) ; Steman, Dansk Retshistorie (Copenhagen, 1871) ; A. Taranger, Norsk Retshistorie (Christiania, 1899). (P. Vi.) VILLALBA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; on the left bank of the river Ladra, one of the head- streams of the Mino, and at the junction of the main roads from Ferrol and Mondonedo to the city of Lugo. Pop. (1900) 13.572- Villalba is the chief town of the' district watered by the Ladra, Tamboga and other small streams — a fertile plateau 1500 ft. above sea-level. Cloth and pottery are manufactured, and there is some trade in grain and live stock. The nearest railway station is Otero, 15 m. S. by E., on the Lugo-Corunna line. VILLAMEDIANA. COUNT DE (1582-1622), Spanish poet, was born at Lisbon towards the end of 1582. His father, a distinguished diplomatist, upon whom the dignity of count was conferred in 1603, entrusted the education of the brilliant boy (Juan de Tassis y Peralta) to Luis Tribaldos de Toledo, the future editor of Mendoza's Guerras de Granada, and to Bartolome Jimenez Pat6n, who subsequently dedicated Mercurius Trismegistus to his pupil. On leaving Salamanca the j'outh married in 1601, and succeeded to the title on the death of his father in 1607; he was prominent in the dissipated life of the capital, acquired a bad reputation as a gambler, was forbidden to attend court, and resided in Italy from 1611 to 1617. On his return to Spain, he soon proved himself a fearless, pungent satirist. Such public men as Lerma, Rodrigo Calderon and Jorge de Tobar writhed beneath his murderous invective; the foibles of humbler private persons were exposed to public ridicule in verses furtively passed from hand to hand. So great was the resentment caused by these envenomed attacks that Villamediana was once more ordered to withdraw from court in 1618. He returned on the death of Philip III. and was appointed gentleman in waiting to Philip IV.'s young wife, Isabel de Bourbon, daughter of Henri IV. Secure in his position, he scattered his scathing epigrams in profusion; but his ostentatious attentions to the queen supplied his countless foes with a weapon which was destined to destroy him. A fire broke out while his masque, La Gloria de Niguea, was being acted before the court on the isth of May 1622, and Villamediana carried the queen to a place of safety. Suspicion deepened; Villamediana neglected a significant warning that his life was in peril, and on the 2ist of August 1622 he was murdered as he stepped out of his coach. The responsibility for his death was divided between Philip IV. and Olivares; the actual assassin was either Alonso Mateo or Ignacio Mendez; and naturally the crime remained unpunished. Villamediana 's works, first published at Saragossa in 1629, contain not only the nervous, blighting verses which made him widely feared and hated, but a number of more serious poems embodying the most exaggerated conceits of gongorism. But, even when adopting the perverse conventions of the hour, he remains a poet of high distinction, and his satirical verses, more perfect in form, are instinct with a cold, concentrated scorn which has never been surpassed. (J. F.-K.) VILLANELLE, a form of verse, originally loose in construc- tion, but since the i6th century bound in exact limits of an arbi- trary kind. The word is ultimately derived from the Latin villa, a country house or farm, through the Italian vittano, a peasant or farm hand, and a villanelle was primarily a round song taken up by men on a farm. The Spaniards called such a song a villancejo or villancete or a villancico, and a man who impro- vised villanelles was a villanciquero. The villanelle was a pastoral poem made to accompany a rustic dance, and from the first 'it was necessary that it should contain a regular system of repeated lines. The old French villanelles, however, were irregular in form. One of the most celebrated, the " Rosette, pour un peu d'absence " of Philippe Desportes (1545-1606), is a sort of ballade, and those contained in the Astree of d'Urf6, 1610, are scarcely less unlike the villanelles of modern times. It appears, indeed, to have been by an accident that the special and rigorously defined form of the villanelle was invented. In the posthumous poems of Jean Passerat (1534-1602), which were printed in 1606, several villanelles were discovered, in different forms. One of these became, and has remained, so deservedly popular, that it has given its exact character to the subsequent history of the villanelle. This famous poem runs as follows: — " J'ai perdu ma tourterelle : Est-ce point celle que j'oi? Je veux aller apres elle. Tu regrettes ta femelle? Helas! aussi fais-je moi : J'ai perdu ma tourterelle. Si ton amour est fidele, Aussi est ferme ma foi : Je veux aller apres elle. Ta plainte se renouvelle? Toujours plaindre je me dois: J'ai perdu ma tourterelle. 74 VILLANI En ne voyant plus la belle Plus rien de beau je ne vois: Je veux aller apres elle. Mort, que tant de fois j'appelle, Prends ce qui se donne a toi: J'ai perdu ma tourterelle, e veux aller apres elle." This exquisite lyric has continued to be the type of its class and the villanelie, therefore, for the last three hundred years has been a poem, written in tercets, on two rhymes, the first and the third line being repeated alternatively in each tercet It is usual to confine the villanelie to five tercets, but that is not essential; it must, however, close with a quatrain, the last two lines of which are the first and third line of the original tercet. The villanelie was extremely admired by the French poets of the Parnasse, and one of them, Theodore de Banville, compared it to a ribband of silver and gold traversed by a thread of rose-colour. Boulmier, who was the first to point out that Passerat was the inventor of the definite villanelie, published collections of these poems in 1878 and 1879, and was preparing another when he died in 1881. When, in 1877, so many of the early French forms of verse were introduced, or reintroduced, into English literature, the villanelie attracted a great deal of attention; it was simultaneously cultivated by W. E. Henley, Austin Dobson, Lang and Gosse. Henley wrote a large number, and he described the form itself in a specimen beginning: — " A dainty thing's the Villanelie, Sly, musical, a jewel in rhyme, It serves its purpose passing well." It has since then been very frequently used by English and American poets. There are several excellent examples in English of humorous villanelles, especially those by Austin Dobson and by Henley. See Joseph Boulmier, Les Villanelles (Paris, 1878; 2nd enlarged edition, 1879). (E. G.) VILLANI, GIOVANNI (c. 1275-1348), Italian chronicler, was the son of Villano di Stoldo, and was born at Florence in the second half of the i$th century; the precise year is unknown. He was of good burgher extraction, and, following the traditions of his family, applied himself to commerce. During the early years of the i4th century he travelled in Italy, France and the Netherlands, seeing men and things with the sagacity alike of the man of business and of the historian. Before leaving Florence, or rather in the interval between one journey and another, he had at least taken some part in that troubled period of civil contentions which Dino Compagni has described and which swept Dante Alighieri into banishment. In 1301 Villani saw Charles, count of Valois, ruining his country under the false name of peacemaker, and was witness of all the misery which immediately followed. Somewhat later he left Italy, and in September 1304 he visited Flanders. It is not well ascertained when he returned to his native city. He was certainly living there shortly after the emperor Henry VII. visited Italy in 1312, and probably he had been there for some time before. While still continuing to occupy himself with commerce, he now began to take a prominent part in public affairs. In 1316 and 1317 he was one of the priors, and shared in the crafty tactics whereby Pisa and Lucca were induced to conclude a peace with Florence, to which they were previously averse. In 1317 he also had charge of the mint, and during his administration of this office he collected its earlier records and had a register made of all the coins struck in Florence. In 1321 he was again chosen prior; and, the Florentines having just then undertaken the rebuilding of the city walls, he and some other citizens were deputed to look after the work. They were afterwards accused of having diverted the public money to private ends, but Villani clearly established his innocence. He was next sent with the army against Castruccio Castracani, lord of Lucca, and was present at its defeat at Altopascio. In 1328 a terrible famine visited many provinces of Italy, including Tuscany, and Villani was appointed to guard Florence from the worst effects of that distressing period. He has left a record of what was done in a chapter of his Chronicle, which shows the economic wisdom in which the medieval Florentines were often so greatly in advance of their age. In 1339, some time after the death of Castruccio, some rich Florentine merchants, and among them Villani, treated for the acquisition of Lucca by Florence for 80,000 florins, offering to supply the larger part of that sum out of their own private means; but the negotiations fell through, owing to the discords and jealousies then existing in the government (Chron. x. 143). The following year Villani superintended the making of Andrea Pisano's bronze doors for the baptistery. In the same year he watched over the raising of the campanile of the Badia, erected by Cardinal Giovanni Orsini (Chron. x. 177). In 1341 the acquisi- tion of Lucca was again under treaty, this time with Martino della Scala, for 250,000 florins. Villani was sent with others as a hostage to Ferrara, where he remained for some months. He was present in Florence during the unhappy period that elapsed between the entry of Walter of Brienne, duke of Athens, and his expulsion by the Florentines (1342-43). Involved through no fault of his own in the failure of the commercial company of the Bonaccorsi, which in its turn had been drawn into the failure of the company of the Bardi, Villani, towards the end of his life, suffered much privation and for some time was kept in prison. In 1348 he fell a victim to the plague described by Boccaccio. The idea of writing the Chronicle was suggested to Villani under the following circumstances: " In the year of Christ 1300 Pope Boniface VIII. made in honour of Christ's nativity a special and great indulgence. And I, finding myself in that blessed pilgrim- age in the holy city of Rome, seeing her great and ancient remains, and reading the histories and great deeds of the Romans as written by Virgil, Sallust, Lucan, Livy, Valerius, Paulus Orosius and other masters of history who wrote the exploits and deeds, both great and small, of the Romans and also of strangers, in the whole world . . . considering that our city of Florence, the daughter and offspring of Rome, is on the increase and destined to do great things, as Rome is in her decline, it appeared to me fitting to set down in this volume and new chronicle all the facts and beginnings of the city of Florence, in as far as it has been possible to me to collect and discover them, and to follow the doings of the Florentines at length . . . and so in the year 1300, on my return from Rome, I began to compile this book, in honour of God and of the blessed John, and in praise of our city of Florence." Villani's work, written in Italian, makes its appearance, so to speak, unexpectedly in the historical literature of Italy, just as the history of Florence, the moment it emerges from the humble and uncertain origin assigned :o it by legend, rises suddenly into a rich and powerful life of thought and action. Nothing but scanty and partly legendary records had preceded Villani's work, which rests in part on them. The Gesta Florentinorum of Sanzanome, starting from these vague origins, begins to be more definite about 1125, at the time of the union of Fiesole with Florence. The Chronica de Origine Civitatis seems to be a compilation, made by various hands and at various :imes, in which the different legends regarding the city's origin lave been gradually collected. The Annales Florentini Primi [1110-1173) and the Annales Florentini Secundi (1107-1247), to- gether with a list of the consuls and podestas from 1197 to 1267, and another chronicle, formerly attributed, but apparently with- mt good reason, to Brunetto Latini, complete the series of ancient "lorentine records. To these must, however, be added a certain luantity of facts which were to be found in various manuscripts, >eing used and quoted by the older Florentine and Tuscan writers mder the general name of Gesta Florentinorum. Another work, ormerly reckoned among the sources of Villani, is the Chronicle )/ the Malespini; but grave doubts are now entertained as to its luthenticity, and many hold that at best it is merely a remodel- ing, posterior to Villani's time, of old records from which several chroniclers may have drawn, either without citing them at all or only doing so in a vague manner. The Historic Florentine, or Cronica universale, of Villani begins with Biblical times and comes down to 1348. The universality of :he narrative, especially in the times near Villani's own, while it >ears witness to the author's extensive travels and to the compre- lensiveness of his mind, makes one also feel that the book was nspired within the walls of the universal city. Whereas Dino Compagni's Chronicle is confined within definite limits of time and )lace, this of Villani is a general chronicle extending over the vhole of Europe. Dino Compagni feels and lives in the facts of lis history; Villani looks at them and relates them calmly and airly, with a serenity which makes him seem an outsider, even vhen he is mixed up in them. While very important for Italian istory in the I4th century, this work is the cornerstone of the VILLANOVA— VILLARD 75 early medieval history of Florence. Of contemporary events Villani has a very exact knowledge. Having been a sharer in the public affairs and in the intellectual and economic life of his native city, at a time when in both it had no rival in Europe, he depicts what he saw with the vividness natural to a clear mind accustomed to business and to the observation of mankind. He was Guelph, but without passion; and his book is much more taken up with an inquiry into what is useful and true than with party considerations. He is really a chronicler, not an historian, and has but little method in his narrative, often reporting the things which occurred long ago just as he heard them and without criticism. Every now and then he falls into some inaccuracy; but such defects as he has are largely compensated for by his valuable qualities. He was for half a century eyewitness of his history, and he provides abundant information on the constitution of Florence, its customs, industries, commerce and arts; and among the chronicleis throughout Europe he is perhaps unequalled for the value of the statistical data he has preserved. As a writer Villani is clear and acute; and, though his prose has not the force and colouring of Compagni's, it has the advantage of greater simplicity, so that, taking his work as a whole, he may be regarded as the greatest chronicler who has written in Italian. The many difficulties connected with the publication of this important text have hitherto prevented the preparation of a perfect edition. However, the Chronicle has been printed by L. A. Muratori in tome xiii. of the Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Milan, 1728), and has been edited by I. Moutier and F. G. Dragomanni (Florence, 1844). Among other editions is one published at Trieste in 1857 and another at Turin in 1879. Selections have been trans- lated into English by R. E. Selfe (1896). Villani's Chronicle was continued by two other members of his family, (i) MATTEO VILLANI, his brother, of whom nothing is known save that he was twice married and that he died of the plague in 1363, continued it down to the year of his death. Matteo's work, though inferior to Giovanni's, is nevertheless very valuable. A more prolix writer than his brother and a less acute observer, Matteo is well informed in his facts, and for the years of which he writes is one of the most important sources of Italian history. (2) FILIPPO VILLANI, the son of Matteo, flourished in the end of the I4th and the beginning of the 15th century. In his continuation which goes down to 1364, though showing greater literary ability, he is very inferior as an historian to his predecessors. His most valuable work was a collection of lives of illustrious Florentines. Twice, in 1401 and 1404, he was chosen to explain in public the Divina Commedia. The year of his death is unknown. See P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Florentiner Studien (Leipzig, 1874); G. Gervinus, " Geschichte der Florentinen Historiographie " in his Historische Schriften (1833); U. Balzani, Le cronache Italiane nel media evo (Milan, 1884) ; A. Gaspary, Geschichte der italienischen Lileratur (Berlin, 1885) ; O. Knoll, Beitrdge zur italienischen Historio- graphie im 14. Jahrhundert (Gottingen 1876), and O. Hartwig, " G. Villani und die Leggenda di Messer Gianni di Procida " in Band xxv. of H. von Sybers Historische Zeitschrift. (U. B.) VILLANOVA, the name given to an ancient cemetery in the neighbourhood of Bologna, Italy, and generally applied by archaeologists to all the remains of that period, and to the period itself, owing to the discovery therein of a large number of the characteristic remains of the earliest Iron Age of Italy. The antiquities of this culture are widely spread over upper Italy and differ essentially from those of the previous epoch known as Terramara, and they have been described by some as following at a considerable interval, for they show a great advance in metal work. The chief cemeteries of the Villanova period are at Bologna, Este, Villanova, Golasecca, Trezzo, Rivoli and Oppiano. As there can be no doubt that the Terramara culture was that of the aboriginal Ligurians (see, however, TERRAMARA), so the Villanova is that of the Umbrians, who, according to the historians, were masters of all northern Italy, as far as the Alps at the time of the Etruscan conquest (c. 1000 B.C.). They contain cist-graves, the bottoms, sides and tops being formed of flat unhewn stones, though sometimes there are only bottom and top slabs: the dead were burnt, and the remains are usually in urns, each grave containing as a rule but one ossuary; sometimes the vessel is covered with a flat stone or a dish inverted, sometimes the urns are deposited in the ground without any protection. The vases arc often hand-made and adorned with incised linear ornament, though in later times the bones were often placed in bronze urns or buckets. Though iron is steadily making its way into use, flat, flanged, and socketed and looped celts of bronze are found in con- siderable numbers. Brooches of many kinds, ranging from the most primitive safety-pin fashioned out of a common bronze pin (such as those found in the Bronze Age settlement at Peschiera on Lake Maggiore), through many varieties, are in universal use. Representations of the human figure are practically unknown, but models of animals of a rude and primitive kind are very common, probably being votive offerings. These are closely parallel to the bronze figures found at Olympia, where human figures were likewise rare. All these objects are decorated in repoussf with geometric designs. The culture of the Villanova period is part of the Hallstatt civilization, though the contents of the Hallstatt (q.v.) graves differ in several marked features from the anti- quities of the ordinary Villanova period, there is no breach of continuity between Hallstatt and Villanova, for the types of Vadena, Este, Golasecca and Villanova are found in the Hallstatt culture. The connexion between the north and the south of the Alps is never interrupted. The chief difference lies in the fact that the Celts of the Danubian region made greater advances in the development of weapons and defensive armour than their kindred in northern Italy. The Po and Danube regions alike are characterized by bronze buckets, cists, girdles and the like, wrought in repoussi with animal and geometric designs; but the introduction of iron into Italy is considerably posterior to its development in the Hallstatt area. See Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italic; Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, vol. i. ; Brizio, in C. R. Acad. Inscr. (1906), 315 sqq.; Grenier, in Melanges de I icole franchise (1907), 325 sqq.; Pigorim and Vaglieri have contributed articles to the Rendiconli del Lincei and the Notizie degli scavi from 1907 onwards. (W. Ri.) VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA, a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, near the left bank of the river Guadiana, and on the Madrid-Badajoz railway. Pop. (1900) 13,489. Villanueva is a clean and thriving place, with good modern public buildings — town hall, churches, convents and schools. It is the chief town of an undulating plain, La Serena, locally celebrated for red wine and melons. Grain and hemp are also cultivated, and live stock extensively reared in the neighbourhood. VILLANUEVA Y GELTRU, a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona; on the Barcelona-Tarragona section of the coast railway. Pop. (1900) 11,850. Villanueva is a busy modern town, with manufactures of cotton, woollen and linen goods, and of paper. It has also iron foundries and an important agricultural trade. The harbour affords safe and deep anchorage; it is a lifeboat station and the head- quarters of a large fishing fleet. The coasting trade is also considerable. Villanueva has a museum, founded by the Catalan poet, historian and diplomat, Vittorio Balaguer (1824- 1901), which contains collections of Roman, Egyptian and prehistoric antiquities, besides paintings, engravings, sculptures, coins and a large library, including many valuable MSS. VILLARD, HENRY (1835-1900), American journalist and financier, was born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria, on the loth of April 1835. His baptismal name was Ferdinand Heinrich Gustav Hilgard. His parents removed to Zweibriicken in 1839, and in 1856 his father, Gustav Leonhard Hilgard (d.i867), became a justice of the Supreme Court of Bavaria, at Munich. Henry was educated ar-the gymnasium of Zweibriicken, at the French semi-military academy in Phalsbourg in 1849-50, at the gymnasium of Speyer in 1850-52, and at the universities of Munich and Wurzburg in 1852-53; and in 1853, having had a disagreement with his father, emigrated — without his parents' knowledge — to the United States. It was at this time that he adopted the name Villard. Making his way westward in 1854, he lived in turn at Cincinnati, Belleville (Illinois), Peoria (Illinois) and Chicago, engaged in various employments, and in 1856 formed a project, which came to nothing, for establish- ing a colony of " free soil " Germans in Kansas. In 1856-57 he was editor, and for part of the time was proprietor, of the Racine (Wis.) Volksblatt, in which he advocated the election of John C. Fr6mont (Republican). Thereafter he was associ- ated (in 1857) with the Staats-Zrilung, Frank Leslie's and the Tribune, of New York, and with the Cincinnati Commercial 76 VILLA REAL— VILLA RS in 1859-60; was correspondent of the New York Herald in 1861 and of the New York Tribune (with the Army of the Potomac) in 1862-63, and in 1864 was at the front as the representative of a news agency established by him in that year at Washington. In 1865 he became Washington corre- spondent of the Chicago Tribune, and in 1866 was the corre- spondent of that paper in the Prusso-Austrian War. He began to take an interest in railway financiering in 1871, was elected president of the Oregon & California railroad and of the Oregon Steamship Company in 1876, was receiver of the Kansas Pacific railway in 1876-78, organized the Oregon Railway & Naviga- tion Company in 1879, the Oregon Improvement Company in 1880, and the Oregon & Transcontinental Company in 1881, becoming in that year president of the Northern Pacific rail- way, which was completed under his management, and of which he remained president until 1883. In 1887 he again became connected with the Northern Pacific, and in 1889 was chosen chairman of its finance committee. He was actively identified with the financing of other Western railway projects until 1893. In 1 88 1 he acquired the New York Evening Post and the Nation. In 1883 he paid the debt of the state uni- versity of Oregon, and gave to the institution $50.000, and he also gave to the town of Zweibrucken, the home of his boyhood, an orphan asylum (1891). He died on the I2th of November 1900. See Memoirs of Henry Villard, Journalist and Financier, 1835- 1900 (2 vols., Boston, 1904). VILLA REAL, the capital of the district of [Villa Real, Portugal; 10 m. N. of the river Douro and 47 m. by road 'E.N.E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 6716. The town has a large transit trade in wine, mineral waters and live stock, especially pigs. The administrative district of Villa Real corresponds with the western part of the ancient province of Traz os Montes (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 242,196; area, 1650 sq. m. There are alkaline waters and baths at Vidago (near Chaves) and at Pedras Salgadas (near Villa Pouca d'Aguiar). The district adjacent to the Douro is known as the Paiz do vinho, or " wine country"; here are the vineyards from which " port " wine is manufactured. VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, LOUIS THOMAS (1750-1812), French admiral, was born at Auch, of a noble family of Lan- guedoc. He was originally destined for the church, but served for some time in the royal guard, which he had to leave at the age of sixteen after killing one of his comrades in a duel. He then entered the navy, and in 1773 was lieutenant on the " Atalante " in Indian waters. In 1778 he distinguished him- self at the siege of Pondicherry^ and was promoted captain. He afterwards served under Suffren, took part in the battle of Cuddalore, and in 1781 was taken prisoner after a fierce encounter with an English vessel. He was released in 1783, and, unlike the majority of naval officers, did not emigrate during the Revolution. In 1791 he was in command of the " Prudente " in the waters of San Domingo, and in 1794 was appointed rear-admiral and assisted the Conventional, St Andre, in the reorganization of the fleet. Villaret was in com- mand of the French fleet at the battle of the First of June. He was appointed a member of the Council of the Ancients in 1796, and was sentenced to deportation in the following year on ac- count of his royalist sympathies. He escaped arrest, however, and until the Consulate lived in obscurity at Oleron. In 1801 he commanded the squadron which transported the French army to San Domingo, and the following year was made captain- general of Martinique, which he surrendered to the English in 1809 after a brave defence. In 1811, after some hesitation on the part of Napoleon, Villaret was rewarded for his services with the command of a military division and the post of governor- general of Venice. He died at Venice. VILLARI, PASQUALE (1827- ), Italian historian and statesman, was born at Naples on the 3rd of October 1827. He studied together with Luigi la Vista under Francesco de Sanctis. He was implicated in the riots of the isth of May 1848 at Naples, against the Bourbon government, and had to take refuge in Florence. There he devoted himself to teaching and historical research in the public libraries, and in 1859 he published the first volume of his Storia di Girolamo Savona- rola e de' suoi tempi, in consequence of which he was appointed professor of history at Pisa. A second volume appeared in 1861, and the work, which soon came to be recognized as an Italian classic, was translated into various foreign languages. It was followed by a work of even greater critical value, Niccold Machiavelli e i suoi tempi (1877-82). In the mean- while Villari had left Pisa and was transferred to the chair of philosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in Florence, and he was also appointed a member of the council of education (1862). He served as a juror at the international exhibition of that year in London, and contributed an important monograph on education in England and Scotland. In 1869 he was appointed under-secretary of state for education, and shortly afterwards was elected member of parliament, a position which he held for several years. In 1884 he was nominated senator, and in 1891-92 he was minister of education in the Marchese di Rudini's first cabinet. In 1893-94 he collected a number of essays on Florentine history, originally published in the Nuova. Antologia, under the title of I primi due secoli della storia di Firenze, and in 1901 he produced Le Invasioni bar- bariche in Italia, a popular account in one volume of the events following the dissolution of the Roman empire. All these works have been translated into English by the historian's wife, Linda White Villari. Another side of Villari's activity was his interest in the political and social problems of the day; and although never identified with any political party, his speeches and writings have always commanded considerable public attention. Among his other literary works may be mentioned: Saggi Critici (1868); Arte, Storia, e Filosofia (Florence, 1884); Scritti varii (Bologna, 1894); another volume of Saggi Critici (Bologna, 1896); and a volume of Discussioni critiche e discorsi (Bologna, 1905), containing his speeches as president of the Dante Alighieri Society. His most important political and social essays are col- lected in his Lettere Meridional! ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Turin, 1885), and Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (FIorence,'i9O2). The Lettere Meridionali (originally published in the newspaper L'Opinione in 1875) produced a deep impression, as they were the first exposure of the real conditions of southern Italy. A selection of Villari's essays, translated by his wife, has been published in England (1907). See also Francesco Baldasseroni, Pasquale Villari (Florence, 1907). VILLA RICA, the largest city in the interior of Paraguay, on the railway from Asuncion (70 m. N.W.) to Encarnacion. Pop. (1910) about 25,000. Situated in a rich agricultural region watered by the upper Tepicuary, with finely timbered mountains extending to the E. and W., Villa Rica has an im- portant trade in tobacco and yerba mate. It is to a great extent modern, and contains some fine buildings, including a national college, a church, many schools, and a branch of the Agricultural Bank. VILLARREAL, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Castell6n de la Plana; 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea, near the right bank of the river Mijares, and on the Barcelona- Valencia railway. Pop. (1900) 16,068. Villarreal has a station on the light railway between Onda and the seaports of Castellon de la Plana and Burriana. Under Moorish rule, and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609, it was the headquarters of a flourishing trade, and in modern times its industries have revived. Palm-groves, churches with blue- tiled cupolas, and houses with flat roofs and view-turrets (miradores) to some extent preserve the Moorish character of the town. There are extensive orange-groves, watered by the irrigation canal of Castell6n, which is a good example of Moorish engineering skill. The local industries include manufactures of paper, woollen goods and spirits. VILLARS, CLAUDE LOUIS HECTOR DE, PRINCE DE MAR- TIGNES, MARQUIS AND Due DE VILLARS AND VICOMTE DE MELUN (1653-1734), marshal of France, one of the greatest generals of French history, was bom at Moulins on the 8th of May 1653, and entered the army through the corps of pages in 1671. He VILLAVICIOSA— VILLEGAS 77 served in the light cavalry in the Dutch wars, and distinguished himself by his daring and resourcefulness. But in spite of a long record of excellent service under Turenne, Cond6 and Luxembourg, and of his aristocratic birth, his promotion was but slow, for he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois, and although he had been proprietary colonel (mestre de camp) of a cavalry regiment since 1674, thirteen years elapsed before he was made a martchal de camp. In the interval be- tween the Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augs- burg, Villars, who combined with his military gifts the tact and subtlety of the diplomatist, was employed in an unofficial mission to the court of Bavaria, and there became the constant companion of the elector, with whom he took the field against the Turks and fought at Mohacs. He returned to France in 1690 and was given a command in the cavalry of the army in Flanders, but towards the end of the Grand Alliance War he went to Vienna as ambassador. His part in the next war (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR), beginning with Friedlingen (1702) and Hochstett (1703) and ending with Denain (1712), has made him immortal. For Friedlingen he received the marshalate, and for the pacification of the insurgent Cevennes the Saint-Esprit order and the title of duke. Friedlingen and Hochstett were barren victories, and the campaigns of which they formed part records of lost opportunities. Villars's glory thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently help- less, was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the exorbi- tant demands of the Coalition. In that year he was called to command the main army opposing Eugene and Marlborough on the northern frontier. During the famine of the winter he shared the soldiers' miserable rations. When the campaign opened the old Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under him, and after the terrible battle of Malplaquet (q.v.), in which he was gravely wounded, he was able to tell the king: " If it please God to give your majesty's enemies another such victory, they are ruined. " Two more campaigns passed without a battle and with scarcely any advance on the part of the invaders, but at last Marlborough manoeuvred Villars out of the famous Ne plus ultra lints, and the power of the defence seemed to be broken. But Louis made a last effort, the English contingent and its great leader were withdrawn from the enemy's camp, and Villars, though still suffering from his Malplaquet wounds, outmanoeuvred and decisively defeated Eugene in the battle of Denain. This victory saved France, though the war dragged on for another year on the Rhine, where ViLlars took Landau, led the stormers at Freiburg and negotiated the peace of Rastatt with Prince Eugene. He played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only the memories of Montmorency's rebellion prevented his being made constable of France. He took the field for the last time in the War of the Polish Succession (1734), with the title " marshal-general of the king's armies," that Turenne alone had held before him. But he was now over eighty years of age, and the war was more diplomatic than earnest, and after opening the campaign with all the fire and restless energy of his youth he died at Turin on the I7th of June 1734. Villars's memoirs show us a " fanfaron plein d honneur," as Voltaire calls him. He was indeed boastful, with the gas- conading habit of his native province, and also covetous of honours and wealth. But he was an honourable man of high courage, moral and physical, and a soldier who stands above all his contemporaries and successors in the i8th century, on the same height as Marlborough and Frederick. The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards several times republished in untrustworthy versions, were for the first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogue in 1884-92. VILLAVICIOSA, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the Ria de Villa viciosa, an estuary formed by the small river Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1000) 20,995. The town is the headquarters of a large fishery, and has some coasting trade. Its exports are 'chiefly agricultural produce. Villaviciosa suffers from the competition of the neighbouring ports of Gij6n and Aviles, and from the lack of railway communication. It is connected by good roads with Siero (13 m.) and Infiesto (9 m.) on the Oviedo-Infiesto railway. VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m. W. of Rodez by road. Pop. (1906) town, 6297; commune, 3352. Villefranche, which has a station on the Orleans railway, lies amongst the hills on the right bank of the Aveyron at its junction with the Alzou. One of the three bridges that cross the river belongs to the i3th century, and the straight, narrow streets are full of gabled houses of the I3th and I4th centuries. One of the principal thoroughfares passes beneath the porch of Notre-Dame. the principal church of Villefranche. Notre-Dame was built from 1260 to 1581, the massive tower which surmounts its porch being of late Gothic architecture. The remarkable wood- work in the choir dates from the isth century. A Carthusian monastery overlooking the town from the left bank of the Aveyron derives much interest from the completeness and fine preservation of its buildings, which date from the ijth century. They include a fine refectory and two cloisters, the smaller of which is a masterpiece of the late Gothic style. The manufacture of leather, animal-traps, hosiery, bell-founding, hemp-spinning, &c., are carried on. Quarries of phosphates and mines of argentiferous lead are worked near Villefranche. Villefranche, founded about 1252, owes its name to the numerous immunities granted by its founder Alphonse, count of Toulouse (d. 1271), and in 1348 it was so flourishing that sumptuary laws were passed. Soon afterwards the town fell into the hands of Edward, the Black Prince, but was the first place in Guienne to rise against the English. New privileges were granted to the town by King Charles V., but these were taken away by Louis XI. In 1588 the inhabitants repulsed the forces of the League, and afterwards murdered a governor sent by Henry IV. The town was ravaged by plague in 1463, 1558 and 1628, and in 1643 a revolt, excited by the exactions of the intendants, was cruelly repressed. VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE, a manufacturing town of east- central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Rh6ne, on the Morgon near its junction with the Sa&ne, 21 m. N. by W. of Lyons by rail. Pop (1006) 14,794. Among its industries the chief are the manufacture of working clothes, the manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics, the spinning of cotton thread, copper founding and the manufacture of machinery and agricultural implements. The wines of Beau- jolais, hemp, cloth, linen, cottons, drapery goods and cattle are the principal articles of trade. An old Renaissance house is used as the town hall. The church of Notre-Dame des Marais, begun at the end of the i4th and finished in the i6th century, has a tower and spire (rebuilt in 1862), standing to the right of the facade (isth century), in which are carved wooden doors. Villefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a com- munal college among its public institutions. Founded in 1212 by Guichard IV. count of Beaujeu, Ville- franche became in the I4th century capital of the Beaujolais. As a punishment for an act of violence towards the mayor's daughter, Edward II. was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to the duke of Bourbon. VILLEGAS, ESTEBAN MANUEL DE (1580-1669), Spanish poet, was born at Matute (Logrofio) on the 5th of February 1589, matriculated at Salamanca on the 2oth of November 1610, and challenged attention by the mingled arrogance and accomplish- ment of Las Eriiicas (1617), a collection of clever translations from Horace and Anacreon, and of original poems, the charm of which is marred by the writer's petulant vanity. Marrying in 1626 or earlier, Villegas practised law at Najera till 1659, when he was charged with expressing unorthodox views on the subject of free will; he was exiled for four years to Santa Maria de Ribaredonda, but was allowed to return for three months to Najera in March 1660. It seems probable that the rest of the sentence was remitted, for the report of the local inquisition lays stress on Villegas's simple piety, on the extravagance of his attire, VILLEHARDOUIN ridiculous in a man of his age, and on the eccentricity of his general conduct and conversation, so marked as to suggest " a kind of mania or lesion of the imagination." In his version of Boetius (1665), Villegas showed that he had profited by his experience, for he made no attempt to translate the last book (in which the problem of free will is discussed), and reprinted the Latin text without comment. He died at Najera on the 3rd of September 1669. His tragedy El Hipdlito, imitated from Euripides, and a series of critical dissertations entitled Variae PhUologiae, finished in 1650, are unpublished; and " a book of satires," found among his papers by the inquisitors, was con- fiscated. VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE (c. n6o-c. 1213), the first vernacular historian of France, and perhaps of modern Europe, who possesses literary merit, is rather supposed than known to have been born at the chateau from which he took his name, near Troyes, in Champagne, about the year 1160. Not merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all that is known about him, comes from his chronicle of the fourth crusade, or Conqutle de Constantinople. Nothing is positively known of his ancestry, for the supposition (originating with Du Cange) that a certain William, marshal of Champagne between 1163 and 1179, was his father appears to be erroneous. Ville- hardouin himself, however, undoubtedly held this dignity, and certain minute and perhaps not very trustworthy indications, chiefly of an heraldic character, have led his most recent bio- graphers to lay it down that he was not born earlier than 1150 or later than 1164. He introduces himself to us with a certain abruptness, merely specifying his own name as one of a list of knights of Champagne who with their count, Thibault, took the cross at a tournament held at Escry-sur-Aisne in Advent 1199, the crusade in contemplation having been started by the preaching of Fulk de Neuilly, who was commissioned thereto by Pope Innocent III. The next year six deputies, two appointed by each of the three allied counts of Flanders, Champagne and Blois, were despatched to Venice to negotiate for ships. Of these deputies Villehardouin was one and Quesnes de Bethune, the poet, another. They concluded a bargain with the seigniory for transport and provisions at a fixed price. Villehardouin had hardly returned when Thibault fell sick and died; but this did not prevent, though it somewhat delayed, the enterprise of the crusaders. The management of that enterprise, however, was a difficult one, and cost Villehardouin another embassy into Italy to prevent if possible some of his fellow-pilgrims from breaking the treaty with the Venetians by embarking at other ports and employing other convoy. He was only in part suc- cessful, and there was great difficulty in raising the charter- money among those who had actually assembled (in 1202) at Venice, the sum collected falling far short of the stipulated amount. It is necessary to remember this when the somewhat erratic and irregular character of the operations which followed is judged. The defence that the crusaders were bound to pay their passage-money to the Holy Land, in one form or other, to the Venetians, is perhaps a weak one in any case for the attack on two Christian cities, Zara and Constantinople; it becomes weaker still when it is found that the expedition never went or attempted to go to the Holy Land at all. But the desire to discharge obligations incurred is no doubt respectable in itself, and Villehardouin, as one of the actual negotiators of the bargain, must have felt it with peculiar strength. The crusaders set sail at last, and Zara, which the Venetians coveted, was taken without much trouble. The question then arose whither the host should go next. Villehardouin does not tell us of any direct part taken by himself in the debates on the question of interfering or not in the disputed succession to the empire of the East— debates in which the chief ecclesiastics present strongly protested against the diversion of the enterprise from its proper goal. It is quite clear, however, that the mar- shal of Champagne, who was one of the leaders and inner counsellors of the expedition throughout, sympathized with the majority, and it is fair to point out that the temptation of chivalrous adventure was probably as great as that of gain. He narrates spiritedly enough the dissensions and discussions in the winter camp of Zara and at Corfu, but is evidently much more at ease when the voyage was again resumed, and, after a fair passage round Greece, the crusaders at last saw before them the great city of Constantinople which they had it in mind to attack. When the assault was decided upon, Ville- hardouin himself was in the fifth " battle," the leader of which was Mathieu de Montmorency. But, though his account of the siege is full of personal touches, and contains one reference to the number of witnesses whose testimony he took for a certain wonderful fact, he does not tell us anything of his own prowess. After the flight of the usurper Alexius, and when the blind Isaac, whose claims the crusaders were defending, had been taken by the Greeks from prison and placed on the throne, Villehardouin, with Montmorency and two Venetians, formed the embassy sent to arrange terms. He was again similarly distinguished when it became necessary to remonstrate with Alexius, the blind man's son and virtual successor, on the non- keeping of the terms. Indeed Villehardouin 's talents as a diplomatist seem to have been held in very high esteem, for later, when the Latin empire had become a fact, he was charged with the delicate business of mediating between the emperor Baldwin and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, in which task he had at least partial success. He was also appointed marshal of " Romanic " — a term very vaguely used, but apparently signifying the mainland of the Balkan Peninsula, while his nephew and namesake, afterwards prince cf Achaia, took a great part in the Latin conquest of Peloponnesus. Villehardouin himself before long received an important command against the Bulgarians. He was left to maintain the siege of Adrianople when Baldwin advanced to attack the relieving force, and with Dandolo had much to do in saving the defeated crusaders from utter destruction, and conducting the retreat, in which he commanded the rearguard, and brought his troops in safety to the sea of Rodosto, and thence to the capital. As he occupied the post of honour in this disaster, so he had that (the command of the vanguard) in the expedition which the regent Henry made shortly afterwards to revenge his brother Baldwin's defeat and capture. And, when Henry had succeeded to the crown on the announcement of Baldwin's death, it was Ville- hardouin who fetched home his bride Agnes of Montferrat, and shortly afterwards commanded under him in a naval battle with the ships of Theodore Lascaris at the fortress of Cibotus. In the settlement of the Latin empire after the truce with Lascaris, Villehardouin received the fief of Messinople (supposed to be Mosynopolis, a little inland from the modern Gulf of Lagos, and not far from the ancient Abdera) from Boniface of Montferrat, with the record of whose death the chronicle abruptly closes. _ In the foregoing account only those particulars which bear directly on Villehardouin himself have been detailed; but the chronicle is as far as possible from being an autobiography, and the displays of the writer's personality, numerous as they are, are quite involuntary, and consist merely in his way of handling the subject, not in the references (as brief as his functions as chronicler will admit) to his own proceedings. The chronicle of Villehardouin is justly held to be the very best presentation we possess of the spirit of chivalry — not the designedly exalted and poetized chivalry of the romances, not the self-conscious and deliberate chivalry of the I4th century, but the unsophisticated mode of thinking and acting which brought about the crusades, stimulated the vast literary development of the I2th and I3th centuries, and sent knights-errant, principally though not wholly of French blood, to establish principalities and kingdoms throughout Europe and the nearer East. On the whole, no doubt, it is the more masculine and practical side of this enthusiastic state of mind which Ville- hardouin shows. No woman makes any but the briefest appear- ance in his pages, though in reference to this it must of course be remembered that he was certainly a man past middle life when the events occurred, and perhaps a man approaching eld age when he set them down. Despite the strong and graphic touches here and there, exhibiting the impression which the beauty of sea and land, the splendour of Constantinople, the magnitude of the effete but still imposing Greek power, made on him, there is not only an entire absence of dilation on such subjects as a modern would have dilated on (that was to be expected), but an absence likewise of the elaborate and painful description of detail in which contemporary VILLELE 79 trouveres would have indulged. It is curious, for instance, to compare the scanty references to the material marvels of Constan- tinople which Villehardouin saw in their glory, which perished by sack and fire under his very eyes, and which live chiefly in the melancholy pages of his Greek contemporary Nicetas, with the elaborate descriptions of the scarcely greater wonders of fabulous courts at Constantinople itself, at Babylon, and elsewhere, to be found in his other contemporaries, the later chanson de geste writers and the earlier embroiderers of the Arthurian romances and remans d'aventurcs. And this later contrast is all the more striking that Villehardouin agrees with, and not impossibly borrows from, these very writers in many points of style and phraseology. The brief chapters of his work have been justly compared to the laisses or tirades of a chanson in what may be called the vignetting of the subject of each, in the absence of any attempt to run on the narra- tive, in the stock forms, and in the poetical rather than prosaic word-order of the sentences. Undoubtedly this half-poetic style (animated as it is and redeemed from any charge of bastardy by the freshness and vigour which pervade it) adds not a little to the charm of the book. Its succession of word pictures, conventional and yet vigorous as the illuminations of a medieval manuscript, and in their very conventionality free from all thought of literary presentation, must charm all readers. The sober lists of names with which it opens; the account of the embassy, so business-like in its estimates of costs and terms, and suddenly breaking into a fervent description of how the six deputies, " prostrating them- selves on the earth and weeping warm tears, begged the doge and people of Venice to have pity on Jerusalem " ; the story immediately following, how the young count Thibault of Champagne, raising himself from a sickbed in his joy at the successful return of his ambassadors, " leva sus et chevaucha, et laz! com grant domages, car onques puis ne chevaucha que cele foiz," compose a most striking overture. Then the history relapses into, the business vein and tells of the debates which took place as to the best means of carrying out the vow after the count's decease, the rendezvous, too ill kept at Venice, the plausible suggestion of the Venetians that the balance due to them should be made up by a joint attack on their enemy, the king of Hungary. Villehardouin does not in the least conceal the fact that the pope (" 1'apostoilles de Rome," as he calls him, in the very phrase of the chansons) was very angry with this; for his own part he seems to think of little or nothing but the reparation due to the republic, which had loyally kept its bargain and been defrauded of the price, of the infamy of breaking company on the part of members of a joint association, and perhaps of the unknightliness of not taking up an adventure whenever it presents itself. For here again the restoration of the disinherited prince of Constantinople supplied an excuse quite as plausible as the liquida- tion of the debt to Venice. A famous passage, and one short enough to quote, is that describing the old blind doge Dandolo, who had " Grant ochoison de remanoir (reason for staying at home), car viels horn ere, et si avoit les yaulx en la teste biaus et n'en veoit gote (goutte)," and yet was the foremost in fight. It would be out of place to attempt any further analysis of the Conquete here. But it is not impertinent, and is at the same time an excuse for what has been already said, to repeat that Villehar- douin's book, brief as it is, is in reality one of the capital books of literature, not merely for its merit, but because it is the most authentic and the most striking embodiment in contemporary literature of the sentiments which determined the action of a great and important period of history. There are but very few books which hold this position, and Villehardouin's is one of them. If every other contemporary record of the crusades perished, we should still be able by aid of this to understand and realize what the mental attitude of crusaders, of Teutonic knights, and the rest was, and without this we should lack the earliest, the most undoubtedly genuine, and the most characteristic of all such records. The very inconsistency with which Villehardouin is chargeable, the absence of compunction with which he relates the changing of a sacred religious pilgrimage into something by no means unlike a mere filibustering raid on the great scale, addi a charm to the book. For, religious as it is, it is entirely free from the very slightest touch of hypocrisy or indeed of self-consciousness of any kind. The famous description of the crusades, gesta Dei per Francos, was evidently to Villehardouin a plain matter-of-fact description, and it no more occurred to him to doubt the divine favour being extended to the expeditions against Alexius or Theodore than to doubt that it was shown to expeditions against Saracens and Turks. The person of Villehardouin reappears for us once, but once only, in the chronicle of his continuator, Henri de Valenciennes. There is a. great gap in style, though none in subject, between the really poetical prose of the first historian of the fifth crusade and the Latin empire and the awkward mannerism (so awkward that it has been taken to represent a " disrhymed " verse chronicle) of his follower. But the much greater length at which Villehardouin appears on this one occasion shows us the restraint which he must have exercised in the passages which deal with himself in his own work. He again led the vanguard in the emperor Henry's exoedition against Burilas the Bulgarian, and he is represented by the Valenciennes scribe as encouraging his sovereign to the attack in a long speech. Then he disappears altogether, with the exception of some brief and chiefly diplo- matic mentions. Du Cange discovered and quoted a deed of donation by him dated 1207, by which certain properties were devised to the churches of Notre Dame de Foissy and Notre Dame de Troyes, with the reservation of life interests to his daughters Alix and Damerones, and his sisters Emmeline and Haye, all of whom appear to have embraced a monastic life. A letter addressed from the East to Blanche of Champagne is cited, and a papal record of 1212 styles him still " marshal of Romania. " The next year this title passed to his son Erard; and 1213 is accordingly given as the date of his death, which, as there is no record or hint of his having returned to France, may be supposed to have happened at Messinople, where also he must have written the Conquete. The book appears to have been known in the ages immediately succeeding his own; and, though there is no contemporary manu- script in existence, there are some half-dozen which appear to date from the end of the I3th or the course of the I4th century, while one at least appears to be a copy made from his own work in that spirit of unintelligent faithfulness which is much more valuable to posterity than more pragmatical editing. The first printed edition of the book, by a certain Blaise de Vigenere, dates from 1585, is dedicated to the seigniory of Venice (Villenardouin, it should be said, has been accused of a rather unfair predilection for the Venetians), and speaks of either a part or the whole of the memoirs as having been printed twelve years earlier. Of this earlier copy nothing seems to be known. A better edition, founded on a Nether- landish MS., appeared at Lyons in 1601. But both these were completely antiquated by the great edition of Du Cange in 1657, wherein that learned writer employed all his knowledge, never since equalled, of the subject, but added a translation, or rather paraphrase, into modern French which is scarcely worthy either of himself or his author. Dom Brial gave a new edition from different MS. sources in 1823, and the book figures with different degrees of dependence on Du Cange and Brial in the collections of Petitot, Buchon, and Michaud and Poujoulat. All these, however, have been superseded for the modern student by the editions of Natalis de Wailly (1872 and 1874), in which the text is critically edited from all the available MSS. and a new translation added, while there is a still later and rather handier one by E. Bouchet (2 vols., Paris, 1891), which, however, rests mainly on N. de Wailly for text. The charm of Villehardouin can escape no reader; but few readers will fail to derive some additional pleasure from the two essays which Sainte- Beuve devoted to him, reprinted in the ninth volume of the Causeries dulundi. See also A. Debidour, Les Cnroniqueurs (1888). There are English translations by T. Smith (1829), and (more literally) Sir F. T. Marzials (Everyman's Library, 1908). (G. SA.) VILLELE, JEAN BAPTISTS GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE S&RAPHIN, COMTE DE (1773-1854), French statesman, was born at Toulouse on the i4th of April 1773 and educated for the navy. He joined the " Bayonnaise " at Brest in July 1788 and served in the West and East Indies. Arrested in the Isle of Bourbon under the Terror, he was set free by the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794)- He acquired some property in the island, and married in 1799 the daughter of a great proprietor, M. Desbassyns de Richemont, whose estates he had managed. His apprenticeship to politics was served in the Colonial Assembly of Bourbon, where he fought successfully to preserve the colony from the consequences of perpetual interference from the authorities in Paris, and on the other hand to prevent local discontent from appealing to the English for protection. The arrival of General Decaen, sent out by Bonaparte in 1802, restored security to the island, and five years later Villele, who had now realized a large fortune, returned to France. He was mayor of his commune, and a member of the council of the Haute-Garonne under the Empire. At the restoration of 1814 he at once declared for royalist principles. He was mayor of Toulouse in 1814-15 and deputy for the Haute-Garonne in the " Chambre Introuvable " of 1815. Villele, who before the promulgation of the charter had written some Observations sur le projet de constitution opposing it, as too democratic in character, naturally took his place on the extreme right with the ultra-royalists. In the new Chamber of 1816 Villele found his party in a minority, but his personal authority nevertheless increased. He was looked on by the 8o VILLEMAIN— VILLENA, E. DE ministerialists as the least unreasonable of his party, and by the " ultras " as the safest of their leaders. Under the electoral law of 1817 the Abbe Gregoire, who was popularly supposed to have voted for the death of Louis XVI. in the Convention, was admitted to the Chamber of Deputies. The Conservative party gained strength from the alarm raised by this incident and still more from the shock caused by the assassination of the due de Berri. The due de Richelieu was compelled to admit to the cabinet two of the chiefs of the Left, Villele and Corbiere. Villele resigned within a year, but on the fall of Richelieu at the end of 1821 he became the real chief of the new cabinet, in which he was minister of finance. Although not himself a courtier, he was backed at court by Sosthenes de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and in 1822 Louis XVIII. gave him the title of count and made him formally prime minister. He immediately proceeded to muzzle opposition by stringent press laws, and the discovery of minor liberal conspiracies afforded an excuse for further repression. Forced against his will into interference in Spain by Mathieu de Montmorency and Chateaubriand, he contrived to reap some credit for the monarchy from the successful campaign of 1823. Meanwhile he had consolidated the royal power by persuading Louis XVIII. to swamp the liberal majority in the upper house by the nomination of twenty-seven new peers; he availed himself of the temporary popularity of the monarchy after the Spanish campaign to summon a new Chamber of Deputies. This new and obedient legislature, to which only nineteen liberals were returned, made itself into a septennial parliament, thus providing time, it was thought, to restore some part of the ancien regime. Villele's plans were assisted by the death of Louis XVIII. and the accession of his bigoted brother. Prudent financial administration since 1815 had made possible the conversion of the state bonds from 5 to 4%. It was proposed to utilize the money set free by this operation to indemnify by a milliard francs the emigres for the loss of their lands at the Revolution; it was also proposed to restore their former privileges to the religious congregations. Both these propositions were, with some restrictions, secured. Sacrilege was made a crime punishable by death, and the ministry were preparing a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus create anew the great estates. These measures roused violent opposition in the country, which a new and stringent press law, nicknamed the " law of justice and love," failed to put down. The peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press law; it was found necessary to disband the National Guard; and in November 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and recourse was had to a general election. The new Chamber proved hostile to Villele, who resigned to make way for the short-lived moderate ministry of Martignac. The new ministry made Villele's removal to the upper house a condition of taking office, and he took no. further part in public affairs. At the time of his death, on the i3th of March 1854, he had advanced as far as 1816 with his memoirs, which were completed from his correspondence by his family as Memoires et correspondance du comle de Villele (Paris, 5 vols., 1887-90). See also C. de Mazade, L'Opposition royaliste (Paris, 1894) ; J. G. Hyde de Neuville. Notice sur le comle de Villele (Paris, 1899); and M. Chotard, " L'CEuvre financiere de M. de Villele," in Annales des sciences politiques (vol. v., 1890). VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANCOIS (1790-1867), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 9th of June 1 790. He was educated at the lycee Louis-le-Grand, and became assistant master at the lycee Charlemagne, and subsequently at the ficole Normale. In 1812 he gained a prize from the Academy with an eloge on Montaigne. Under the restoration he was appointed, first, assistant professor of modern history, and then professor of French eloquence at the Sorbonne. Here he delivered a series of literary lectures which had an extra- ordinary effect on his younger contemporaries. Villemain had the great advantage of coming just before the Romantic move- ment, of having a wide and catholic love of literature without being an extremist. All, or almost all, the clever young men of the brilliant generation of 1830 passed under his influence; and, while he pleased the Romanticists by his frank apprecia- tion of the beauties of English, German, Italian and Spanish poetry, he had not the least inclination to decry the classics — either the classics proper of Greece and Rome or the so-called classics of France. In 1819 he published a book on Cromwell, and two years later he was elected to the Academy. Ville- main was appointed by the restoration government " chef de 1'imprimerie et de la librairie," a post involving a kind of irregular censorship of the press, and afterwards to the office of master of requests. Before the revolution of July he had been deprived of his office for his liberal tendencies, and had been elected deputy for fivreux. Under Louis Philippe he re- ceived a peerage in 1832. He was a member of the council of public instruction, and was twice minister of that department, and he also became secretary of the Academy. During the whole of the July monarchy he was thus one of the chief dis- pensers of literary patronage in France, but in his later years his reputation declined. He died in Paris on the 8th of May 1867. Villemain's chief work is his Cours de la litterature fran^aise (5 vols., 1828-29). Among his other works are : Tableau de la litterature du moyen Age (2 vols., 1846); Tableau de la litterature au XVIII' sikcle (4 vols., 1864); Souvenirs contemporains (2 vols., 1856); Histoire de Gregoire VII. (2 vols., 1873; Eng. trans., 1874). Among notices on Villemain may be cited that o? Louis de Lomenie (1841), E. Mirecourt (1858), J. L. Dubut (1875). See also Sainte- Beuve, Portraits (1841, vol. iii.), and Causeries du lundi (vol. xi. " Notes et pensees "). VILLENA, ENRIQUE DE (1384-1434), Spanish author, was born in 1384. Through his grandfather, Alphonso de Aragon, count de Denia y Ribagorza, he traced his descent from Jaime II. of Aragon and Blanche of Naples. He is commonly known as the marquess de Villena; but, although a marquessate was at one time in the family, the title was revoked and annulled by Henry III. Villena's father, Don Pedro de Villena, was killed at Aljubarrota; the boy was educated by his grand- father, showed great capacity for learning and was reputed to be a wizard. About 1402 he married Maria de Albornoz, senora del Infantado, who speedily became the recognized mistress of Henry III.; the complaisant husband was rewarded by being appointed master of the military order of Calatrava in 1404, but on the death of Henry at the end of 1406 the knights of the order refused to accept the nomination, which, after a long contest, was rescinded in 1415. He was present at the coronation of Ferdinand of Aragon at Saragossa in 1414, retired to Valencia till 1417, when he moved to Castile to claim com- pensation for the loss of his mastership. He obtained in return the lordship (senorio) of Miesta, and, conscious of his unsuita- bility for warfare or political life, dedicated himself to literature. He died of fever at Madrid on the isth of December 1434. He is represented by a fragment of his Arte de trobar (1414), an indigestible treatise composed for the Barcelona Consistory of Gay Science; by Los Trabajos de Hercules (1417), a pedantic and unreadable allegory; by his Tratado de la Consolacidn and his handbook to the pleasures and fashions of the table, the Arte cisoria, both written in 1423; by a commentary on Psalm viii. ver. 4, which dates from 1424; by the Libra de Aojamienlo (1425), a ponderous dissertation on the evil eye and its effects; and by a translation of the Aeneid, the first ever made, which was finished on the loth of October 1428. His treatise on leprosy exists but has not been published. Villena's writings do not justify his extraordinary fame; his subjects are devoid of charm, and his style is so uncouth as to be almost unintelligible. Yet he has an assured place in the history of Spanish literature; he was a generous patron of letters, his translation of Virgil marks him out as a pioneer of the Re- naissance, and he set a splendid example of intellectual curiosity. Moreover, there is an abiding dramatic interest in the baffling personality of the solitary high-born student whom Lope de Vega introduces in Porfiar hasta morir, whom Ruiz de Alarc6n presents in La Cueva de Salamanca, and who reappears in the VILLENA— VILLENAGE 81 igth century in Larra's Macias and in Hartzenbusch's play La Redoma encantada. (J. F.-K.) VILLENA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the right bank of the river Vinalapo, and at the junction of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla. Pop. (1900) 14,099. Villena is a labyrinth of winding alleys, which contain some interesting examples of Moorish domestic archi- tecture. It is dominated by a large and picturesque Moorish castle. The surrounding hills are covered with vines, and to the east there is an extensive salt lagoon. Silk, linen, flour, wine, brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief industrial products. VILLENAGE (VILLAINAGE, VILLANAGE, VILLEINAGE), a medieval term (from villa, villanus), pointing to serfdom, a condition of men intermediate between freedom and slavery. It occurs in France as well as in England, and was certainly im- ported into English speech through the medium of Norman French. The earliest instances of its use are to be found in the Latin and French versions of English documents in the nth and 1 2th centuries (cf. Domesday Book; Liebermann, Glossary to the Gesetze der Angelsachsen, s.v. villanus, vilain). The history of the word and of the condition is especially instructive in English usage. The materials for the formation of the villein class were already in existence in the Anglo-Saxon period. On the one hand, the Saxon ceorls (twihyndemen) , although considered as including the typical freemen in the earlier laws (/Ethelberht, Hlothhere and Edric, Ine), gradually became differentiated through the action of political and economic causes, and many of them had to recognize the patronage of magnates or to seek livelihood as tenants on the estates of the latter. These ceorls, sitting on gafol-land, were, though personally free, considered as a lower order of men, and lapsed gradually into more or less oppressive subjection in respect of the great landowners. It is characteristic in this connexion that the West Saxon laws do not make any distinction between ceorls and laets or half- freemen as the Kentish laws had done: "this means that the half-free people were, if not Welshmen, reckoned as members of the ceorl class. Another remarkable indication of the decay of the ceorl's estate is afforded by the fact that in the treaties with the Danes the twihynde ceorls are equated with the Danish leysings or freedmen. It does not mean, of course, that their condition was practically the same, but in any case the fact testifies to the gulf which had come to separate the two principal subdivisions of the free class — the ceorl and the thane. The Latin version of the Rcctitudines Singularum Personarum, a document compiled probably in the nth century, not long before the Conquest, renders geneat (a peasant tenant of a superior kind performing lighter services than the gebur, as he was burdened with heavy week-work) by villanus; but the gebur came to be also considered as a villanus according to Anglo- Norman terminology. The group designated as geburs in- Anglo-Saxon charters, though distinguished from mere slaves (theow baerde-burbaerde, Kemble, Cod. Dipl. 1079), undoubtedly included many freedmen who in point of services and economic subjection were not very much above the slaves. Both ceoris and geburs disappear as separate classes, and it is clear that the greater part of them must have passed into the rank of villeins. In the terminology of the Domesday Inquest we find the villeins as the most numerous element of the English popula- tion. Out of about 240,000 households enumerated in Domes- day 100,000 are marked as belonging to villeins. They are rustics performing, as a rule, work services for their lords. But not all the inhabitants of the villages were designated by that name. Villeins are opposed to socmen and freemen on one hand, to bordarii, cottagers and slaves on the other. The distinction in regard to the first two of these groups was evi- dently derived from their greater freedom, although the differ- ence is only one in degree and not in kind. In fact, the villein is assumed to be a person free by birth, but holding land of which he cannot dispose freely. The distinction as against bordarii and cottagers is based on the size of the holding: the villeins are holders of regular shares in the village — that is, of the virgates, bovates or half-hides which constitute the principal subdivisions in the fields and contribute to form the plough- teams — whereas the bordarii hold smaller plots of some 5 acres, more or less, and coUarii are connected with mere cottages and crofts. Thus the terminology of Domesday takes note of two kinds of differences in the status of rustics: a legal one in con- nexion with the right to dispose of property in land, and an economic one reflecting the opposition between the holders of shares in the fields and the holders of auxiliary tenements. The feature of personal serfdom is also noticeable, but it provides a basis only for the comparatively small group of seroi, of whom only about 25,000 are enumerated in Domesday Book. The contrast between this exceptionally situated class and the rest of the population shows that personal slavery was rapidly dis- appearing in England about the time of the Conquest. It is also to be noticed that the Domesday Survey constantly mentions the terra villanorum as opposed to the demesne in the estates or manors of the time, and that the land of the rustics is taxed separately for the geld, so that the distinction between the property of the lord and that of the peasant dependent on him is clearly marked and by no means devoid of practical importance. The Domesday Survey puts before us the state of things in England as it was at the very beginning of the Norman and at the close of the Saxon period. The development of feudal society, of centralizing kingship and ultimately of a system of common law, brought about great changes which all hinge on the fundamental fact that the kings, while increasing the power of the state in other respects, surrendered it completely as regards the relations between the peasants and their lords. The protection of the assizes was tendered in civil matters to free tenants and refused to villeins. The royal courts refused to entertain suits of villeins against their lords, although there was a good deal of vacillation before this position was definitely taken up. Bracton still speaks in his treatise of the possibility for the courts to interfere against intolerable cruelty on the part of the lord involving the destruction of the villein's waynage, that is, of his ploughteam, and in the Notebook of Bracton there are a couple of cases which prove that 13th-century judges occasionally allowed themselves to entertain actions by persons holding in villenage against their lords. Gradually, however, the exception of villenage became firmly settled. As the historical and practical position was developing on these lines the lawyers who fashioned English common law in the I2th and I3th centuries did not hesitate to apply to it the teaching cf Roman law on slavery. Bracton fits his definition of villenage into the Romanesque scheme of Azo's Summa of the Institutes, and the judges of the royal courts made sweeping inferences from this general position. To begin with, the relation between the villein and his lord was regarded as a personal and not a praedial one. Everyone born of villein stock belonged to his master and was bound to undertake any service which might be imposed on him by the master's or the steward's command. The distinction between villeins in gross and villeins regardant, of which much is made by modern writers, was suggested by modes of pleading and does not make its appearance in the Year-Books before the isth century. Secondly, all independent proprietary rights were denied to the villein as against his lord, and the legal rule " quicquid servo acquiritur domino acquiri- tur " was extended to villeins. The fact that a great number, of these serfs had been enjoying' protection as free ceorls in former ages made itself felt, however, in three directions, (i) In criminal matters the villein was treated by the King's Court irrespectively of any consideration as to his debased condition. More especially the police association, organized for the keeping of the peace and the presentation of criminals — the frankpledge groups were formed of all " worthy of were and wite," villeins as well as freemen. (2) Politically the villeins were not elimin- ated from the body of citizens: they had to pay taxes, to serve in great emergencies in the militia, to serve on inquests, &c., and although there was a tendency to place them on a lower footing in all these respects yet the fact of their being lesser members of the commonwealth did not remove the fundamental VILLENAGE qualification of citizenship. (3) Even in civil matters villeins were deemed free as regards third persons. They could sue and be sued in their own name, and although they were able to call in their lords as defendants when proceeded against, there was nothing in law to prevent them from appearing in their own right. The state even afforded them protection against extreme cruelty on the part of their masters in respect of life and limb, but in laying down this rule English lawyers were able to follow the precedents set by late Roman juris- prudence, especially by measures of Hadrian, Antonine and Constantine the Great. There was one exception to this harsh treatment of villeins, namely, the rustic tenantry in manors of ancient demesne, that is, in estates which had belonged to the crown before the Conquest, had a standing-ground even against their lords as regards the tenure of their plots and the fixity of their services. Technically this right was limited to the inhabitants of manors entered in the Domesday Survey as terra regis of Edward the Confessor. On the other hand the doctrine became effective if the manors in question had been granted by later kings to subjects, because if they remained in the hand of the king the only remedy against ejectment and exaction lay in petitioning for redress without any definite right to the latter. If, however, the two conditions mentioned were forthcoming, villeins, or, as they were technically called, villein socmen of ancient demesne manors, could resist any attempt of their lords to encroach on their rights by depriving them of their holdings or increasing the amount of their customary services. Their remedy was to apply for a little writ of right in the first case and for a writ of monsiraverunt in the second. These writs entitled them to appear as plaintiffs against the lord in his own manorial court and, eventually, to have the question at issue examined by way of appeal, on a writ of error, or by reservation on some legal points in the upper courts of the king. A number of cases arising from these privileges of the men of ancient demesne are published in the Notebook of Bracton and in the Abbreviatio placitorum. This exceptional procedure does not simply go back to the rule that persons who had been tenants of the king ought not to have their condition altered for the worse in con- sequence of a royal grant. If this were the only doctrine applicable in the case there would be no reason why similar protection should be denied to all those who held under grantees of manors escheated after the Conquest. A material point for the application of the privilege consists in the fact that ancient demesne has to be proved from the time before the Conquest, and this shows clearly that the theory was partly derived from the recognition of tenant right in villeins of the Anglo-Saxon period who, as we have said above, were mostly ceorls, that is, freeborn men. In view of the great difference in the legal position of the free man and of the villein in feudal common law, it became very important to define the exact nature of the conditions on which the status of a villein depended. The legal theory as to these conditions was somewhat complex, because it had to take account of certain practical considerations and of a rather abrupt transition from a previous state of things based on different premises. Of course, persons born from villein parents in lawful wedlock were villeins, but as to the condition of illegitimate children there was a good deal of hesitation. There was a tendency to apply the rule that a bastard follows the mother, especially in the case of a servile mother. In the case of mixed marriages, the condition of the child is determined by the free or villein condition of the tenement in which it was born. This notion of the influence of the tene- ment is well adapted to feudal notions and makes itself felt again in the case of the pursuit, of a fugitive villein. He can be seized without further formalities if he is caught in his " nest," that is, in his native place. If not, the lord can follow him in fresh pursuit for four days; once these days past, the fugitive is maintained provisionally in possession of his liberty, and the lord has to bring an action de native habendo and has to assume the burden of proof. So much as to the proof of villenage by birth or previous condition. But there were numbers of cases when the dis- cussion as to servile status turned not on these formal points but on an examination of the services performed by the person claimed as a villein or challenged as holding in villenage. In both cases the courts had often recourse to proof derived not from direct testimony but from indirect indications as to the kind of services that had been performed by the supposed villein. Certain services, especially the payment of merchet — the fine for marrying a daughter — were considered to be the badge of serfdom. Another service, the performance of which established a presumption as to villenage, was compulsory service as a reeve. The courts also tried to draw a distinction from the amount and regularity of agricultural services to which a tenant was subjected. Bracton speaks of the contrast between the irregular services of a serf, " who could not know in the evening what he would have to do in the morning," and services agreed upon and definite in their amount. The customary arrangements of the work of villeins, however, render this contrast rather fictitious. The obligations of down- right villeins became to that degree settled and regular that one of the ordinary designations of the class was custumatii. Therefore in most cases there were no arbitrary exactions to go by, except perhaps one or the other tallage imposed at the will of the lord. The original distinction seems to have been made not between arbitrary and agreed but between occasional services and regular agricultural week-work. While the occasional services, even when agricultural, in no way established a presumption of villenage, and many socmen, freemen and holders by serjeanty submitted to them, 'agri- cultural week-work was primarily considered as a trait of villenage and must have played an important part in the process of classification of early Norman society. The villein was in this sense emphatically the man holding " by the fork and the flail." This point brings us to consider the matter-of-fact conditions of the villeins during the feudal period, especially in the i2th, i3th and i4th centuries. As is shown by the Hundred Rolls, the Domesday of St Paul, the Surveys of St Peter, Glouc., Glastonbury Abbey, Ramsey Abbey and countless other records of the same kind, the customary conditions of villenage did not tally by any means with the identification between villenage and slavery suggested by the jurists. It is true that in nomen- clature the word " senti " is not infrequently used (e.g. in the Hundred Rolls) where villani might have been mentioned, and the feminine nief (nativa) appears as the regular parallel of villanus, but in the descriptions of usages and services we find that the power of the lord loses its discretionary character and is in every respect moderated by custom. As personal depend- ents of the lord native villeins were liable to be sold, and we find actual sales recorded: Glastonbury Abbey e.g. sells a certain Philipp Hardyng for 20 shillings. But such transfers of human chattels occur seldom, and there is nothing during the English feudal period corresponding to the brisk trade in men character- istic of the ancient world. Merchet was regarded, as has been stated already, as a badge of serfdom in so far as it was said to imply a " buying of one's own blood " (servus de sanguine suo emando). The explanation is even more characteristic than the custom itself, because fines on marriage may be levied and were actually levied from people of different con- dition, from the free as well as from the serf. Still the tendency to treat merchtl as a distinctive feature of serfdom has to be noted, and we find that the custom spread for this very reason in consequence of the encroachments of powerful lords: in the Hundred Rolls it is applied indiscriminately to the whole rustic population of certain hundreds in a way which can hardly be explained unless by artificial extension. Heriot, the surrender of the best horse or ox, is also considered as the common incident of villein tenure, although, of course, its very name proves its intimate connexion with the outfit of soldiers (here-gealu) . Economically the institution of villenage was bound up VILLENAGE with the manorial organization — that is, with the fact that the country was divided into a number of districts in which central home farms were cultivated by the help of work supplied by villein households. The most important of villein services is the week-work per- formed by the peasantry. Every virgater or holder of a bovate has to send a labourer to do work on the lord's farm for some days in the week. Three days is indeed the most common standard for service of this kind, though four or even five occur sometimes, as well as two. It must be borne in mind in the case of heavy charges, such as four or five days' week-work, that only one labourer from the whole holding is meant, while generally there were several men living on every holding — otherwise the service of five days would be impossible to perform. In the course of these three days, or whatever the number was, many require- ments of the demesne had to be met. The principal of these was ploughing the fields belonging to the lord, and for such ploughing the peasant had not only to appear personally as a labourer, but to bring his oxen and plough, or rather to join with his oxen and plough in the work imposed on the village: the heavy, costly plough with a team of eight oxen had to be made up by several peasants contributing their beasts and implements towards its composition. In the same way the villagers had to go through the work of harrowing with their harrows, and of removing the harvest in their vans and carts. Carriage duties in carts and on horseback were also apportioned according to the time they took as a part of the week-work. Then came innumerable varieties of manual work for the erection and keeping up of hedges, the preservation of dykes, canals and ditches, the threshing and garnering of corn, the tending and shearing of sheep and so forth. All this hand-work was reckoned according to customary standards as day-work and week-work. But besides all these services into which the regular week- work of the peasantry was differentiated, stood some additional duties. The ploughing for the lord, for instance, was not only imposed in the shape of a certain number of days in the week, but took sometimes the shape of a certain number of acres which the village had to plough and to sow for the lord irrespectively of the time employed on it. This was sometimes termed gafolearth. Exceedingly burdensome services were required in the seasons when farming processes are, as it were, at their height — in the seasons of mowing and reaping, when every day is of special value and the working power of the farm hands is strained to the utmost. At that time it was the custom to call up the whole able-bodied population of the manor, with the exception of the housewives for two, three or more days of mowing and reaping on the lord's fields; to these boon-works the peasantry was asked or invited by special summons, and their value was so far appreciated that the villagers were usually treated to meals in cases where they were again and again called off from their own fields to the demesne. The liberality of the lord actually went so far, in exceptionally hard straits, that some ale was served to the labourers to keep them in good humour. In the I4th century this social arrangement, based primarily on natural economy and on the feudal disruption of society, began to give way. The gradual spread of intercourse rendered un- necessary the natural husbandry of former times which sought to produce a complete set of goods in every separate locality. Instead of acting as a little world by itself for the raising of corn, the breeding of cattle, the gathering of wool, the weaving of linen and common cloths, the fabrication of necessary imple- ments of all kinds, the local group began to buy some of these goods and to sell some others, renouncing isolation and making its destiny dependent on commercial intercourse. Instead of requiring from its population all kinds of work and reducing its ordinary occupations to a hard-and-fast routine meeting in a slow and unskilled manner all possible contingencies, the local group began to move, to call in workmen from abroad for tasks of a special nature, and to send its own workmen to look out for profitable employment in other places. Instead of managing the land by the constant repetition of the same processes, by a customary immobility of tenure and service, by communalistic restrictions on private enterprise and will, local society began to try improvements, to escape from the bounds of champion farming. Instead of producing and collecting goods for immediate consumption, local society came more and more into the habit of exchanging corn, cattle, cloth, for money, and of laying money by as a means of getting all sorts of exchangeable goods, when required. In a word, the time of commercial, contractual, cash intercourse was coming fast. What was exceptional and subsidiary in feudal times came to obtain general recognition in the course of the I4th and i sth centuries, and, for this very reason, assumed a very different aspect. A similar transformation took place in regard to government. The local monarchy of the manorial lords was fast giving way to a central power which maintained its laws, the circuits of its judges, the fiscal claims of its exchequer, the police interference of its civil officers all through the country, and, by prevailing over the franchises of manorial lords, gave shape to a vast .dominion of legal equality and legal protection, in which the forces of commercial exchange, of contract, of social intercourse, found a ready and welcome sphere of action. In truth both processes, the economic and the political one, worked so much together that it is hardly possible to say which influenced the other more, which was the cause and which the effect. Government grew strong because it could draw on a society which was going ahead in enterprise and well-being; social intercourse progressed because it could depend on a strong government to safeguard it. If we now turn to the actual stages by which this momentous passage from the manorial to the commercial arrangement was achieved, we have to notice first of all a rapid development of contractual relations. We know that in feudal law there ran a standing contrast between tenure by custom — villein tenure — and tenure by contract — free tenure. While the manorial system was in full force this contrast led to a classification of holdings and affected the whole position of people on the land. Still, even at that time it might happen that a freeholder owned some land in villenage by the side of his free tenement, and that a villein held some land freely by agreement with his lord or with a third person. But these cases, though by no means infrequent, were still exceptional. As a rule people used land as holdings, and those were rigidly classified as villein or free tenements. The interesting point to be noticed is that, without any formal break, leasing land for life and for term of years is seen to be rapidly spreading from the end of the I3th century, and numberless small tenancies are created in the I4th century which break up the disposition of the holdings. From the close of the I3th century downwards countless transactions on the basis of leases for terms of years occur between the peasants themselves, any suit- ably kept set of 14th-century court rolls containing entries in which such and such a villein is said to appear in the halimote and to surrender for the use of another person named a piece of land belonging to the holding. The number of years and the conditions of payment are specified. Thus, behind the screen of the normal shares a number of small tenancies arise which run their economic concerns independently from the cumbersome arrangements of tenure and service, and, needless to add, all these tenancies are burdened with money rents. Another series of momentous changes took place in the arrangement of services. Even the manorial system admitted the buying off for money of particular dues in kind and of specific performance of work. A villein might be allowed to bring a penny instead of bringing a chicken or to pay a rent instead of appearing with his oxen three times a week on the lord's fields. Such rents were called mat or mail in contrast with the gafol, ancient rents which had been imposed inde- pendently, apart from any buying off of customary services. There were even whole bodies of peasants called Molmen, because they had bought off work from the lord by settling with him on the basis of money rents. As time went on these practices of commutation became more and more frequent. There were, for both sides, many advantages in arranging their mutual 84 VILLENEUVE relations on this basis. The lord, instead of clumsy work, goi clear money, a much-coveted means of satisfying needs anc wishes of any kind — instead of cumbrous performances which did not come always at the proper moment, were carried out in a half-hearted manner, yielded no immediate results, anc did not admit of convenient rearrangement. The peasant got rid of a hateful drudgery which not only took up his time and means in an unprofitable manner, but placed him under the rough control and the arbitrary discipline of stewards or reeve: and gave occasion to all sorts of fines and extortions. With the growth of intercourse and security money became more frequent and the number of such transactions increased in proportion. But it must be kept in mind that the con- version of services into rents went on very gradually, as a series of private agreements, and that it would be very wrong to suppose, as some scholars have done, that it had led to a general commutation by the middle or even the end of the 1 4th century. The I4th century was marked by violent fluctua tions in the demand and supply of labour, and particularly the tremendous loss in population occasioned in the middle of this century by the Black Death called forth a most serious crisis. No wonder that many lords clung very tenaciously to customary services, and ecclesiastical institutions seem to have been especially backward in going over to the system of money rents. There is evidence to show, for instance, that the manors of the abbey of Ramsey were managed on the system of enforced labour right down to the middle of the 1 5th century, and, of course, survivals of these customs in the shape of scattered services lived on much longer. A second drawback from the point of view of the landloids was called forth by the fact that commutation for fixed rents gradually lessened the value of the exactions to which they were entitled. Money not only became less scarce but it became cheaper, so that the couple of pence for which a day of manual work was bought off in the beginning of the I3th century did not fetch more than half of their former value at its end. As quit rents were customary and not rack rents, the successors of those who had redeemed their services were gaining the whole surplus in the value of goods and labour as against money, while the successors of those who had commuted their right to claim services for certain sums in money lost all the corresponding difference. These inevitable consequences came to be perceived in course of time and occasioned a backward tendency .towards services in kind which could not prevail against the general movement from natural economy to money dealings, but was strong enough to produce social friction and grave disturbances. The economic crisis of the I4th century has its complement in the legal crisis of the isth. At that time the courts of law begin to do away with the denial of protection to villeins which, as we have seen, constituted the legal basis of villenage. This is effected by the recognition of copyhold tenure (see COPYHOLD). It is a fact of first-rate magnitude that in the I5th century customary relations on one hand, the power of government on the other, ripened, as it were, to that extent that the judges of the king began to take cognizance of the relations of the peasants to their lords. The first cases which occur in this sense are still treated not as a matter of common law, but as a manifestation of equity. As doubtful questions of trust, of wardship, of testamentary succession, they were taken up not in the strict course of justice, but as matters in which redress was sorely needed and had to be brought by the exceptional power of the court of chancery. But this interference of 15th-century chancellors paved the way towards one of the greatest revolutions in the law; without formally enfranchising villeins and villein tenure they created a legal basis for it in the law of the realm: in the formula of copyhold — tenement held at the will of the lord and by the custom of the manor — the first pan lost its significance and the second prevailed, in down- right contrast with former times when, on the contrary, the second part had no legal value and the first expressed the view of the courts. One may almost be tempted to say that these obscure decisions rendered unnecessary in England the work achieved with such a flourish of trumpets in France by the emancipating decree of the 4th of August 1789. The personal condition of villenage did not, however, dis- appear at once with the rise of copyhold. It lingered through the i6th century and appears exceptionally even in the lyth. Deeds of emancipation and payments for personal enfranchise- ment are often noticed at that very time. But these are only survivals of an arrangement which has been destroyed in its essence by a complete change of economic and political conditions. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892) ; Pollock and Maitiand, History of English Law (1895), 'book ii.' c. i. §§ 5, 12, 13; F. W. Maitiand, Domesday and Beyond (1897), Essay I. §§ 2, 3, 4; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community (1883); W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law, iii. (1909); P. Vinogradoff, Growth of the Manor (1905); P. Vinogradoff, English Society in the Xlth Century (1908) ; A. Savine in the English Historical Review, xvii. (1902); A. Savine in the Economic Quarterly Review (1904) ; A. Savine, " Bondmen under the Tudors," in the Trans- actions of the Royal Historical Society, xvii. (1903). (P. Vi.) VILLENEUVE, PIERRE CHARLES JEAN BAPTISTE SIL- VESTRE (1763-1806), French admiral, was born at Valensoles in Provence on the 3ist of December 1763. He entered the French royal navy as a " garde du Pavilion." Although he belonged to the corps of " noble " officers, who were the object of peculiar animosity to the Jacobins, he escaped the fate of the majority of his comrades, which was to be massacred, or driven into exile. He sympathized sincerely with the general aims of the Revolu- tion, arid had a full share of the Provencal fluency which enabled him to make a timely and impressive display of " civic " sentiments. In the dearth of trained officers he rose with what for the French navy was exceptional rapidity, though it would have caused no surprise in England in the case of an officer who had good interest. He was named post-captain in 1793, and rear-admiral in 1796. At the close of the year he was appointed to take part in the unsuccessful expedition to Ireland which reached Bantry Bay, but the ships which were to have come to Brest from Toulon with him arrived too late, and were forced to take refuge at L'Orient. He accompanied the expedition to Egypt, with his flag in the " Guillaume Tell " (86). She was the third ship from the rear of the French line at the battle of the Nile, and escaped from the general destruction in company with the " Genereux " (78). Villeneuve reached Malta on the 23rd of August. His conduct was severely blamed, and he defended himself by a specious letter to his colleague Blanquet- Duchayla on the I2th of November 1800, when he had returned to Paris. At the time, Napoleon approved of his action. In a letter written to him on the 2ist of August 1798, three weeks after the battle, Napoleon says that the only reproach Villeneuve had to make against himself was that he had not retreated sooner, since the position taken by the French commander-in- chief had been forced and surrounded. When, however, the emperor after his fall dictated his account of the expedition to Egypt to General Bertrand at St Helena, he attributed the defeat at the Nile largely to the " bad conduct of Admiral Villeneuve." In the interval Villeneuve had failed in the exe- cution of the complicated scheme for the invasion of England n 1805. Napoleon must still have believed in the admiral's capacity and good fortune, a qualification for which he had a ;reat regard, when he selected him to succeed Latouche Treville upon his death at Toulon in August 1804. The duty of the Toulon squadron was to draw Nelson to the West Indies, return rapidly, and in combination with other French and Spanish ships, to enter the Channel with an overwhelming force. It is quite obvious that Villeneuve had from the first no confidence n the success of an operation requiring for its execution an amazing combination of good luck and efficiency on the part of the squadrons concerned. He knew that the French were net efficient, and that their Spanish allies were in a far worse state han themselves. It required a very tart order from Napoleon to drive him out of Paris in October 1804. He took the VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON— VILLEROI command in November. On the i7th of January 1805 he left Toulon for the first time, but was driven back by a squall which dismasted some of his awkwardly handled ships. On the 3rd of March he was out again, and this time he headed Nelson by some weeks on a cruise to the West Indies. But Villeneuve's success so far had not removed his fears. Though on taking up his command he had issued .an order of the day in which he spoke boldly enough of the purpose of his cruise, and his de- termination to adhere to it, he was racked by fears of what might happen to the force entrusted to his care. For the details of the campaign see TRAFALGAR. In so far as the biography of Villeneuve is concerned, his behaviour during these trying months cannot escape condemnation. He had undertaken to carry out a plan of which he did not approve. Since he had not declined the task altogether, it was clearly his duty to execute his orders at all hazards. If he was defeated, as he almost certainly would have been, he could have left the responsibility for the disaster to rest on the shoulders of Napoleon who assigned him the task. But Villeneuve could not free him- self from the conviction that it was his business to save his fleet even if he ruined the emperor's plan of invasion. Thus after he returned to Europe and fought his confused action with Sir R. Calder off Ferrol on the 22nd of July 1805, he first hesi- tated, and then, in spite of vehement orders to come on, turned south to Cadiz. Napoleon's habit of suggesting alternative courses to his lieutenants gave him a vague appearance of excuse for making for that port. But it was one which only a very weak man would have availed himself of, for all his instructions ought to have been read subject to the standing injunction to come on to the Channel — and in turning south to Cadiz, he was going in the opposite direction. His decision to leave Cadiz and give battle in October 1805, which led directly to the battle of Trafalgar, cannot be justified even on his own principles. He foresaw defeat to be inevitable, and yet he went out solely because he learnt from the Minister of Marine that another officer had been sent to supersede him. In fact he ran to meet the very destruction he had tried to avoid. No worse fate would have befallen him in the Channel than came upon him at Trafalgar, but it might have been incurred in a manly attempt to obey his orders. It was provoked in a spasm of wounded vanity. At Trafalgar he showed personal courage, but the helpless incapacity of the allies to manoeuvre gave him no opportunity to influence the course of the battle. He was taken as a prisoner to England, but was soon released. Shortly after landing in France he committed suicide in an inn at Rennes, on the 22nd of April 1806. Among the other improbable crimes attributed to Napoleon by the fear and hatred of Europe, was the murder of Villeneuve, but there is not the faintest reason to doubt that the admiral died by his own hand. The correspondence of Napoleon contains many references to Villeneuve. Accounts of the naval operations in which he was concerned will be found in James's Naval History. Troude, in his Batailles navales de la France, vol. iii., publishes several of his letters and orders of the day. (D. H.) VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Card on the right bank of the Rhone opposite Avignon, with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. Pop. (1906) 2582. Villeneuve preserves many remains of its medieval importance. The church of Notre Dame, dating from the I4th century, contains a rich marble altar and remarkable pictures. The hospice, once a Franciscan convent, part of which is occupied by a museum of pictures and antiquities, has a chapel in which is the fine tomb of Innocent VI. (d. 1362). The church and other remains of the Carthusian monastery of Val-de-B6nediction, founded in 1356 by Innocent VI., are now used for habitation and other secular purposes. A gateway and a rotunda, built as shelter for a fountain, both dating from about 1670, are of architectural note. On the Mont Andaon, a hill to the north-east of the town, stands the Fort of St Andre1 (i4th century), which is entered by an imposing fortified gateway and contains a Romanesque chapel and remains of the abbey of St Andr6. The other buildings of interest include several old mansions once belonging to cardinals and nobles, and a tower, the Tour de Philippe le Bel, built in the I4th century, which guarded the western extremity of the Pont St Be'ne'zet (see AVIGNON). In the 6th century the Benedictine abbey of St Andre was founded on Mount Andaon, and the village which grew up round it took its name. In the i3th century the monks, acting in concert with the crown, established a bastide, or " new town," which came to be called Villeneuve. The town was the resort of the French cardinals during the sojourn of the popes at Avignon, and its importance, due largely to its numerous re- ligious establishments, did not decline till the Revolution. VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 22 m. N. by E. of Agen on a branch line of the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) town, 6978; commune, 13,540. Villeneuve is divided into two unequal portions by the river Lot, which here runs between high banks. The chief quarter stands on the right bank and is united to the quarter on the left bank by a bridge of the i3th century, the principal arch of which, con- structed in the reign of Louis XIII. in place of two older arches, has a span of 118 ft. and a height of 59 ft. On the left bank portions of the I3th century ramparts, altered and surmounted by machicolations in the isth century, remain, and high square towers rise above the gates to the north-cast and south- west, known respectively as the Porte de Paris and Porte de Pujols. On the right bank boulevards have for the most part taken the place of the ramparts. Arcades of the i3th century surround the Place La Fayette, and old houses of the ijth, i4th and isth centuries are to be seen in various parts of the town. The church of St Etienne is in late Gothic style. On the left bank of the Lot, 2 m. S.S.W. of Villeneuve, are the 13th-century walls of Pujols. The buildings of the ancient abbey of Eysses, about a mile to the N.E., which are mainly of the 1 7th century, serve as a departmental prison and peni- tentiary settlement. The principal hospital, the hospice St Cyr, is a handsome building standing in beautiful gardens. Villeneuve has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce and communal colleges for both sexes. It is an important agricultural centre and has a very large trade in plums (prunes d'enle) and in the produce of the market gardens which surround it, as well as in cattle, horses and wine. The preparation of preserved plums and the tinning of peas and beans occupy many hands; there are also manufactures of boots and shoes and tin boxes. The important mill of Gajac stands on the bank of the Lot a little above the town. Villeneuve was founded in 1254 by Alphonse, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX., on the site of the town of Gajac, which had been deserted during the Albigensian crusade. VILLEROI, FRANCOIS DE NEUFVILLE, DUCDE (1644-1730), French soldier, came of a noble family which had risen into prominence in the reign of Charles IX. His father Nicolas de Neufville, Marquis de Villeroi, marshal of France (1598-1685), created a duke by Louis XIV., was the young king's governor, and the boy was thus brought up in close relations with Louis. An intimate of the king, a finished courtier and leader of society and a man of great personal gallantry, Villeroi was marked out for advancement in the army, which he loved, but which had always a juster appreciation of his incapacity than Louis. In 1693, without having exercised any really important and responsible command, he was made a marshal. In 1695, when Luxembourg died, he obtained the command of the army in Flanders, and William III. found him a far more complaisant opponent than the " little hunchback." In 1701 he was sent to Italy to supersede Catinat and was soon beaten by the inferior army of Eugene at Chiari (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR). In the winter of 1701 he was made prisoner at the surprise of Cremona, and the wits of the army made at his expense the famous rhyme: " Par la faveur de Bellone, et par un bonheur sans e'gal, Nous avons conserve1 Cre'mone — et perdu notre g6ne'ral." In the following years he was pitted against Marlborough in 86 VILLERS LA VILLE— VILLOISON the Low Countries. Marlborough's own difficulties with the Dutch and other allied commissioners, rather than Villeroi's own skill, put off the inevitable disaster for some years, but in 1706 the duke attacked him and thoroughly defeated him at Ramillies (q.v.). Louis consoled his old friend with the remark, " At our age, one is no longer lucky," but superseded him in the command, and henceforward Villeroi lived the life of a courtier, much busied with intrigues but retaining to the end the friendship of his master. He died on the i8th of July 1730 at Paris. VILLERS LA VILLE, a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, 2 m. E. of Quatre Bras, with a station on the direct line from Louvain to Charleroi. Pop. (1904) 1166. It is chiefly interesting on account of the fine ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Villers founded in 1147 and destroyed by the French republicans in 1795. In the ruined church attached to the abbey are still to be seen the tombstones of several dukes of Brabant of the i3th and I4th centuries. VILLETTE, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE (1736-1793), French writer and politician, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1736, the son of a financier who left him a large fortune and the title of marquis. After taking part in the Seven Years' War, young Villette returned in 1763 to Paris, where he made many enemies by his insufferable manners. But he succeeded in gaining the intimacy of Voltaire, who had known his mother and who wished to make a poet of him. The old philosopher even went so far as to call his protege the French Tibullus. In 1777, on Voltaire's advice, Villette married Mademoiselle de Varicourt, but the marriage was unhappy, and his wife was subsequently adopted by Voltaire's niece, Madame Denis. During the Revolution Villette publicly burned his letters of nobility, wrote revolutionary articles in the Chronique de Paris, and was elected deputy to the Convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise. He had the courage to censure the September massacres and to vote for the imprisonment only, and not for the death, of Louis XVI. He died in Paris on the 7th of July 1793. In 1784 he published his (Euvres, which are of little value, and in 1792 his articles in the Chronique de Paris appeared in book form tinder the title Lettres choisies sur les principaux evenements de la Revolution. VILLIERS, CHARLES PELHAM (1802-1898), English states- man, son of George Villiers, grandson of the ist earl of Clarendon of the second (Villiers) creation, and brother of the 4th earl (q.v.), was born in London on the 3rd of January 1802, and educated at St John's College, Cambridge. He read for the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and became an associate of the Bentha- mites and " philosophical radicals " of the day. He was an assistant commissioner to the Poor Law Commission (1832), and in 1833 was made by the master of the Rolls, whose secretary he had been, a chancery examiner of witnesses, holding this office till 1852. In 1835 he was elected M.P. for Wolverhampton, and retained his seat till his death. He was the pioneer of the free-trade movement, and became prominent with Cobden and Bright as one of its chief supporters, being indefatigable in pressing the need for free trade on the House of Commons, by resolution and by petition. After free trade triumphed in 1846 his importance in politics became rather historical than actual, especially as he advanced to a venerable old age; but he was president of the Poor Law Board, with a seat in the Cabinet, from 1859 to 1866, and he did other useful work in the Liberal reforms of the time. Like Bright, he parted from Mr Gladstone on Home Rule for Ireland. He attended parliament for the last time in 1895, and died on the i6th of January 1898. VILLIERS DE L'ISLE-ADAM, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE MATHIAS, COMTE DE (1838-1889), French poet, was born at St Brieuc in Brittany and baptized on the 28th of November 1838. He may be said to have inaugurated the Symbolist movement in French literature, and Axel, the play on which he was engaged during so much of his life, though it was only published after his death, is -the typical Symbolist drama. He began with a volume of Premieres Poesies (1856-58). This was followed by a wild romance of the supernatural, I sis (1862), and by two plays in prose, Elen (1866) and Morgane (1866). La Revolte, a play in which Ibsen's Doll's House seems to be anticipated, was represented at the Vaudeville in 1870; Conies cruets, his finest volume of short stories, in 1883, and a new series in 1889; Le Nouveau Monde, a drama in five acts, in 1880; L'Eve future, an amazing piece of buffoonery satirizing the pretensions of science, in 1886; Tribulat Bonhomet in 1887; Le Secret de I'echafaud in 1888; Axel in 1890. He died in Paris, under the care of the Freres Saint-Jean-de-Dieu, on the I9th of August 1889. Villiers has left behind him a legend probably not more fantastic than the truth. Sharing many of the opinions of Don Quixote, he shared also Don Quixote's life. He was the descendant of a Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, famous in history, and his pride as an aristocrat and as an idealist were equal. He hated mediocrity, science, prog- ress, the present age, money and " serious " people. In one division of his work he attacked all the things which he hated with a savage irony; in another division of his work be dis- covered at least some glimpses of the ideal world. He remains a remarkable poet and a remarkable satirist, imperfect as both. He improvised out of an abundant genius, but the greater part of his work was no more than improvisation. He was ac- customed to talk his stories before he wrote them. Sometimes he talked them instead of writing them. But he has left, at all events, the Contes cruels, in which may be found every classic quality of the French conle, together with many of the qualities of Edgar Allan Poe and Ernst Hoffman; and the drama of Axel, in which the stage takes a new splendour and a new subtlety of meaning. Villiers's influence on the younger French writers was considerable. It was always an exaltation. No one in his time followed a literary ideal more romantically. (A. SY.) See also R. du Pontavice de Heussey, Villiers del' Isle- Adam (1893), a biography, English trans. (1904) by Lady Mary Loyd; S. Mallarme', Les Miens. Villiers de I Isle-Adam (1892); R. Martineau, Un yivant et deux marts (1901), bibliography. A selection from his stories, Histoires souveraines, was made by his friends (Brussels, 1899). VILLINGEN, a town of Germany in the grand duchy of Baden, pleasantly situated amid well-wooded hills, 52 m. by rail N. of Schaffhausen. Pop. (1905) 9582. It is in part still surrounded by walls, with ancient gate towers. It is the chief seat of the watch-making industry of the Black Forest. It also produces musical-boxes, glass and silk, and has a Gothic church of the i3th century and another of the nth, a 15th- century town hall, with a museum of antiquities, and music, technical and agricultural schools. VILLOISON, JEAN BAPTISTE GASPARD D'ANSSE (or DANNSE) DE (1750-1805), French classical scholar, was born at Corbeil-sur-Seine on the sth of March 1750 (or 1753; authori- ties differ). He belonged to a noble family (De Ansso) of Spanish origin, and took his surname from a village in the neighbour- hood. In 1773 he published the Homeric Lexicon of Apollonius from a MS. in the abbey of Saint Germain des Pres. In 1778 appeared his edition of Longus's Daphnis and Chloe. In 1781 he went to Venice, where he spent three years in examining the library, his expenses being paid by the French government. His chief discovery was a loth-century MS. of the Iliad, with ancient scholia and marginal notes, indicating supposititious, corrupt or transposed verses. After leaving Venice, he accepted the invitation of the duke of Saxe- Weimar to his court. Some of the fruits of his researches in the library of the palace were collected into a volume (Epistolae Vinarienses, 1783), dedicated to his royal hosts. Hoping to find a treasure similar to the Venetian Homer in Greece, he returned to Paris to prepare for a journey to the East. He visited Constantinople, Smyrna, the Greek islands, and Mount Athos, but the results did not come up to his expectation. In 1786 he returned, and in 1788 brought out the Codex Venetus of Homer, which created a sensation in the learned world. When the revolution broke out, being banished from Paris, he lived in retirement at Orleans, occupying himself chiefly with the transcription of the notes VILLON in the library of the brothers Valois (Valesius). On the restora- tion of order, having returned to Paris, he accepted the pro- fessorship of modern Greek established by the government, and held it until it was transferred to the College de France as the professorship of the ancient and modern Greek languages. He died soon after his appointment, on the 25th of April 1805. Another work of some importance, Anecdota Graeca (1781), from the Paris and Venice libraries, contains the Ionia, (violet garden) of the empress Eudocia, and several fragments of liunblichus, Porphyry, Procopius of Gaza, Choricius and the Greek grammarians. Materials for an exhaustive work con- templated by him on ancient and modern Greece are preserved in the royal library of Paris. See J. Dacier, Notice kistorique :ur la vie et les ouvrages de ison (1806); Chardon de la Rochette, Melanges de critique et' de philologie, iii. (1812) ; and especially the article by his friend and pupil E. Quatremere in Nouvelle biographie generale, xiii., based upon private information. VILLON, FRANCOIS (1431-*;. 1463), French poet (whose real surname is a matter of much dispute, so that he is also called De Montcorbier and Des Loges and by other names, though in literature Villon is the sole term used), was born in 1431, and, as it seems, certainly at Paris. The singular poems called Testaments, which form his chief if not his only certain work, are largely autobiographical, though of course not fully trust- worthy. But his frequent collisions with the law have left more certain records, which have of late been ransacked with extraordinary care by students, especially by M. Longnon. It appears that he was born of poor folk, that his father died in his youth, but that his mother, for whom he wrote one of his most famous ballades, was alive when her son was thirty years old. The very name Villon was stated, and that by no mean authority, the president Claude Fauchet, to be merely a common and not a proper noun, signifying " cheat " or " rascal "; but this seems to be a mistake. It is, however, certain that Villon was a person of loose life, and that he continued, long after there was any excuse for it in his years, the reckless way of living common among the wilder youth of the university of Paris. He appears to have derived his surname from a friend and benefactor named Guillaume de Villon, chaplain in the collegiate church of Saint-Benoit-le- Bestourne, and a professor of canon law, who took Villon into his house. The poet became a student in arts, no doubt early, perhaps at about twelve years of age, and took the degree of bachelor in 1449 and that of master in 1452. Between this year and 1455 nothing positive is known of him, except that nothing was known against him. Attempts have been made, in the usual fashion of conjectural biography, to fill up the gap with what a young graduate of Bohemian tendencies would, could, or might have done; but they are mainly futile. On the sth of June 1455 the first important incident of his Hie that is known occurred. Being in the company of a priest named Giles and a girl named Isabeau, he met, in the rue Saint-Jacques, a certain Breton, Jean le Hardi, a master of arts, who was with a priest, Philippe Chermoye or Sermoise or Sermaise. A scuffle ensued; daggers were drawn; and Sermaise, who is accused of having threatened and attacked Villon and drawn the first blood, not only received a dagger- thrust in return, but a blow from a stone which struck him down. Sermaise died of his wounds. Villon fled, and was sentenced to banishment — a sentence which was remitted in January 1456, the formal pardon being extant, strangely enough, in two different documents, in one of which the culprit is described as " Francois des Loges, autrement dit Villon," in the other as " Francois de Montcorbier." That he is also said to have described himself to the barber-surgeon who dressed his wounds as Michel Mouton is less surprising, and hardly needs an addition to the list of his aliases. It should, however, be said that the documents relative to this affair confirm the date of his birth, by representing him as twenty- six years old or thereabouts. By the end of 1456 he was again in trouble. In his first broil " la femme Isabeau " is only generally named, and it is impossible to say whether she had anything to do with the quarrel. In the second, Catherine de Vaucelles, of whom we hear not a little in the poems, is the declared cause of a scuffle in which Villon was so severely beaten that, to escape ridicule, he fled to Angers, where he had an uncle who was a monk. It was before leaving Paris that he composed what is now known as the Petit testament, of which we shall speak presently with the rest of his poems, and which, it should be said, shows little or no such mark of profound bitterness and regret for wasted life as does its in every sense greater successor the Grand testament. Indeed, Villon's serious troubles were only beginning, for hitherto he had been rather injured than guilty. About Christmas-time the chapel of the college of Navarre was broken open, and five hundred gold crowns stolen. The robbery was not dis- covered till March 1457, and it was not till May that the police came on the track of a gang of student-robbers owing to the indiscretion of one of them, Guy Tabarie. A year more passed, when Tabarie, being arrested, turned king's evidence and accused Villon, who was then absent, of being the ring-leader, and of having gone to Angers, partly at least, to arrange for similar burglaries there. Villon, for this or some other crime, was sentenced to banishment: and he did not attempt to return to Paris. In fact for four years he was a wanderer; and he may have been, as each of his friends Regnier de Montigny and Colin des Cayeux certainly was, a member of a wandering thieves' gang. It is certain that at one time (in 1457), and probable that at more times than one, he was in correspondence with Charles d'Orleans, and it is likely that he resided, at any rate for some period, at that prince's court at Blois. He had also something to do with another prince of the blood, Jean of Bourbon, and traces are found of him in Poitou, in Dauphin6, &c. But at his next certain appearance he is again in trouble. He tells us that he had spent the summer of 1461 in the bishop's prison (bishops were fatal to Villon) of Meung. His crime is not known, but is supposed to have been church-robbing; and his enemy, or at least judge, was Thibault d'Aussigny, who held the see of Orleans. Villon owed his release to a general gaol-delivery at the accession of Louis XI., and became a free man again on the 2nd of October. It was now that he wrote the Grand testament, the work which has immortalized him. Although he was only thirty at the date (1461) of this composition (which is unmistakable, because given in the book itself), there seems to be no kind of aspiration towards a new life, nor even any hankering after the old. Nothing appears to be left him but regret; his very spirit has been worn out by excesses or sufferings or both. Even his good intentions must have been feeble, for in the autumn of 1462 we find him once more living in the cloisters of Saint-Benoit, and in November he was in the Chatelet for theft. In default of evidence the old charge of the college of Navarre was revived, and even a royal pardon did not bar the demand for restitution. Bail was, however, accepted, but Villon fell promptly into a street quarrel, was arrested, tortured and condemned to be hanged, but the sentence was commuted to banishment by the parlement on the 5th of January 1463. The actual event is unknown: but from this time he disappears from history. Rabelais indeed tells two stories about him which have almost necessarily been dated later. One is a countryside anecdote of a trick supposed to have been played by the poet in his old age at Saint Maixent in Poitou, whither he had retired. The other, a coarse but pointed jest at the expense of England, is told as having been addressed by Villon to King Edward V. during an exile in that country. Now, even if King Edward V. were not evidently out of the question, a passage of the story refers to the well-known scholar and man of science, Thomas Linacre, as court physician to the king, and makes Villon mention him, whereas Linacre was only a young scholar, not merely at the time of Edward V.'s supposed murder, but at the extreme date (1489) which can be assigned to Villon's life. For in this year the first edition of the poet's work appeared, obviously not published by himself, 88 VILNA and with no sign in it of his having lived later than the date (1461) of the Grand testament. It would be easy to dismiss these Rabelaisian mentions of Villon as mere humorous inven- tions, if it were not that the author of Pantagruel was born almost soon enough to have actually seen Villon if he had lived to anything that could be called old age, that he almost certainly must have known men who had known Villon, and that the poet undoubtedly spent much time in Rabelais's own country on the banks of the lower Loire. The obscurity, the unhappiness and the evil repute of Villon's life would not be in themselves a reason for the minute investiga- tion to which the events of that life have been subjected, and the result of which has been summed up here. But his poetical work, scanty as the certainly genuine part of it is, is of such extraordinary quality, and marks such an epoch in the history of European litera- ture, that he has been at all times an interesting figure, and, like all very interesting figures, has been often praised for qualities quite other than those which he really possessed. Boileau's famous verses, in which Villon is extolled for having first known how to smooth out the confused art of the old romancers, are indeed a prodigy of blundering or ignorance or both. As far as art or the technical part of poetry goes, Villon made not the slightest advance on his predecessors, nor stood in any way in front of such contemporaries as his patron Charles d'Orleans. His two Testaments (so called by the application to them of a regular class-name of medieval poetry and consisting of burlesque legacies to his acquaintances) are mads up of eight-line stanzas of eight-syllabled verses, varied in the case of the Grand testament by the insertion of ballades and rondeaux of very great beauty and interest, but not formally different in any way from poems of the same kind for more than a century past. What really distinguishes Villon is the intenser quality of his poetical feeling and expression, and what is perhaps arrogantly called the modern character of his subjects and thought. Medieval poetry, with rare exceptions, and, with exceptions not quite so rare, classical poetry, are distinguished by their lack of what is now called the personal note. In Villon this note sounds, struck with singular force and skill. Again, the simple joy of living which distinguishes both periods — the medieval, despite a common opinion, scarcely less than the ancient — has disappeared. Even the riot and rollicking of his earlier days are mentioned with far less relish of remembrance than sense of their vanity. This sense of vanity, indeed, not of the merely religious, but of the purely mundane and even half-pagan kind, is Villon's most prominent characteristic. It tinges his narrative, despite its burlesque bequests, all through; it is the very keynote of his most famous and beautiful piece, the Ballade des dames du temps jadis, with its refrain, " Mais ou sont les neiges d'antan ? " as well as of his most daring piece of realism, the other ballade of La Crosse Margot, with its burden of hopeless entanglement in shameless vice. It is nowhere more clearly sounded than in the piece which ranks with these two at the head of his work, the Regrets de la Bdle Heaulmiere, in which a woman, once young and beautiful, now old and withered, laments her lost charms. So it is almost throughout his poems, including the grim Ballade des pendus, and hardly excluding the very beautiful Ballade pour sa mere, with its description of sincere and humble piety. It is in the profound melancholy which the dominance of this note has thrown over Villon's work, and in the suitableness of that melancholy to the temper of all generations since, that his charm and power have consisted, though it is difficult to conceive any time at which his poetical merit could be ignored. His certainly genuine poems consist of the two Testaments with their codicil (the latter containing the Ballade des pendus, or more properly £pitaphe en forme de ballade, and some other pieces of a similarly grim humour), a few miscellaneous poems, chiefly ballades, and an extraordinary collection (called Le Jargon ou jobelin) of poems in argot, the greater part of which is now totally unintelligible, if, which may perhaps be doubted, it ever was otherwise. Besides these, several poems of no inconsiderable interest are usually printed with Villon's works, though they are certainly, or almost certainly, not his. The chief are Les Repues Franches, a curious series of verse stories of cheating tavern-keepers, &c., having some resemblance to those told of George Peele, but of a broader and coarser humour. These, though in many cases "common form ' of the broader tale-kind, are not much later than his time, and evi- dence to reputation if not to fact. Another of these spurious pieces is the extremely amusing monologue of the Franc Archier de Bag- nolet, in which one of the newly constituted archers or regularly trained and paid soldiery, who were extremely unpopular in France, is made to expose his own poltroonery. The third most important piece of this kind is the Dialogue de Mallepaye et de Baillevent, a dramatic conversation between two penniless spendthrifts, which is not without merit. These poems, however, were never attributed to Villon or printed with his works till far into the i6th century. It has been said that the first dated edition of Villon is of 1489, though some have held one or more than one undated copy to be 'still earlier. Between the first, whenever it was, and 1542 there were very numerous editions, the most famous being that (i533) of Clement Marot, one of whose most honourable distinctions is the care he took of his poetical predecessors. The Pleiade movement and the classicizing of the grand siecle put Villon rather out of favour, and he was not again reprinted till early in the l8th century, when he attracted the attention of students of old French like Le Duchat, Bernard de la Monnoye and Prosper Marchand. The first critical edition in the modern sense — that is to say, an edition founded on MSS. (of which there are in Villon's case several, chiefly at Paris and Stockholm) — was that of the Abbe J. H. R. Promp- sault in 1832. The next was that of the " Bibliophile Jacob ' (P. Lacroix) in the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne (Paris, 1854). The standard edition is CEuvres completes de Fro.nc.ois Villon, by M. Auguste Longnon (1892). This contains copies of the documents on which the story of Villon's life is based, and a bibliography. The late M. Marcel Schwob discovered new documents relating to the poet, but died before he could complete his work, which was posthumously published in 1905. See also A. Campaux, F. Villon, sa vie et ses ceuvres (1859); A. Longnon, Etude biographique (1877); and especially G. Paris, Frangois Villon (1901), a book of the first merit. A complete translation of Villon was written by Mr John Payne (1878) for the Villon Society. There are also translations of individual poems in Mr Andrew Lang's Ballads and Lyrics of Old France (1872) and in the works of D. G. Rossetti and Mr Swinburne. Among critical studies of Villon may be menlioned those by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv., by Theo- phile Gautierin Grotesques, and by R. L. Stevenson in his Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882). An unedited ballad by Villon, with another by an unknown poet of the same date, was published by W. G. C. Bijvanck (1891) as Un poele inconnu. M. Pierre d'Alheim published (1892) an edition of Le Jargon with a translation into ordinary French. (G. SA.) VILNA, or WILNO, a Lithuanian government of West Russia, having the Polish government of Suwalki on the W., Kovno and Vitebsk on the N., and Minsk and Grodno on the E. and S. Area, 16,176 sq. m.; pop. (1906 estimate) 1,806,300. Vilna lies on the broad marshy swelling, dotted with lakes, which separates Poland from the province of East Prussia and stretches E.N.E. towards the Valdai Plateau. Its highest parts are a little more than 1000 ft. above sea-level. On its western and eastern boundaries it is deeply trenched by the valleys of the Niemen and the S. Dvina. It is chiefly built up of Lower Tertiary deposits, but in the north Devonian sandstones appear on the surface. The Tertiary deposits consist of Eocene clay, slates, sandstones, limestones and chalk, with gypsum, and are partly of marine and partly of terrene origin. The whole is overlain with thick layers of Glacial boulder clay and post-Glacial deposits, containing remains of the mammoth and other ex- tinct mammals. Interesting discoveries of Neolithic implements, especially of polished stone, and of implements belonging to the Bronze Age and the early years of the Christian epoch, have been made. Numerous lakes and marshes, partly covered with forests, and scarcely passable except when frozen, as well as wet meadow- land, occupy a large area in the centre of the government. The Niemen, which flows along the southern and western borders for more than 200 m., is the chief artery of trade, and its importance in this respect is enhanced by its tributary the Viliya, which flows west for more than 200 m. through the central parts of Vilna, receiving many affluents on its course. Among the tributaries of the Niemen is the Berezina, which acquired renown during Napoleon's retreat in 1812; it flows in a marshy valley in the south-east. The S. Dvina for SO m. of its course separates Vilna from Vitebsk. The climate of the government is only slightly tempered by its proximity to the Baltic Sea (January, 2i°-8; July, 64°-5) ; the average temperature at the town of Vilna is only 43°-5. But in winter the thermometer descends very low, a minimum of -30° F. having been observed. The flora and fauna are inter- mediate between those of Poland and middle Russia. The government is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are Vilna, Vileiki, Disna, Lida, Oshmyany, Zventsyany and Troki. VILNA, or WILNO, a town of Russia, capital of the govern- ment of the same name, 436 m. S.S.W. of St Petersburg, at the intersection of the railways from St Petersburg to Warsaw and from Libau to the mouth of the Don. Pop. (1883) 93,760; (1900) 162,633. With its suburbs Antokol, Lukishki, Pogul- yanka and Sarechye, it stands on and around a knot of hills (2450 ft.) at the confluence of the Vileika with the Viliya. Its streets are in part narrow and not very clean; but Vilna is an old town, rich in historical associations. Its imperial palace, and the cathedral of St Stanislaus (1387, restored 1801), con- taining the silver sarcophagus of St Casimir and the tomb of Prince Vitoft, are fine buildings. There is a second cathedral, that of St Nicholas, built in 1596-1604; also several churches dating VILVORDE— VINCENT, ST 89 from the I4th to the i6th centuries. The Ostra Brama chapel contains an image of the Virgin greatly venerated by Orthodox ks and Roman Catholics alike. The museum of antiquities valuable historical collections. The ancient castle of the Jagcllones is now a mass of ruins. The old university, founded in 1578, was restored (1803) by Alexander I., but has been closed since 1832 for political reasons; the only departments which remain in activity are the astronomical observatory and a nu'dical academy. Vilna is an archiepiscopal see of the Ortho- dox Greek Church and an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church, and the headquarters of the governor-general of the Lithuanian provinces and of the III. army corps. The city sses a botanical garden and a public library, and is adorned with statues to Catherine II. (1903), the poet Pushkin and C'ount M. Muraviev (1898). It is an important centre for trade in timber and grain, which are exported; and has theological seminaries, both Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic, a military school, a normal school for teachers and professional schools. It is the seat of many scientific societies (geographical, medical and archaeological), and has a good antiquarian museum and a public library. History. — The territory of Vilna has been occupied by the Lithuanians since the loth century, and probably much earlier; their chief fortified town, Vilna, is first mentioned in 1128. A temple to the god Perkunas stood on one of its hills till 1387, when it was destroyed by Prince Jagiello, after his baptism. After 1323, when Gedymin, prince of Lithuania, abandoned Troki, Vilna became the capital of Lithuania. The formerly independent principalities of Minsk and Lidy, as well as the territory of Disna, which belonged to the Polotsk principality, were annexed by the Lithuanian princes, and from that time Vilna, which was fortified by a stone wall, became the chief city of the Lithuanian state. It was united with Poland when its prince, Casimir IV., was elected (1447) to the Polish throne. The plague of 1588, a fire in 1610 and still more the wars between Russia and Poland, which began in the I7th century, checked its further growth. The Russians took Vilna in 1655, and in the following year it was ceded to Russia. The Swedes captured it in 1702 and in 1706. The Russians again took possession of it in 1788; and it was finally annexed to Russia in 1795, after the partition of Poland. Its Polish inhabitants took an active part in the risings of 1831 and 1863, for which they were severely punished by the Russian government. VILVORDE, a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, 9 m. N. of Brussels and on the Senne. Pop. (1904) 14,418. The old castle of Vilvorde, which often gave shelter to the dukes of Brabant in their days of trouble, is now used as a prison. The younger Teniers lived and died at a farm outside Vilvorde, and is buried in the parish church of Dry Toren. VINCENNES, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, on a wooded plateau ij m. E. of the fortifications of Paris, with which it is connected by rail and tram. Pop. (1906) town, 29,791; commune, 34,185. Its celebrated castle, situated to the south of the town and on the northern border of the Bois de Vincennes, was formerly a royal residence, begun by Louis VII. in 1164, and more than once rebuilt. It was frequently visited by Louis IX., who held informal tribunals in the neigh- bouring wood, a pyramid marking the spot where the oak under which he administered justice is said to have stood. The chapel, an imitation of the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, was begun by Charles V. in 1379, continued by Charles VI. and Francis I., consecrated in 1552 and restored in modem times. In the sacristy is the monument erected in 1816 to the memory of the duke of Enghien, who was shot in the castle moat in 1804. Louis XI. made the castle a state prison in which Henry of Navarre, the great Cond6, Mirabeau and other distinguished persons were afterwards confined. Under Napoleon I. the castle became a magazine of war-material. Louis XVIII. added an armoury, and under Louis Philippe numerous case- mates and a new fort to the east of the donjon were constructed. The place now serves as a fort, arsenal and barracks. It forms a rectangle 417 yds. long by 245 yds. wide. The enclosing wall was originally flanked by nine towers, which were cut down to its level between 1808 and 1811, and now serve as bastions. The donjon is a square tower, 170 ft. high, with turrets at the corners. The Bois de Vincennes, which covers about 2300 acres and stretches to the right bank of the Marne, contains a race-course, a military training-ground, a school of military explosives (pyrotechnic), several artificial lakes, an artillery polygon and other military establishments, an experimental farm, the redoubts of Gravelle and La Faisanderie and the normal school of military gymnastics. The wood, which now belongs to Paris, was laid out during the second empire on the same lines as the Bois de Boulogne. On its south border is the asylum of Vincennes, founded in 1855 for the benefit of con- valescents from the hospitals. In the town there is a statue of General Daumesnil, celebrated for his defense of the castle against the allies in 1814 and 1815. Vincennes has a school of military administration and carries on horticulture and the manufacture of ironware of various kinds, rubber goods, chemicals, perfumery, mineral waters, &c. VINCENNES, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Indiana, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on the E. bank of the Wabash river, about 117 m. S.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 8853; (1900) 10,249, of whom 736 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,895. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South- Western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati , Chicago & St Louis, the Evansville & Terre Haute, and the Vandalia railways. Extensive levees, 15 m. in length, prevent the overflow of the Wabash river, which for nine months in the year is navigable from this point to the Ohio. The city is level and well drained, and has a good water-supply system. In Vincennes are a Roman Catholic cathedral, erected in 1835, one of the oldest in the West, occupying the site of a church built early in the i8th century; Vincennes University (1806), the oldest educational institution in the state, which in 1910 had 14 instructors and 236 students; St Rose Female Academy, and a public library. Coal, natural gas and oil are found near Vincennes. The city is a manufactur- ing and railway centre, and ships grain, pork and neat cattle. The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,172,279. Vincennes was the first permanent settlement ia Indiana. On its site Francois Margane, Sieur de Vincennes, established a French military post about 1731, and a permanent settlement was made about the fort in 1735. After the fall of Quebec the place remained under French sovereignty until 1777, when it was occupied by a British garrison. In 1778 an agent of George Rogers Clark took possession of the fort on Behalf of Virginia, but it was soon afterwards again occupied by the British, who called it Fort Sackville and held it until February 1779, when it was besieged and was captured (on the 25th of February) by George Rogers Clark, and passed finally under American juris- diction. The site of the fort is marked by a granite shaft erected in 1905 by the Daughters of the Revolution. Vincennes was the capital of Indiana Territory from 1800 to 1813, and was the meeting-place in 1805 of the first General Assembly of Indiana Territory. In 1839 it was incorporated as a borough, and it became a city in 1856. See J. Law, The Colonial History of Vincennes (Vincennes, 1858); W. H. Smith, " Vincennes, the Key to the North-VVest," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York, 1901) ; " The Capture of Vincennes by George Rogers Clark," Old South Leaflets, No. 43 (Boston, n.d.) ; also chap. ii. of J. P. Dunn's Indiana (Boston, 1892). VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST, deacon and martyr, whose festival is celebrated on the 22nd of January. In several of his discourses St Augustine pronounces the eulogy of this martyr, and refers to Acts which were read in the church. It is doubtful whether the Acts that have come down to us (Ada Sanctorum, January, ii. 394~397) are those referred to by St Augustine, since it is not certain that they are a contemporary document. According to this account, Vincent was bom of noble parents in Spain, and was educated by Valerius, bishop of Saragossa, who ordained him to the diaconate. Under the persecution of Diocletian, Vincent was arrested and taken to Valencia. Having stood firm in his profession before Dacianus, 9o VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS the governor, he was subjected to excruciating tortures and thrown into prison, where angels visited him, lighting his dungeon with celestial light and relieving his sufferings. His warders, having seen these wonders through the chinks of the wall, forthwith became Christians. He was afterwards brought out and laid upon a soft mattress in order that he might regain sufficient strength for new torments; but, while Dacianus was meditating punishment, the saint gently breathed his last. The tyrant exposed his body to wild beasts, but a raven miraculously descended and protected it. It was then thrown into the sea, but was cast up on the shore, recovered by a pious woman and buried outside Valencia. Prudentius devoted one of his hymns (Peristeph. v.) to St Vincent, and St Augustine attests that in his lifetime the festival of the saint was celebrated throughout the Christian world (Serm. 276, n. 4). See T. Ruinart, Acta martyrum sincera (Amsterdam, 1713), pp. 364-66; Le Nain de Tillemont, Memoires pour servir & I'histoire ecclesiastique (Paris, 1701, seq.), v. 215-225, 673-675. (H. DE.) VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS, or VINCENTIUS BELLOVACENSIS (c. iigo-c. 1264), the encyclopaedist of the middle ages, was probably a native of Beauvais.1 The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown. A tolerably old tradition, preserved by Louis a Valleoleti (c. 1413), gives the latter as 1264;* but Tholomaeus de Luca, Vincent's younger contemporary (d. 1321), seems to reckon him as living during the pontificate of Gregory X. (1271-76). If we assume 1264 as the year of his death, the immense volume of his works forbids us to think he could have been born much later than 1190. Very little is known of his career. A plausible conjecture makes him enter the house of the Dominicans at Paris between 1215 and 1220, from which place a second conjecture carries him to the Dominican monastery founded at Beauvais in 1228-29. There is no evidence to show that the Vincent who was sub-prior of this foundation in 1246 is the encyclopaedist; nor indeed is it likely that a man of such abnormally studious habits could have found time to attend to the daily business routine of a monastic establishment. It is certain, however, that he at one time held the post of " reader " at the monastery of Royaumont (Mons Regalis), not far from Paris, on the Oise, founded by St Louis between 1228 and 1235. St Louis read the books that he compiled, and supph'ed the funds for procuring copies of such authors as he required for his com- pilations. Queen Margaret, her son Philip and her son-in-law, Theobald V. of Champagne and Navarre, are also named among those who urged him to the composition of his " little works," especially the De Institutione Principum. Though Vincent may well have been summoned to Royaumont even before 1 240, there is no actual proof that he lived there before the return of Louis IX. and his wife from the Holy Land, early in the summer of 1254. But it is evident that he must have written his work De Eruditione FUiorum Regalium (where he styles himself as " Vincentius Belvacensis, de ordine praedicatorum, qualiscumque lector in monasterio de Regali Monte ") after this date and yet before January 1260, the approximate date of his Traclatus Consolatorius. When he wrote the latter work he must have left Royaumont, as he speaks of returning from the funeral of Prince Louis (isth January 1260) "ad nostram domum," a phrase which can hardly be explained otherwise than as referring to his own Dominican house, whether at Beauvais or elsewhere. The Speculum Majus, the great compendium of all the knowledge of the middle ages, as it left the pen of Vincent, seems to have con- sisted of three parts only, viz. the Speculum Naturale, Doctrinale and Historiale. Such, at least, is Echard's conclusion, derived from an examination of the earliest extant MSS. All the printed editions, however, consist of four parts, the additional one being entitled Speculum Morale. This has been clearly shown to be the production of a later hand, and is ascribed by Echard to the period between 1310 and 1325. In arrangement and style it is quite different from 'He is sometimes styled Vincentius Burgundus; but, according to M. Daunou, this appellation cannot be traced back further than the first half of the isth century. 1 Apparently confirmed by the few enigmatical lines preserved by Echara from his epitaph — " Pertulit iste necem post annos mille ducentos, Sexaginta decem sex habe, sex mihi retentos." the other three parts, and indeed it is mainly a compilation from Thomas Aquinas, Stephen de Bourbon, and two or three other contemporary writers. The Speculum Naturale fills a bulky folio volume of 848 closely printed double-columned pages. It is divided into thirty-two books and 3718 chapters. It is a vast summary of all the natural history known to western Europe towards the middle of the I3th century. It is, as it were, the great temple of medieval science, whose floor and walls are inlaid with an enormous mosaic of skilfully arranged passages from Latin, Greek, Arabic, and even Hebrew authors. To each quotation, as he borrows it, Vincent prefixes the name of the book and author from whom it is taken, distinguish- ing, however, his own remarks by the word " actor." The Speculum Naturale is so constructed that the various subjects are dealt with according to the order of their creation; it is in fact a gigantic commentary on Genesis i. Thus book i. opens with an account of the Trinity and its relation to creation; then follows a similar series of chapters about angels, their attributes, powers, orders, &c., down to such minute points as their methods of communicating thought, on which matter the author decides, in his own person, that they have a kind of intelligible speech, and that with angels to think and to speak are not the same process. The whole book, in fact, deals with such things as were with God " in the beginning." Book ii. treats of our own world, of light, colour, the four elements, Lucifer and his fallen angels, thus corresponding in the main with the sensible world and the work of the first day. Books iii. and iv. deal with the phenomena of the heavens and of time, which is measured by the motions of the heavenly bodies, with the sky and all its wonders, fire, rain, thunder, dew, winds, &c. Books v.-xiv. treat of the sea and the dry land: they discourse of the seas, the ocean and the great rivers, agricultural operations, metals, precious stones, plants, herbs, with their seeds, grains and juices, trees wild and cultivated, their fruits and their saps. Under each species, where possible, Vincent gives a chapter on its use in medicine, and he adopts for the most part an alphabetical arrangement. In book vi. c. 7 he incidentally discusses what would become of a stone if it were dropped down a hole, pierced right through the earth, and, curiously enough, decides that it would stay in the centre. Book xv. deals with astronomy — the moon, stars, and the zodiac, the sun, the planets, the seasons and the calendar. Books xvi. and xvii. treat of fowls and fishes, mainly in alphabetical order and with reference to their medical qualities. Books xviii.-xxii. deal in a similar way with domesticated and wild animals, including the dog, serpents, bees and insects; they also include a general treatise on animal physiology spread over books xxi.-xxii. Books xxiii.-xxviii. discuss the psychology, physiology and anatomy of man, the five senses and their organs, sleep, dreams, ecstasy, memory, reason, &c. The remaining four books seem more or less supplementary ; the last (xxxii.) is a summary of geography and history down to the year 1250, when the book seems to have been given to the worjd, perhaps along with the Speculum Historiale and possibly an earlier form of the Speculum Doctrinale, The Speculum Doctrinale, in seventeen books and 2374 chapters, is a summary of all the scholastic knowledge of the age and does not confine itself to natural history. It is intended to be a practical manual for the student and the official alike ; and, to fulfil this object, it treats of the mechanic arts of life as well as the subtleties of the scholar, the duties of the prince and the tactics of the general. The first book, after defining philosophy, &c., gives a long Latin vocabulary of some 6000 or 7000 words. Grammar, logic, rhetoric and poetry are discussed in books ii. and iii., the latter including several well-known fables, such as the lion and the mouse. Book iv. treats of the virtues, each of which has two chapters of quotations allotted to it, one in prose and the other in verse. Book v. is of a somewhat similar nature. With book vi. we enter on the practical part of the work; it deals with the ars oeconomica, and gives directions for building, gardening, sowing, reaping, rearing cattle and tending vineyards; it includes also a kind of agricul- tural almanac for each month in the year. Books vii.-ix. have reference to the ars politico: they contain rules for the education of a prince and a summary of the forms, terms and statutes of canonical, civil and criminal "law. Book xi. is devoted to the artes mechanicae, viz. those of weavers, smiths, armourers, merchants; hunters, and even the general and the sailor. Books xii.— xiv. deal with medicine both in practice and in theory : they contain practical rules for the preservation of health according to the four seasons of the year, and treat of various diseases from fever to gout. Book xv. deals with physics and may be" regarded as a summary of the Speculum Naturale. Book xvi. is given up to mathematics, under which head are included music, geometry, astronomy, astrology, weights and measures, and metaphysics. It is noteworthy that in this book Vincent shows a knowledge of the Arabic numerals, though be does not call them by this name. With him the unit is termed "digitus"; when multiplied by ten it becomes the "articulus"; while the combination of the articulus and the digitus is the " numerus compositus." In this chapter (xvi. 9), which is super- scribed " actor," he clearly explains how the value of a number increases tenfold with every place it is moved to the left. He is even acquainted with the later invention of the " cifra " or cipher. VINCENT, G.— VINCENT DE PAUL, ST The last book (xvii.) treats of theology or (as we should now say) mythology, and winds up with an account of the Holy Scriptures and of the Fathers, from Ignatius and Dionysius the Areopagite to Jerome and Gregory the Great, and even of later writers from Isidore and Uede, through Alcuin, Lanfranc and Anselm, down to Bernard of Clairvaux and the brethren of St Victor. As the fifteenth book of the Speculum Doctrinale is a summary of the Speculum Naturale, so the Speculum Historiale may be regarded as the expansion of the last book of the same work. It consists of thirty-one books divided into 3793 chapters. The first book opens with the mysteries ol God and the angels, and then passes on to the works of the six days and the creation of man. It includes disserta- tions on the various vices and virtues, the different arts and sciences, and carries down the history of the world to the sojourn in Egypt. The next eleven books (ii.-xii.) conduct us through sacred and secular history down to the triumph of Christianity under Constantine. The story of Barlaam and Josaphat occupies a great part of book xv. ; and book xvi. gives an account of Daniel s nine kingdoms, in which account Vincent differs from his professed authority, Sigebert of Gembloux, by reckoning England as the fourth instead of the fifth. In the chapters devoted to the orieines of Britain he relies on the Brutus legend, but cannot carry his catalogue of British or English kings further than 735, where he honestly con- fesses that his authorities fail him. Seven more books bring us to the rise of Mahomet (xxiii.) and the days of Charlemagne (xxiv.). Vincent's Charlemagne is a curious medley of the great emperor of history and the champion of romance. He is at once the gigantic eater of Turpin, the huge warrior eight feet high, who could lift the armed knight standing on his open hand to a level with his head, the crusading conqueror of Jerusalem in days before the crusades, and yet with all this the temperate drinker and admirer of St Augustine, as his character had filtered down through various channels from the historical pages of Einhard. Book xxv. includes the first crusade, and in the course of book xxix., which contains an account of the Tatars, the author enters on what is almost contemporary history, winding up in book xxxi. with a short narrative of the crusade of St Louis in 1250. One remarkable feature of the Speculum Historiale is Vincent's constant habit of devoting several chapters to selections from the writings of each great author, whether secular or profane, as he mentions him in the course of ,his work. The extracts from Cicero and Ovid, Origen and St John, Chrysostom, Augustine and Jerome are but specimens of a useful custom which reaches its culminating point in book xxviii., which is devoted entirely to the writings of St Bernard. One main fault of the Speculum Historiale is the unduly large space devoted to miracles. Four of the medieval historians from whom he quotes most frequently are Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugh of Fleury, Helinand of Froidmont, and William of Malmesbury, whom he uses for Continental as well as for English history. Vincent has thus hardly any claim to be reckoned as an original writer. But it is difficult to speak too highly of his immense in- dustry in collecting, classifying and arranging these three huge volumes of 80 books and 9885 chapters. The undertaking to com- bine all human knowledge into a single whole was in itself a colossal one and could only have been born in a mind of no mean order. Indeed more than six centuries passed before the idea was again resuscitated ; and even then it required a group of brilliant French- men to do what the old Dominican had carried out unaided. The number of writers quoted by Vincent is almost incredible: in the Speculum Naturale alone no less .than 350 distinct works are cited, and to these must be added at least 100 more for the other two Specula. His reading ranges from Arabian philosophers and naturalists to Aristotle, Eusebius, Cicero, Seneca, Julius Caesar (whom he calls Julius Celsus), and even the Jew, Peter Alphonso. But Hebrew, Arabic and Greek he seems to have known solely through one or other of the popular Latin versions. He admits that his quotations are not always exact, but asserts that this was the fault of careless copyists. A list of Vincent's works, both MS. and printed, will be found in the Histoire Htteraire de France, vol. xviii., and in Jacques Echard's Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum (1719-21). The Tractatusconsolatorius pro morte amid and the Liber de eruditione filiorum regalium (dedi- cated to Queen Margaret) were printed at Basel in December 1480. The Liber de Institution^ Pnncipum, a treatise on the duties of kings and their functionaries, has never yet been printed, and the only MS. copy the writer of this article has been able to consult does not contain in its prologue all the information which Echard seems to imply is to be found there. The so-called first edition of the Speculum Majus, including the Speculum Morale, ascribed to Johann Mentelin and long celebrated as the earliest work printed at Strassburg, has lately been challenged as being only an earlier edition of Vincent's three genuine Specula (c. 1468-70), with which has been bound up the Speculum Morale first printed by Mentelin (c. 1473-76). The edition most frequently quoted is that by the Jesuits (4 vols., Douai, 1624). See J. B. Bourgeat, fjudes sur Vincent de Beauvais, thfologien, philosophe, encychpediste (Paris, 1856); E. Boutaric, Examen des sources du Speculum historiale de Vincent de Beauvais (Paris, 1863), and in tome xvii. of the Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1875); 91 W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Ceschichtsquellen, vol. ii. (1894; B. Haureau, Notices . . . de M 55. latins de fa Bibliotheque Nationale, tome v. (1892) ; and E. Male, L'artrelieieuxdu XIII' sticle en France, (T.A.A.) VINCENT. GEORGE (1796-1831?), English landscape and marine painter, was born at Norwich in June 1796. He studied art under " Old " Crome, and at the age of fifteen began to contribute to the Norwich exhibition. From 1814 till 1823 he exhibited occasionally at the Royal Academy, and also in the Water-Colour Exhibition and the British Institution. In 1819 he removed from Norwich to London, and he was a contributor to the Suffolk Street gallery from its foundation in 1824 till 1830. He possessed great artistic abilities; but he fell into dissipation, and his works became slight and hastily executed. Finally he dropped out of sight, and he is believed to have died about 1831. His most important work, a " View of Greenwich Hospital," was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862. His " London from the Surrey Side of Waterloo Bridge " is also a fine work. VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887), American actress, was born in Portsmouth, England, on the i8th of September 1818, the daughter of an Irishman named Farlin. Left an orphan at an early age, she turned to the stage, making her first appearance in 1834 as Lucy in The Review, at Cowes, Isle of Wight. The next year she married J. R. Vincent (d. 1850), an actor, with whom she toured England and Ireland for several, years. In 1846 Mrs J. R. Vincent went to America to join the stock company of the old National theatre hi Boston. Here she became a great favourite. No actress in America, except Mrs Gilbert, has ever been such " a dear old lady " to so wide a circle of constant admirers. She died in Boston on the 4th of September 1887. Her memory is honoured by the Vincent Memorial Hospital, founded in that city in 1890 by popular subscription, and formally opened on the 6th of April 1891, by Bishop Phillips Brooks, as a hospital for wage-earning women and girls. VINCENT DE PAUL, ST (1576-1660), French divine, founder of the " Congregation of Priests of the Mission," usually known as Lazarites (?.».), was born on the 24th of April 1576 at Pouy, near Dax, in Gascogne, and was educated by the Franciscans at Dax and at Toulouse. He was ordained priest in 1600. Voyaging from Toulouse to Narbonne, he was captured by Barbary pirates, who took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave. He converted his third master, a renegade Italian, and escaped with him to Aigues-Mortes near Marseilles in June 1607. After short stays at Avignon and Rome, Vincent found his way to Paris, where he became favourably known to Monsieur (after- wards Cardinal) de Berulle, who was then founding the con- gregation of the French Oratory. At Beiulle's instance he became curate of Clichy near Paris (1611); but this charge he soon exchanged for the post of tutor to the count of Joigny at Folleville, in the diocese of Amiens, where his success in dealing with the spiritual needs of the peasants led to the " missions " with which his name is associated. In 1617 he accepted the curacy of Chatillon-les-Dombes (or sur-Chala- ronne), and here he received from the countess of Joigny the means by which he was enabled to found bis first " confreiie de charit6," an association of women who ministered to the poor and the sick. In 1619 Louis XIII. made him royal almoner of the galleys. Among the works of benevolence with which his name is associated are the establishment of a hospital for galley slaves at Marseilles, the institution of two establishments for foundlings at Paris, and the organization of the " Filles de la Charite," to supplement the work of the confrSries, whose members were mainly married women with domestic duties. He died at Paris on the 27th of September 1660, and was buried in the church of St Lazare. He was beatified by Benedict XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement XII. in 1737, his festival (duplex) being observed on the i9th of July. The Society of St Vincent de Paul was founded by Frederic Ozanam and others in 1833, "* reply to a charge brought by some free-thinking contemporaries that the church no longer had the strength to inaugurate a practical enterprise. In a variety of ways it does a great deal of social service similar VINCENT OF LERINS, ST- -VINE to that of gilds of help. Its administration has always been in the hands of laymen, and it works through local " conferences " or branches, the general council having been suspended because it declined to accept a cardinal as its official head. Lives by Maynard (4 vols., Paris, 1860); Bougaud (2 vols., Paris, 1891); E. de Broglie (sth edition, Paris, 1899); Letters (2 vols., Paris, 1882); A. Loth (Paris, 1880); H. Simard (Lyons, 1894). VINCENT OF LERINS, ST, or VINCENTIS LERINENSIS (d. c. A.D. 450), an ecclesiastical writer of the Western Church of whose personal history hardly anything is known, except that he was a native of Gaul, possibly brother of St Loup, bishop of Troyes, that he became a monk and priest at Lerinum, and that he died in or about 450. Lerinum (Lerins, off Cannes) had been made by Honoratus, afterwards bishop of Aries, the seat of a monastic community which produced a number of eminent churchmen, among them Hilary of Aries. The school did not produce an extensive literature, but it played an important part in resisting an exaggerated Augustinianism by reasserting the freedom of the will and the continued exist- ence of the divine image in human nature after the fall. As regards Vincent he himself tells us that only after long and sad experience of worldly turmoil did he betake himself to the haven of a religious life. In 434, three years after the council of Ephesus, he wrote the Commonitorium adversus profanas omnium haereticorum novitates, in which he ultimately aims at Augustine's doctrine of grace and predestination. In it he discusses the " notes " which distinguish Catholic truth from heresy, and (cap. 2) lays down and applies the famous threefold test of orthodoxy — quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est. It is very striking that in his appeal to tradition Vincent assigns no part to the bishops as such — apart from the council; he appeals to the ancient " teachers," not to any apostolic succession. His " semi-Pelagian " opposition to Augustine is dealt with by Prosper of Aquitania in his Pro Augustini doctrina responsiones ad capitula objectionum Vin- centiarnarium. It explains why the Commonitorium has reached us only in a mutilated form. The Commonitorium has been edited by Baluze (Paris, 1663, 1669 and 1684) and by Klupfel (Vienna, 1809). It also occurs in vol. 1. of Migne's Patrol. Ser. Lai. (18^6). A full summary is given in A. Harnack's History of Dogma, iii. 230 ff. See also F. H. Stanton, Place of Authority in Religion, pp. 167 ff.; A. Cooper-Marsdin, The School of Lerins (Rochester, 1905). VINCENT FERRER, ST (1355-1419), Spanish Dominican preacher, was born of respectable parentage at Valencia on the 23rd of January 1355. In February 1374 he took the Domini- can habit, and after spending some years in teaching, and in completing his theological studies, he was licensed to preach. He graduated as doctor of theology at Lerida in 1374, and his sermons in the cathedral of Valencia from 1385 onwards soon became famous. Cardinal Peter de Luna took him with him to Paris in 1391; and on his own election to the pontificate as antipope Benedict XIII. made Ferrer his confessor and master of the sacred palace. Finding, however, the ecclesiastical atmosphere of Avignon an uncongenial one, he in 1397 resumed his work as a preacher, and Spain, France, Italy, Germany and Great Britain and Ireland were successively visited by him; and in every case numerous conversions were the result of his eloquence, which is described as having been singularly power- ful and moving. In 1412 he was delegated by his native city to take part in the election of a successor to the vacant crown of Aragon; and in 1416 he received a special invitation to attend the council of Constance, where he supported the cause of the Flagellants (q.v.). He died at Vannes on the 5th of April 1419, and was canonized by Calixtus III. in 1455, his festival (duplex) being observed on the 5th of April. See A. Sorbelli, // trattato di S. Vincenzo Ferrer intorno al Grande Scisma d' Occidente (Bologna, 1906). VINCI, LEONARDO (1690-1730), Italian musical composer, was bom at Strongoli in Calabria in 1690 and educated at Naples under Gaetano Greco in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesu Cristo. He became known first by his comic operas in Neapolitan dialect in 1719; he also composed many serious operas. He was received into the Congregation of the Rosary at Formiello in 1728 and died by poisoning in 1730, not 1732, as is generally stated. His comic operas, of which Le Zite 'n Galera (1722) is the best, are full of life and spirit; in his serious operas, of which Didone Abbandonata (Rome, 1728) and Arlaserse (Rome, 1730) are the most notable, have an incisive vigour and directness of dramatic expression deservedly praised by Burney. The well-known air " Vo solcando," from Artaserse, is a good example of his style. VINDELICIA, in ancient geography, a country bounded on the S. by Raetia, on the N. by the Danube and the Vallum Hadriani, on the E. by the Oenus (Inn), on the W. by the territory of the Helvetii. It thus corresponded to the N.E. portion of Switzerland, the S.E. of Baden, and the S. of Wurt- temberg and Bavaria. Together with the neighbouring tribes it was subjugated by Tiberius in 15 B.C., and towards the end of the ist century A.D. was made part of Raetia (q.v.). Its chief town was Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg). Its in- habitants were probably of Celtic origin (cf. the recurrence of Vind- in other Celtic names — Vindobona, Vindonissa); some authorities, however, regard them as German. According to Dio Cassius (liv. 22) they were an agricultural people, and later writers (e.g. Isidorus, Origines, i. 4), describe the country as very fertile. VINDHYA, a range of mountains in Central India. It forms a well-marked, though not quite continuous, chain across India, separating the Ganges basin from the Deccan. Starting on the west in Gujarat, the Vindhyas cross Malwa and the central portions of India, until their easternmost spurs abut on the valley of the Ganges at Rajmahal. They thus roughly form the northern side of the triangle, of which the other two sides are the Eastern and Western Ghats. They have an elevation of 1500 to 4500 ft., nowhere exceeding 5000 ft. Geo- logically they give their name to the " Vindhyan formation," one of the recognized rock systems of India. In legendary tradition they formed the demarcating line between the Madya- desha or middle land of the Sanskrit invaders and the non- Aryan Deccan, and they are still largely inhabited by aboriginal races such as the Bhils. VINE. The grape-vine, botanically Vitis, is a genus of about thirty species, widespread in the north temperate zone, but richest in species in North America. The best known and longest cultivated species is the old-world grape-vine, Vitis vinifera; a variety of this, silvestris, occurs wild in the Medi- terranean region, spreading eastwards towards the Caucasus and northwards into southern Germany, and may be regarded as the parent of the cultivated vine. It is of interest to note that grape-stones have been found with mummies in Egyptian tombs of not later age than 3000 years. The seeds have the characteristics of those of V. vinifera, but show some very slight variations from the type of seed now prevalent. Among the Greeks in the time of Homer wine was in general use. The cultivation of the vine must also have been introduced into Italy at a very early period. In Virgil's time the varieties in cultivation seem to have been exceedingly numerous; and the varied methods of training and culture now in use in Italy are in many cases identical with those described by Columella and other Roman writers. Grape-stones have been found among the remains of Swiss and Italian lake dwellings of the Bronze period, and others in tufaceous volcanic deposits near Montpellier, not long before the historic era. The old-world species is also extensively cultivated in California, but the grape industry of the eastern United States has been developed from native species, chiefly V. Labrusca and V. aestivalis and their hybrids with V. vinifera. Some of the American varieties have been introduced into France and other countries infested with Phylloxera, to serve as stocks on which to graft the better kinds of European vines, because their roots, though perhaps equally subject to the attacks of the insects, do not suffer so much injury from them as the European species. VINE 93 The vine requires a high summer temperature and a pro- longed period in which to ripen its fruit. Where these are forthcoming, it can be profitably cultivated, even though the winter temperature be very low. Tchihatchef mentions that at Erivan in Russian Armenia the mean winter temperature is 7°-i C. and falls in January to -30° C., and at Bokhara the mean temperature of January is 4° C. and the minimum -22° C., and yet at both places the vine is grown with success. In the Alps it is profitably cultivated up to an altitude of 1870 ft., and in the north of Piedmont as high as 3180 ft. At the present time the limit of profitable cultivation in Europe passes from Brittany, lat. 47° 30', to beyond the Rhine by Liege and through Thuringia to Silesia in lat. 51° 55'. In former centuries vines were cultivated to the north of this region, as, for instance, in Holland, in Belgium largely, and in England, where they might still be grown. Indeed, experiments have been made in this direction near Cardiff in South Wales. The yield is satisfactory, and the wine made, the variety known as Camay noir, is described as being like still champagne. In the middle ages, owing to various causes, the better wines of France and Germany could not be obtained in England except at prohibitive prices; but when this state of things ceased, and foreign wine could be imported, the English con- sumers would no longer tolerate the inferior productions of their own vineyards. It is also probable that the English mixed sugar or honey with the wine and thus supplied artificially that sweetness which the English sun denied. It is a curious fact that at the present day much or even most of the wine of finest quality is made at or near to the northern limits of possible cultivation with profit. This circumstance is probably explained by the greater care and attention bestowed both on the cultivation of the vine and on the manufacture of the wine in northern countries than in those where the climate is more propitious. The relative inferiority of the wines made at the Cape of Good Hope and in Australia is partly due to variations of climate, the vine not yet having adapted itself to the new conditions, and partly to the deficient skill of the manufacturers. That such inferiority may be expected to disappear is suggested by the success of vine-culture in Madeira and the Canary Islands. The development of other species of Vitis, such as the curious succulent species of the Soudan and other parts of equatorial Africa, or the numerous kinds in India and Cochin China, is of course possible under suitable conditions; but it is obvious that an extremely long period must elapse before they can successfully compete with the product of many centuries. [See also generally the article WINE. For currants and raisins, both produced by varieties of the grape-vine, see the respective articles.] Apart from their economic value, vines are often cultivated for purely ornamental purposes, owing to the elegance of their foliage, the rich coloration they assume, the shade they afford, and their hardihood. Vines have woody climbing stems, with ahernate, entire or palmately lobed leaves, provided at the base with small stipules. Opposite some of these leaves springs a tendril, by aid of which the plant climbs. There are numerous transitional states between the ordinary form of tendril and the inflorescence. • The flowers are small, green and fragrant, and are arranged in dense clusters. Each has a small calyx in the form of a shallow rim, sometimes five-lobed or toothed; five petals, which cohere by their tips and form a cap or hood, which is pushed off when the stamens are ripe; and five free stamens, placed opposite the petals and springing from a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the ovary; each bears a two- celled anther. The anomalous position of the stamens in front of the petals is explained by the abortion or non-development of an outer row of stamens, indications of which are sometimes seen on the hyppgynous disk encircling the ovary. The ovary bears a sessile stigma and is more or less completely two-celled, with two erect ovules in each cell. This ripens into the berry and seed. The cultivated vine has usually hermaphrodite flowers; but as it occurs in a wild state, or as an escape from cultivation, the flowers manifest a tendency towards unisexuality : that is, one plant bears flowers with stamens only, or only the rudiments of the pistil, while on another plant the flowers are bisexual. Exclusively female flowers without stamens do not appear to have been observed. Seedling plants from the cultivated vines often produce unisexual flowers, thus reverting to the feral type. Perhaps the explanation of the fact that some of the cultivated varieties are, as gardeners say, " bad setters," — i.e. do not ripen their fruit owing to imperfect fertilization, — is to be sought in this natural tendency to dioecism. FIG. i. — Vine. 1. Foliage, tendril and inflorescence, reduced. 2. Flower after fall of petals, magnified. 3. Fruit, reduced. The conformation of the vine stem has elicited a vast amount of explanatory comment. The most generally accepted explanation is the " sympodial " one. According to this, the shoot of the vine is a " sympodium," consisting of a number of " podia " placed one over the other in longitudinal series. Each podium consists of a portion of the stem bearing one or more leaves, each with an axillary bud or buds, and terminating in a tendril or an inflorescence. In V. Lab- rusca there is a tendril opposite to each leaf, so that the podium bears only a single leaf. In other species there is a definite arrange- ment of the leaves, some with and others without tendrils opposite to them, the numerical order remaining constant or nearly so. These arrangements have doubtless some reference to climatic phenomena, continuity of growth being arrested by cold and pro- moted by warmth. In any case, it is obvious that these facts might be turned to practical ends in cultivation. A vine, for instance, that produces bunches of grapes at each joint is preferable to one in which there are several barren joints, as a larger quantity can be grown within a smaller area. The practice of pruning or " stopping " is, consciously or unconsciously, regulated by the mode of growth. The tendril or inflorescence, according to the views above explained, though in reality terminal, is bent to one side; hence it appears to be lateral and opposite to the leaf. While the tendril is thus diverted from its original direct course, the axillary bud of the leaf opposite the tendril begins a new podium, by lengthening into a shoot which assumes the direction the tendril had prior to its deflexion. This new podium, now in a direct line with its predecessor, produces leaves and ends in its turn in a tendril or inflorescence. A third podium succeeds the second, and so on. Other authorities explain the formation of the tendril and its anomalous position opposite to a leaf by supposing that the end of the stem bifurcates during growth, one division forming the shoot, the other the tendril or inflorescence. It is not possible within the limits at our command to specify the facts and arguments by which these theories are respectively supported. Practically the tendrils assist the plant in its native state to scramble over rocks or trees. As in the case of similar formations generally, they are endowed with a sensitiveness to touch which enables them to grasp and coil themselves round any suitable object which comes in their way, and thus to support the plant. The seeds or grape-stones are somewhat club-shaped, with a narrow neck-like portion beneath, which expands into a rounded and_ thickened portion above. On the inner or central side of the seed is a ridge bounded on either side by a shallow groove. This ridge indicates the point of union of the " raphe " or seed-stalk with the seed; it serves to distinguish the varieties of V. vinifera from those of other species. In endeavouring to trace the filiation and affinities cf the vine, the characters afforded by the seed are specially valuable, because they have not been wittingly interfered with by human agency. Characters derived from the size, colour or flavour of the berry are of less value for 94 VINE historical or genealogical purposes than those which are the outcome of purely natural conditions. The vine is hardy in Britain so far as regards its vegetation, but not hardy enough to bring its fruit to satisfactory maturity, so that for all practical purposes the vine must be regarded as a tender fruit. Planted against a wall or a building having a south aspect, or trained over a sunny roof, such sorts as the Black Cluster, Black Prince, Pitmaston White Cluster, Royal Muscadine, Sweetwater, &c., will ripen in the warmest English summers so as to be very pleasant eating; but in cold summers the fruit is not eatable in the raw state, and can only be converted into wine or vinegar. For outdoor culture the long-rod system is generally preferred. When the plant is grown under glass, the vine border should occupy the interior of the house and also extend outwards in the front, but it is best made by instalments of 5 or 6 ft. as fast as the previous portions become well rilled with roots, which may readily be done by packing up a turf wall at the extremity of the portion to be newly made; an exterior width of 15 ft. will be sufficient. If the soil beyond this is very unfavourable, the roots should be prevented from entering it by building a wall at the extreme edge of the border. Inside borders require frequent and thorough waterings. In well-drained localities the border may be partially below the ground level, but in damp situations it should be made on the surface; in either case the firm solid bottom should slope outwards towards an efficient drain. A good bottom may be formed by chalk rammed down close. On this should be laid at least a foot thick of coarse, hard, rubbly material, a layer of rough turf, grass side downwards, being spread over it to prevent the compost from working down. The soil itself, which should be 2\ or 3 ft. deep, never less than 2 ft., should consist of five parts rich turfy loam, one part old lime rubbish or broken bricks, including a little wood ashes or burnt earth (ballast), one part broken charcoal, and about one part of half -inch bones, the whole being thoroughly mixed, and kept dryish till used. It is well after the borders are completed to remove the top soil, in which no roots are to be found, every two or three years, and to replace it with a mixture of good loam, rotten manure, lime rubbish and bone meal, to the depth of 6 or 7 in. A mulch of half-decayed stable litter is useful to prevent loss of moisture in summer. Young vines raised from eyes, i.e. buds having about } in. wood above and I in. below, are generally preferred for planting. The eyes being selected from well-ripened shoots of the previous year are planted about the end ef January, singly, in small pots of light loamy compost, and after standing in a warm place for a few davs should be plunged in a propagating bed, having a bottom heat of 75°, which should be increased to 85° when they have produced several leaves, the atmosphere being kept at about the same temperature or higher by sun heat during the day, and at about 75° at night. As soon as roots are freely formed the plants must be shifted into 6-inch pots, and later on into 1 2-inch ones. The shoots are trained up near the glass, and, with plenty of heat (top and bottom) and of water, with air and light, and manure water occasionally, will form firm, strong, well-ripened canes in the course of the season. To pre- pare the vine for planting, it should be cut back to within 2 ft. of the pot early in the season, and only three or four of the eyes at the base should be allowed to grow on. The best time for planting is in spring, when the young shoots have just started. The vines should be planted inside the house, from I to 2 ft. from the front wall, and from 6 ft. to 8 ft. apart, the roots being placed an inch deeper in the soil than before, carefully disentangled and spread outwards from the stem, and covered carefully and firmly with friable loam, without manure. When the shoots are fairly developed, the two strongest are to be selected and trained in. When forcing is commenced, the vinery is shut up for two or three weeks without fire heat, the mean temperature ranging about 50°. Fire heat must be at first applied very gently, and may range about 55° at night, and from 65 to 70° by day, but a few degrees more may be given them as the buds break and the new snoots appear. When they are in flower, and onwards during the swelling of the berries, 85° may be taken as a maximum, running up to 00° with sun heat and the temperature may be lowered somewhat when the fruit is ripe. The temperature must, however, be regu- lated according to the variety, Muscats requiring a higher tempera- ture from the time their bunches show than Hamburghs. As much ventilation as the state of the weather will permit should be given. A moist growing atmosphere is necessary both for the swelling fruit and for maintaining the health of the foliage. A due amount of moisture may be kept up by the use of evaporating troughs and by syringing the walls and pathways two or three times a day, but the leaves should not be syringed. When the vines are in flower, and when the fruit is colouring, the evaporating troughs should be kept dry, but the aridity must not be excessive, lest the red spider and other pests should attack the leaves. In the course of the season the borders (inside) will require several thorough soakings of warm water — the first when the house is shut up, this being repeated when the vines have made young shoots a few inches long, again when the vines are in flower, and still again when the berries are taking the second swelling after stoning. Outside borders require watering in very dry summer weather only. There are three principal systems of pruning vines, termed the long-rod, the short-rod and the spur systems, and good crops have been obtained by each of them. It is admitted that larger bunches are generally obtained by the long-rod than by the spur system. The principle of this mode of pruning is to train in at considerable length, according to their strength, shoots of the last year's, growth for producing shoots to bear fruit in the present; these rods are afterwards cut away and replaced by young shoots trained up during the preceding summer; and these are in their turn cut out in the following autumn after bearing, and replaced by shoots of that summer's growth. By the short-rod system, short instead of long rods are retained; they are dealt with in a similar manner. The spur system has, however, become the most general. In this case the vines are usually planted so that one can be trained up under each rafter, or up the middle of the sash, the latter method being preferable. The shoots are cut back to buds close to the stem, which should be encouraged to form alternately at equal distances right and left, by removing those buds from the original shoot which are not conveniently placed. The young shoots from these buds are to be gently brought tc a horizontal position, by bending them a little at a time, and tied in, and usually opposite about the fourth leaf the rudiments of a bunch will be developed. The leaf directly opposite the bunch must in all cases be preserved, and the young shoot is to be topped at one or two joints beyond the incipient fruit, the latter distance being preferable if there is plenty of room for the foliage to expand ; the lateral shoots, which will push out after the topping, mu?t be pgain topped above their first or second joints. If the bunches are too numerous they must be thinned before the flowers expand, and the berries also must be properly thinned out and regulated as soon as they are well set, care being taken, in avoiding overcrowding, that the bunches be not made too thin and loose. The cultivation of vines in pots is very commonly practised with good results, and pot-vines are very useful to force for the earliest crop. The plants should be raised from eyes, and grown as strong as possible in the way already noted, in rich turfy loam mixed with about one-third of horse dung and a little bone dust. The tempera- ture should be gradually increased from 60° to 80°, or 90° by sun heat, and a bottom heat a few degrees higher must be maintained during their growth. As the roots require more room, the plants should be shifted from 3-inch pots into those of 6, 12 or 15 in. in diameter, in any of which larger sizes they may be fruited in the following season, but, to be successful in this, the young rod pro- duced must be thoroughly matured after it has reached its limit of growth. The periodical thorough cleansing of the vine stems and every part of the houses is of the utmost importance. The number of varieties of grapes possessing some merit is con- siderable, but a very few of them will be found sufficient to supply all the wants of the cultivator. For general purposes nothing approaches the Black Hamburgh (including Frankenthal) in merit. Fungoid Diseases. — The most destructive form of fungoid disease FIG. 2. 1. Vine leaf attacked by mildew, Uncinula necator (Erysiphe Tuck- eri), which forms white patches on the upper face, reduced. 2. Grapes similarly attacked. 3. Portion of the mycelium of the fungus bearing spores (conidia). s, on erect branches, X25O. 4. Perithecium or " fruit " of the fungus with its curled append- ages, Xioo. 5. Ascus from perithecium containing six spores, X3OO. which attacks the vine is caused by a mildew, Uncinula necator (Ery- siphe Tuckeri) (fig. 2). The disease was first noticed in England in VINE 95 1845; in 1848 it appeared at Versailles; by 1851 it had spread through all the wine-producing countries of Europe, being specially virulent in the lands bordering on the Mediterranean; and in the following year it made its appearance in Madeira. Like the Phyllo- xera (q.v. ; also WINE), the mildew is in its origin probably American. The disease is characterized by the appearance of a mycelium forming white or greyish- white patches on the young leaves; this spreads quickly and attacks the older leaves and branches, and ultimately reaches the grapes. At first these are marked only by small brown spots; but the spots spread and fuse together, the skin of the grape is destroyed, and the flesh decays, the seed only remaining apparently untouched. The disease spreads by the mycelium growing over the epidermis of the plant. The hyphae composing the mycelium are rovided with haustoria which project into the cells of the affected part (fig. 3). Some of the hyphae which project from the leaf bear spores (conidia), which are constricted off one at a time, and by their means the fungus is distributed (fig. 2, 3). The perithecia are only produced exceptionally in Europe, but this stage of the life-history is common in the United States and causes a widely spread disease among the American vines. The mildew is in its turn attacked by a fungus of the same tribe, Cicinnobolus Cesatii, which lives parasitically within the hyphae of its host, and at times even succeeds in de- stroying it. The means which have proved most efficacious, both as a remedy and a pre- ventive of this disease, is to scatter flowers of sulphur over the vines, before the morning clew has evaporated. An- other method is to boil one necator (Erysiphe Pfrt °f ,lime thr th"pid"m" America, is Plasmopara viticola, which has also been introduced from America to Europe. The mycelium spreads through the green parts of the plant, attacking the leaves, twigs and unripe grapes. On the upper side of the leaf, where it is first visible, it forms pale green irregular spots, which become darker in colour. On the under side of the leaf these patches are white and are composed of the spore-bearing hyphae. The leaf ultimately becomes dried up and brittle. The grapes which are attacked cease to grow, turn brown or white, and ulti- mately dry up and fall off. This disease has been successfully treated with a spray of copper sulphate and lime, or sulphate of iron ; solutions of these salts prevent the conidia from germinating. Anthracnose is the name usually given to a disease which was formerly known as " charbon," " pech " or " brenner." This disease is caused by the parasitism of Sphateloma ampelinum, one of the Pyrenomycetous fungi (fig. 4). The fungus assails all the green parts of the vine, and injures the leaves and young shoots as much as it does the grape itself. The first sign of its presence is the appearance of a minute spot, which is greyish in the centre, with a brown border. This spot increases in size; in the stalks it assumes an oval shape, with its long axis parallel to the stalk, whilst in the leaves and grapes it is more or less circular in outline. The centre of the spots on the grapes becomes darker as the disease advances, and a red line appears dividing the dark brown border into an outer and an inner rim and giving a very characteristic appearance to the diseased plant. The surrounding tissue enlarges, so that the spots, appear as if sunk in depressions, and bear a considerable resemblance to hailstone wounds. Later the spots on the leaves often drop out. The berries do not shrivel up as those do that are affected by the black rot. The mycelium of Sphace- loma grows just beneath the cuticle of the vine, through which it soon bursts, giving rise to a number of minute hyphae, which bear conidia. These are minute, oval, colourless spores, which serve to spread the disease over the vineyard and from place to place. The com- plete life-history of this form is at present unknown ; _ and informa- tion as to where the fungus passes the winter, and in what form, would probably afford some useful indications as to the method that should be adopted to combat the disease. Anthracnose has been known in Europe for many years, but has only been observed in America since 1 88 1, whither it was probably imported from the old world. As a preventive to its attacks the copper sulphate sprays and a solution (50%) of iron sulphate have been found very useful, as well as care in planting on well-drained soil that does not lie too low, the disease seldom appearing in dry, well-exposed vine- yards. A great deal of confusion still exists with regard to this disease. A similar disease which of late has frequently been found in England, and which is ascribed to the fungus Gloeosporium ampelophagum, is very similar to it. In their mode of attack, in the symptoms they produce, and in the result upon the grapes and the vine the two fungi are so much alike that for practical purposes they may be regarded as identical. Massee recom- mends that the shoots should be dredged with flowers of sulphur at intervals of ten days, while the disease continues to spread, a small quantity of quicklime in a finely powdered con- FIG. 4. — Charbon or Anthracnose of Vine, caused by Sphace- loma ampelinum. 1 . Portion of twig with discoloured patches, caused by the fun- gus. 2. Fruit attacked by the fungus(reduced). FIG. 5. — Black Rot of Grapes, Cuignardia Bidwellii. 1. Grapes attacked by the fun- gus; the fruit becomes black, hard and shrivelled. 2. Fructification of the fungus, entire and in section ; the latter shows the asci containing as- cospores, much enlarged. 3. Single ascus, more enlarged, showing the eight contained spores. dition being added and the quantity of lime being increased at every application, not so as to exceed the sulphur, however. The iron sulphate solution should be used while the vines are in a dormant condition, and diseased parts should be cleared away and burned. The black rot, like the Uncinula and Plasmopara, is also American in its origin. It has been known and ob- served there since 1848, but appeared for the first time in France in 1885. The disease is caused by a fungus, Cuignardia Bidwellii (fig. 5) (Phoma uvicola), one of the Pyrenomycetes, and by some authorities it has been considered to be a further stage in the life-history of Sphaceloma ampelinum. The fungus is most conspicuous on the grapes, but the leaves and stems B From Hartig's Lekrbuch der Pjiamenkrinkkriltn, by permission of Julius Springer. FIG. 6. — Rosellinia (Dematophora) necatrix. A. Mycelium of the fungus attacking root of vine (reduced). B. Portion of vine root, showing masses of fructification (perithecia) of the fungus (reduced). are also affected. The grapes are not assailed until nearly full-grown, when a brownish spot appears, which spreads over the 96 VINEGAR— VINELAND whole grape. The latter for a time retains its plumpness, but on the appearance of little black pustules, which first occur on the part primarily affected, the grape begins to shrivel. This continues until the grape is reduced to a black hard mass, with the folds of skin pressed closely against the seed. The disease spreads from grape to grape, so that as a rule many of the grapes in a bunch are destroyed. The hyphae of the mycelium of this fungus are septate,, with numerous short branches. The pustules on the sur- face are due to fructifications, pycnidia and spermagonia. The fungus passes the winter in the withered grapes which fall to the ground, and on these the mature form of the fungus (fig. 5, 2 and 3) is produced ; hence every care should be taken to collect these and burn them. The use of the copper solutions mentioned above may also be recommended as a preventive. Among the other fungi which infest the vine may be mentioned PhyUosticta viticola and Ph. Labruscae, which, when the attack is severe, cause the destruction of the leaves, the only part they assail. These, like the foregoing, are members of the Pyrenomycetes, while many other allied fungi have been described as causing spots on the leaves. Cercospora Vitis (Cladosporium viticolum), which has club-shaped spores of a green-brown colour, also attacks the leaves; but, unless the season is extremely unfavourable, it does little harm. A very disastrous root-disease of the vine is due to the rav- ages of another pyrenomycetous fungus, Rosellinia (Dematophora) necatrix (fig. 6), which forms subterranean strings of mycelium — so-called rhizomorphs. The diseased roots have been confounded with those attacked by Phylloxera. The only mode of combating the malady seems to be to uproot the plants and burn them. Isola- tion of the diseased areas by means of trenches has also been prac- tised. VINEGAR, a dilute solution of impure acetic acid, prepared by the acetous fermentation of alcohol or of substances which yield alcohol when suitably decomposed (ordinary vinegar), or obtained from the products resulting on the dry distillation of wood (wood vinegar). Ordinary or table vinegars, which contain, in addition to acetic acid, small quantities of alcohol, higher acids such as tartaric and succinic, various esters, albu- minous substances, &c., are produced solely by acetous fer- mentation, wood vinegar being only employed in certain arts. Ordinary vinegar has been known from the earliest times, and its power of combining with or dissolving mineral substances caused the alchemists to investigate its preparation and pro- perties. They failed, however, to obtain pure acetic acid, although by distillation they prepared more concentrated solu- tions (spiritus Veneris). In 1697 Stahl showed that vinegar could be concentrated by freezing out part of the water, and, better, in 1702, by neutralizing the acid with an alkali and dis- tilling the salt with oil of vitriol. A notable improvement was made in 1 789 by Lowitz, who showed that the dilute acid could be concentrated by repeatedly passing it over charcoal powder, and by cooling he obtained a crystalline substance named in 1777 by Durande, "glacial acetic acid." The presence of an acid substance in the products of the dry distillation of wood was mentioned by Glauber in 1648 and received the name of pyroligneous acid. Its identity with acetic acid was demon- strated by Vauquelin in 1800. The mechanism of acetous fermentation is described under FERMENTATION; here we only treat of the actual processes. There are two methods in use: the " quick " process, proposed in 1720 by Boerhaave and introduced by Schutzenbach in 1823 (analogous processes were proposed at about the same time by Wagmann in Germany and by Ham in England), and the older or " slow " process. In the " quick " process advantage is taken of the fact that the fermentation proceeds more quickly when a large surface of the liquid is exposed to air. Any alcoholic liquid can be treated. The apparatus consists essentially of a vat divided into three portions : the lowest, which is separated from the one above by a grid or false bottom, serves for the collection of the vinegar; the central portion, which is by far the largest, is the chamber wherein the fermentation is effected ; and it is separated from the topmost section by a disk perforated with holes about the size of quills through which thin strings lead into the upper part of the central section. The purpose of this disk is to subdivide the liquid placed upon it into drops so as to increase the surface of the liquid. The sides of the vat enclosing the lowest portion are provided with a ring of holes to admit air to the tub ; and the vat is enclosed with a tightly fitting lid perforated by a hole through which the liquor to be fermented is admitted and the air drawn upwards from the base escapes. The central chamber is filled with some material of large surface. The commonest are beech-wood shavings, which, before use, must be carefully freed from all extractives by washing and steaming, then dried, and finally soured by immersion in hot vinegar for twenty-four hours. The fermented wort, prepared in various ways and of varying com- position, or wine, is warmed to about 38° C. and then fed into the upper chamber. Falling on to the shavings, the surface is largely in- creased, and the fermentation which ensues maintains the tempera- ture at about 37°, and draws a current of air upwards through the shavings, which after a time become covered with the so-called mother of vinegar. If the liquid contains only 4% of alcohol, it is completely converted into acetic acid, but stronger liquors require ' to be passed through the vat three or four times. Some of the alcohol (and consequently some acetic acid) is carried away by the air which escapes to the top of the vat; this is avoided in some factories by leading the air over or into water, whereby the alcohol and aldehyde are recovered. The same is effected in Singer's generators, which are coupled together in tiers. For making wine-vinegar by the slow process, full-bodied wines about one year old and containing 10% of alcohol (this amount being obtained, when necessary, by blending) are preferred; and they are clarified by standing with beech shavings upon which the lees deposit. The fermentation is carried out in casks holding from 50 to 100 gallons ; these casks are repeatedly extracted with water in order to prevent any impurity finding its way into the vinegar; also it is found that the casks foul after about six years' use, when it is necessary to remove the deposits of argol, yeast sediments, &c., and re-extract with water, after which they are again fit for use. In conducting the fermentation the cask is one-third filled with boiling strong vinegar and allowed to stand for eight days. Nine pints of the wine are now added every day until the cask is two- thirds full, and the mixture is allowed to stand for fourteen days. After this interval from 10 gallons to half the contents of the cask are drawn off, and more wine added. The working temperature is about 25°. The progress of the operation is shown by the white froth which appears on a spatula after immersion in the liquid; if it be reddish, more wine must be added. In certain parts of France, Holland and of the Rhine district a different procedure is adopted. Two casks, fitted with false bottoms on which are placed vine cuttings, are taken ; one cask is completely filled with the wine, whilst the other is only half filled. The acetification proceeds more rapidly in the second cask, and after twenty-four hours half the contents of the first cask are transferred to it, and the process repeated. The product is settled in casks containing birch wood, and after fourteen days it is put upon the market. In preparing malt vinegar, an infusion of malt is prepared by extracting it with water at 72°, then at a higher temperature and finally at the boiling-point. After cooling the extracts are fer- mented with yeast, and the product kept for some months before acetification. This step can be effected by the quick process as described above, or by the slow process. In the latter the liquid at 25° is transferred to barrels lying on their sides and the fermentation allowed to proceed. When the process is complete the product is filtered through rapes in a fining tun. This is a cask fitted with a false bottom in which are placed spent tanner's wood, shavings, or, better, the pressed stalks and skins of grapes and raisins from wine manufacture. Household vinegar is made in upright casks; after twenty-four hours it is transferred to a similar cask, and the process repeated in a third and fourth cask. Malt vinegar is sold in four strengths designated 18, 20, 22, 24, the last being " proof " vinegar, containing 6% of acetic acid and having a specific gravity of 1-019. These numbers represent the grains of dry pure sodium carbonate, which are neutralized by one fluid ounce of the vinegar. Several other vinegars are made. Crystal vinegar is ordinary vinegar decolorized by treatment with animal charcoal. Ale vinegar is prepared from strong sour pale ale; it has a tendency to putrefy. Glucose or sugar vinegar is made by first fermenting amylaceous substances to alcohol, and then acetifying the alcohol. Compound table vinegars are made by digesting ordinary vinegar with condiments such as pepper, garlic, capers, &c. ; whilst aromatic vinegars popularly used in vinaigrettes on account of their refreshing, stimulating pungency are obtained by distilling ordinary vinegar with plants, perfumes and aromatic substances. Medicinal vinegars are prepared either by digestion or distillation of vinegar with various drugs. Vinegar, however, is not now much used in medicine, although occasionally taken, under a false impression, in order to reduce obesity. Wood vinegar is not used in cooking, as it lacks those substances which render ordinary vinegar palatable. It is largely manu- factured for conversion into pure acetic acid and acetom ; and also for use as an antiseptic and wood preservative. (See ACETIC ACID.) VINELAND, a borough of Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the southern part of the state, about 34 m. S. of Philadelphia and about 115 m. S.W. of New York. Pop. (1890) 3822; (1900) 4370, including 590 foreign-born; (1905 state census) 4593; (1910)5282. Area, i sq. m. It is served by the Central of New Jersey and the West Jersey & Seashore railways, and by electric railway to Millville and Bridgeton. Vineland is situated at an altitude of 90-118 ft. above the sea, on a VINER— VINGT-ET-UN 97 generally level or slightly undulating plain, and has unusually broad, straight and well-shaded streets. The borough main- tains a public library, a public park of 40 acres, artesian water- works, a sewerage system and an electric lighting plant. It is the seat of the New Jersey Training School for Feeble- Minded Girls and Boys (1888), the State Home for the Care and Training of Feeble-Minded Women (1888), and the State Home for Disabled Soldiers, Sailors, Marines and their Wives. The Vineland Historical and Antiquarian Society (organized in 1864) has a library (8000 volumes in 1509) housed in the Society's building, and it maintains a free lecture course. Saloons for the sale of intoxicating liquors have never been allowed in Vineland. The surrounding country is largely de- voted to the growing of small fruits, grapes, peaches, pears and apples, and the raising of sweet potatoes; and within the borough are manufactured unfermented grape juice wine, boots and shoes, clothing, carpets, rugs, chenille curtains, pearl buttons, flint-glass tubes and bottles, and iron castings. Vineland was founded in 1861 by Charles K. Landis (1835- 1900), who conceived the idea of creating a settlement in the almost uninhabited " Pines " of Southern New Jersey; and after purchasing a large tract he laid out a village with small farms adjoining. The settlers, largely from New England and the Middle States, received the land at moderate prices on agreeing to make certain stipulated improvements. The township of Landis (pop. in 1910, 6435), named in honour of the founder of the settlement, was incorporated in 1864, having formerly been a part of Millville; from it Vineland was separated and was incorporated as a borough in 1880. See The Founder's Own Story of the Founding of Vineland (Vineland, 1903), a pamphlet published by the Vineland Historical and Antiquarian Society. VINER, SIR ROBERT (1631-1688), lord mayor of London, was born in Warwick, but migrated in early life to London, where he was apprenticed to his uncle, Sir Thomas Viner (1558- 1665), a goldsmith, who was lord mayor of London in 1653-54, and who was created a baronet in 1661. Soon Robert became a partner in his kinsman's business, and in 1666 an alderman of the city of London; in 1665 he was made a knight, and in the following year a baronet. He was sheriff during the year of the great fire in London, and was chosen lord mayor in 1674. Combining like his uncle the business of a banker with that of a goldsmith, Viner was brought much into contact with Charles II. and with the court. The king attended his mayoral banquet, and the lord mayor erected an equestrian statue in his honour on a spot now covered by the Mansion House. Having been appointed the king's goldsmith in 1661, Sir Robert was one of those who lent large sums of money for the expenses of the state and the extravagances of the court; over £400,0500 was owing to him when the national exchequer suspended payment in 1672, and he was reduced to the necessity of com- pounding with his creditors. He obtained from the state an annuity of £25,000. Viner died at Windsor on the 2nd of September 1688. See Viner: a Family History, published anonymously (1885). VINET, ALEXANDRE RODOLPHE (1797-1847), French critic and theologian, of Swiss birth, was born near Lausanne on the i7th of June 1797. He was educated for the Protestant ministry, being ordained in 1819, when already teacher of the French language and literature in the gymnasium at Basel; and during the whole of his life he was as much a critic as a theologian. His literary criticism brought him into contact with Sainte-Beuve, for whom he procured an invitation to lecture at Lausanne, which led to his famous work on Port- Royal. Vinet's Chrestomathic franqaise (1829), his Etudes sur la litter ature franfaise au XIX*" siecle (1849-51), and his Hiitoire de la littirature franfaise au X VIII1" siecle, together with his Etudes sur Pascal, Etudes sur les moralistes aux X VI"* et XVII"" siecles, Histoire de la predication parmi les Reformts de France and other kindred works, gave evidence of a wide knowledge of literature, a sober and acute literary judgment and a distinguished faculty of appreciation. He adjusted his xxvni. 4 theories to the work under review, and condemned nothing so long as it was good work according to the writer's own standard. His criticism had the singular advantage of being in some sort foreign, without the disadvantage which attaches in French eyes to all criticism of things French written in a foreign language. As theologian he gave a fresh impulse to Protestant theology, especially in French-speaking lands, but also in England and elsewhere. Lord Acton classed him with Rothe. He built all on conscience, as that wherein man stands in direct per- sonal relation with God as moral sovereign, and the seat of a moral individuality which nothing can rightly infringe. Hence he advocated complete freedom of religious belief, and to this end the formal separation ->f church and state (Memoire en faveur de la libertt des cultes (1826), Essai sur la conscience (1829), Essai sur la manifestation des convictions religieuses (1842). Accordingly, when in 1845 the civil power in the canton of Vaud interfered with the church's autonomy, he led a secession which took the name of L'Eglise libre. But already from 1831, when he published his Discours sur quelques sujels religieux (Nouveaux discours, 1841), he had begun to exert a liberalizing and deepening influence on religious thought far beyond his own canton, by bringing traditional doctrine to the test of a living personal experience (see also FROMMEL, GASTON). In this he resembled F. W. Robertson, as also in the change which he introduced into pulpit style and in the permanence of his influence. Vinet died on the 4th of May 1847 at Clarens (Vaud). A considerable part of his works was not printed till after his death. His life was written in 1875 by Eugene Rambert, who re-edited the Chrestomathie in 1876. See also L. M. Lane, Life and Writings of A. Vinet (1800); L. Molines, Etude sur Alexandre Vinet (Paris, 1890) ; V. Rossel, Hist, de la litt. franfaise hers de France (Lausanne, 1895); V. Rivet, Etudes sur les orieines de la pensee religieuse de Vinet (Paris, 1896) ; A. Schumann, Alex. Vinet (1907). A uniform edition of his works was begun in 1908, see Revue de theologie et philosophic (Lausanne, 1908, 234 sqq.). (J. V. B.) VINGT-ET-UN (colloquially, " Van John "), a round game of cards, at which any number of persons may play, though five or six are enough. The right to deal having been decided, the dealer gives one card face downwards to each person, in- cluding himself. The others thereupon look at their cards and declare their stakes — one, two, three or more counters or chips — according to the value of their cards. When all have staked, the dealer looks at his own card and can double all stakes if he chooses. The amount of the original stake should be set by each player opposite his card. Another card is ther dealt, face downwards, all round; each player looking at bis own. The object of the game is to make 21, by the pips or. the cards, an ace counting as i or u, and the court cards as 10 each. Hence a player who receives an ace and a ten-card scores 21 at once. This is called a "natural"; the holder receives twice — sometimes thrice — the stake or the doubled stake. If the dealer has a natural too, the usual rule is that the other natural pays nothing, in spite of the rule of " ties pay the dealer." The deal passes to the player who turns up the natural, unless it occurs in the first round of a deal or the dealer has a natural too. If the dealer has not a natural, he asks each player in turn, beginning with the player on his left, if he wishes for another card or cards, the object still being to get to 21, or as near up to it as possible. The additional cards are given him one by one, face upwards, though the original cards are not exposed. If he requires no additional card, or when he has drawn sufficient, he says, " Content," or " I stand." If a player overdraws, i.e. if his cards count more than 21, he pays the dealer at once. When all are either overdrawn or content, the dealer may "stand" on his own hand, or draw cards, till he is overdrawn or stands. All the hands are then shown, the dealer paying those players whose cards are nearer to 21 than his own, and receiving from all the others, as " ties pay the dealer." If the dealer's cards, with the additions, make exactly 21, he receives double the stake, or doubled stake; if a player holds 2 1 , he receives double likewise, but ties still pay the dealer. If a player receives two 98 VINITA— VINLAND similar cards he may put his stake on each and draw on them separately, receiving or paying according as he stands success- fully or overdraws, but the two cards must be similar, i.e. he cannot draw on both a knave and a queen, or a king and a ten, though their values are equal for the purpose of counting. A natural drawn in this way, however, only counts as 21, and does not turn out the dealer. Similarly a player may draw on three cards, or even four, should they be dealt him. A player who overdraws on one of such cards must declare and pay immediately, even though he stands on another. After a hand is played, the " pone " (Latin for " behind ") — the player on the dealer's right — collects and shuffles the cards played, the dealer dealing from the remainder of the pack, till it is exhausted, when he takes the cards the pone holds, after the pone has cut them. It is a great advantage to deal, as the dealer receives from all who have already withdrawn, even if he overdraws himself. French Vingt-et-un, or vingt-et-un with variations, is played by any number of persons. The first deal is played as in the ordinary game. In the second (" Imaginary Tens ) each player is supposed to hold a ten-card and receives one card from the dealer, face down- wards; he is then considered to hold a ten-card plus the one dealt, and stands or draws, receives or pays, as in the ordinary game. If he receives an ace he holds a natural. In the third deal (" Blind Vingt-et-un ") each player receives two cards, and draws or stands without looking at either. The fourth deal is " Sympathy and Antipathy," each player staking, and declaring which of the two he backs : two cards are then dealt to him : if they are of the same colour, it is "sympathy"; if of different colours, "antipathy." At the fourth deal (Rouge-et-noir), each player, having received three cards, bets that the majority will be either black or red, as he chooses. In " Self and Company " every one stakes but the dealer, who then sets out two cards, face upwards, one for himself and one for the players. If the two cards are pairs, the dealer wins; if not, he deals till one of the cards exposed is paired, paying or receiving according as that card belongs to himself or the " company." The seventh deal is " Paying the difference." Each player receives two cards, face upwards. The dealer pays or receives a stake for the difference in number between the pips on his own cards and those of each player. The ace counts as one. The eighth deal is " Clock." The stakes are pooled. The dealer deals the cards out, face upwards, calling " one " for the first, " two " for the second, and so on, the knave being n, queen 12, and king 13. If any of the cards dealt correspond to the number called, the dealer takes the pool ; if none correspond, he forfeits that amount. At the end of this (the eighth) deal, the next player deals. VINITA, a city and the county-seat of Craig county, Okla- homa, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 135 m. E.N.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 2339; (1907) 3157, including 624 Indians and 479 negroes; (1910) 4082. Vinita is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the St Louis & San Francisco railways. In the city are the Sacred Heart Institute (Roman Catholic), and a hospital for masons. Vinita is situated in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and lead, zinc, oil and natural gas are found in the vicinity; the city's water supply is obtained from artesian wells. Bricks are manufactured. The first settlement was made here in 1870 and Vinita was chartered as a city in 1898. VINLAND (Old Norse, V inland, i.e. Vineland or Wineland), some region on the eastern coast of North America, visited and named by the Norsemen in the beginning of the nth century. The word first appeared in print in Adam of Bremen's De- scriptio Insularum Aquilonis, an appendix to his Gesta Hamma- burgcnsis Ecclesiae Pontificum, published by Lindenbrog in 1595. In pursuit of historical study, Adam visited the Danish court during the reign of the well-informed monarch Svend Estridsson (1047-1076), and writes that the king " spoke of an island (or country) in that ocean discovered by many, which is called Vinland, because of the wild grapes [vites] that grow there, out of which a very good wine can be made. Moreover, that grain unsown grows there abundantly [fruges ibi non seminatas abundare] is not a fabulous fancy, but is based on trustworthy accounts of the Danes." This passage offers im- portant corroboration of the Icelandic accounts of the Vinland voyages, and is, furthermore, interesting " as the only un- doubted reference to Vinland in a medieval book written be- yond the limits of the Scandinavian world " (Fiske). Adam's information concerning Vinland did not, however, impress his medieval readers, as he placed the new land somewhere in the Arctic regions: " All those regions which are beyond are filled with insupportable ice and boundless gloom." These words show the futility of ascribing to Adam's account Columbus's knowledge of lands in the West, as many overzealous advocates of the Norse discoveries have done. The importance of the information, meagre as it is, lies in the fact that Adam received from the lips of kinsmen of the explorers (as the Danes in a sense were) certain characteristic facts (the finding of grapes and unsown grain) that support the general reliability of the Icelandic sagas which tell of the Vinland voyages (in which these same facts are prominent), but which were not put into writing by the Norsemen until later — just how much later it is not possible to determine. The fact that the Icelandic sagas concerning Vinland are not contemporaneous written records has caused them to be viewed by many with suspicion; hence such a significant allusion as that by Adam of Bremen is not to be overlooked. To the student of the Norse sources, Adam's reference is not so important, as the internal evidence of the sagas is such as to give easy credence to them as records of exploration in regions previously unknown to civilization. The contact with savages would alone prove that. During the middle ages the Scandinavians were the first to revive geographical science and to practise pelagic navigation. For six centuries previous to about 800, European interest in practical geographical expansion was at a standstill. During the 6th and 7th centuries, Irish anchorites, in their " passion for solitude," found their way to the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shet- lands, Faroes and Iceland, but they were not interested in colonization or geographical knowledge. The discovery of new lands in the West by the Norsemen came in the course of the great Scandinavian exodus of the 9th, loth and nth centuries — the Viking Age — when Norsemen, Swedes and Danes swarmed over all Europe, conquering kingdoms and founding colonies. The main stream of Norsemen took a westerly course, striking Great Britain, Ireland and the Western Isles, and ultimately reached Iceland (in 874), Greenland (in 985) and Vinland (in loco). This western migration was due mainly to political dissatisfaction in Norway, doubtless augmented by a restless spirit of adventure. The chiefs and their followers that settled Iceland were " picked men," the flower of the land, and sought a new home from other motives than want or gain. They sought political freedom. In Iceland they lived active, not to say tumultuous, lives, and left fine literary records of their doings and achievements. The Icelandic colony was an interesting forerunner of the American republic, having a prosperous population living under a republican government, and main- taining an independent national spirit for nearly four centuries. Geographically Iceland belongs to America, and its coloniza- tion meant, sooner or later, the rinding of other lands to the West. A century later Greenland was peopled from Iceland, and a colony existed for over four hundred years, when it was snuffed out, doubtless by hostile Eskimos. Icelandic records, among them the Vinland sagas, also a Norwegian work of the 1 3th century, called Speculum regale (The King's Mirror), and some papal letters, give interesting glimpses of the life of this colony. It was from the young Greenland colony that an attempt was made to establish a new outpost in Vinland, but plans for permanent settlement were given up on account of the hostility of the natives, with whom the settlers felt powerless to grapple. Gunpowder had not yet been invented. Icelandic literature consists mainly of the so-called " sagas," or prose narratives, and is rich in historical lore. In the case of the Vinland sagas, however, there are two independent narra- tives of the same events, which clash in the record of details. Modern investigators have been interested in establishing the superiority of one over the other of the two narratives. One of them is the " Saga of Eric the Red " as found in the collection known as Hauk's Book, so called because the manuscript was made by Hauk Erlendsson, an Icelander who spent much of his life in Norway. It was copied, in part by Hauk himself, between VINLAND 99 the years 1305 and 1334, the date of his death, and probably during the period 1310-20. It is No. 544 of the Ame- Magnaean collection in Copenhagen. Another manuscript that tells the same story, with only verbal variations, is found in No. 557 of the same collection. This manuscript was made later than Hauk's, probably in the early part of the isth century, but it is not a copy of Hauk's. Both were made independently from earlier manuscripts. The story as found in these two manuscripts has been pronounced by competent critics, especi- ally Professor Gustav Storm of the university of Christiania, as the best and the most trustworthy record. The other saga, which by chance came to be looked upon as the chief repository of facts concerning the Vinland voyages, is found in a large Icelandic work known as the Flatey Book, as it was once owned by a man who lived on Flat Island (Flatey), on the north-western coast of Iceland. This collection of sagas, completed in about 1380, is " the most extensive and most perfect of Icelandic manuscripts," and was sent to Denmark in 1662 as a gift to the king. It was evidently the general ex- cellence of this collection that gave the version of the Vinland story that it contained precedence, in the works of early investi- gators, over the Vinland story of Hauk's Book. (Reeves's Finding of Wineland contains fine photographs of all the vellum pages that give the various Vinland narratives.) According to Flatey Book saga, Biarni Heriulfsson, on a voyage from Iceland to Greenland in the early days of the Greenland colony, was driven out of his course and sighted new lands to the south-west. He did not go ashore (which seems strange), but sailed northward to Greenland. Fifteen years later-, according to this account, Leif Ericsson set out from Greenland in search of the lands that Biarni had seen, found them and named them — Helluland (Flat-stone-land), Markland (Forestland) and Vinland. After his return to Greenland, several successive expeditions visited the new lands, none of which (strangely enough) experienced any difficulty in finding Leif's hut in the distant Vinland. According to the Vinland saga in Hauk's Book, Leif Ericsson, whose father, Eric the Red, had discovered and colonized Green- land, set out on a voyage, in 999, to visit Norway, the native land of his father. He visited the famous King Olaf Tryggvason, who reigned from 995 to 1000, and was bending his energies toward Christianizing Norway and Iceland. He immediately saw in Leif a likely aid in the conversion of the Greenlanders. Leif was converted and consented to become the king's emissary to Greenland, and the next year (1000) started on his return voyage. The saga says that he was " tossed about " on this long voyage, and came upon an unknown country, where he found " self- sown wheatfields, and vines," and also some trees called " mosur," of which he took specimens. Upon his arrival in Greenland, Leif presented the message of King Olaf, and seems to have attempted no further expeditions. But his visits to the new lands aroused much interest, and his brother Thorstein made an unsuccessful attempt to find them. Later, in 1003, an Icelander, Thorfinn Karlsefni, who was visiting the Greenland colony, and who had married Gudrid, the widow of Leif's brother Thorstein, set out with four vessels and 160 followers to found a colony in the new lands. Here they remained three years, during which time a son, Snorri, was born to Thorfinn and Gudrid. This expedition, too, found " grapes and self-sown wheat," though seemingly not in any great abundance. Concerning the southern- most region of Vinland, the saga says: "They found self-sown wheatfields in the lowlands, but vines everywhere on higher places. . . . There were great numbers of wild animals in the woods." Then the saga relates that one morning a large number of men in skin canoes came paddling toward them and landed, staring curiously at them: " They were swarthy men and ill-looking, and the hair of their heads was ugly; they had large eyes and broad cheeks." Later the saga says: "No snow came there, and all of their live stock lived by grazing, and thrived." The natives appeared again the next spring, and a clash occurred. Fearing continued trouble with them, Karlsefni resolved to return to Greenland. This he did a year later, and spent the winter of 1006-7 there, whereupon he settled in Iceland. From him and Gudrid a number of prominent ecclesiastics claimed descent, and also Hauk Erlendsson. The Vinland story was doubtless a cherished family possession, and was put into writing, when writing sagas, instead of telling them, came into fashion. And here it is important to remember that before the age of writing in Iceland there was a saga-telling age, a most remarkable period of intellectual activity, by the aid of which the deeds and events of the seething life of the heroic age was carried over into the age of writing. " Among the medieval literatures of Europe, that of Iceland is unrivalled in the profusion of detail with which the facts of ordinary life are recorded, and the clearness with which the individual characters of numberless real persons stand out from the historic back- ground " (Origines Islandicae). Icelandic literary history says that An the Learned (bom in 1067) was " the first man in this land who wrote in the Norse tongue history relating to times ancient and modern." Among his works is the Book of Settlements, " a work of thorough and painstaking research unequalled in medieval literature " (Fiske). His work The Book of Icelanders is unfortunately lost, but an abridgment of it, Libellus Islandorum, made by An himself, contains a significant reference to Vinland. It tells that the colonists in Greenland found " both broken cayaks (canoes) and stone implements, whereby it may be seen that the same kind of folk had been there as they which inhabited Vinland, and whom the men of Greenland (i.e. the explorers) called the ' skraelings ' (i.e. inferior people)." From this allusion one cannot but think that so keen and alert a writer as An had given some attention to Vinland in the lost work. But of this there is no other proof. We are left to affirm, on account of definite references in various sagas and annals to Leif Ericsson and the discovery of Vinland, that the saga as preserved in Hauk's Book (and also in No. 557) rested on a strong viva voce tradition that was early put into writing by a competent hand. Dr Finnur Jonsson of Copenhagen says: "The classic form of the saga and its vivid and excellent tradition surely carry it back to about 1200." This conservative opinion does not preclude the possi- bility, or even probability, that written accounts of the Vinland voyages existed before this date. Vigfusson, in speaking of the sagas in general, says: " We believe that when once the first saga was written down, the others were in quick succession committed to parchment, some still keeping their form through a succession of copies, other changed. . . . That which was not written down quickly, in due time, was lost and forgotten for ever." The fact that there are discrepancies between the two ver- sions as they appear in the Hauk's Book and in the Flatey Book does not justify the overthrow of both as historical evidence. The general truth of the tradition is strengthened by the fact that it has come down from two independent sources. One of them must be the better, however, and this it is the province of competent scholars to determine. The best modern scholarship gives the precedence to the Hauk's Book narrative, as it harmonizes better with well-established facts of Scandinavian history, and is besides a more plausible account. In accordance with this decision, Biarni Heriulfson's adventure should be eliminated, the priority of discovery given to Leif Ericsson, and the honour of being the first European colonists on the American continent awarded to Thorfinn Karlsefni and his followers. This was evidently the only real attempt at colonization, despite the numerous contentions to the contrary. Under date of 1121 the Icelandic annals say: " Bishop Eric of Greenland went in search of Vinland." Nothing further is recorded. The fact that his successor as bishop was appointed in 1123 would seem to indicate that the Greenlanders had information that Eric had perished. The only important phase of the Vinland voyages that has not been definitely settled is the identifications of the regions visited by Leif and Thorfinn. The Danish antiquarian Rafn, in his monumental Antiqutiates Americanae, published in 1837, and much discussed in America at that time, held for Rhode Island as Leif's landfall and the locality of Thorfinn's colony. Pro- fessor E. N. Horsford, in a number of monographs (unfortunately IOO VINOGRADOFF— VINT of no historical or scientific value), fixed upon the vicinity of Boston, where now stand a Leif Ericsson statue and Hereford's Norumbega Tower as testimonials to the Norse explorers. But in 1887 Professor Storm announced his conviction that the lands visited by the Norsemen in the early part of the nth century were Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. And a careful reading of the Hank's Book narrative seems to show that the numerous details of the saga fit Nova Scotia remarkably well, and much better than any other part of the continent. This view has in recent years been quite generally accepted by American scholars. But in 1910 Professor M. L. Fernald, a botanist of Harvard University, published a paper in Rliodora, vol. 12, No. 134, in which he contends that it is most probable that the " vinber " of the sagas were not " grapes," but " wine- berries," also known as the mountain or rock cranberries. The " self-sown wheat " of the sagas he identifies as strand wheat, instead of Indian corn, or wild rice, and the mosur trees as the canoe birch. He thinks the natives were Eskimos, instead of American Indians, as stoutly maintained by John Fiske. Pro- fessor Fernald concludes his paper by saying that: " The mass of evidence which the writer has in hand, and which will soon be ready for publication, makes it clear that, if we read the sagas in the light of what we know of the abundant occurrence north of the St Lawrence of the ' vinber ' ( Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea or possibly Ribes triste, R. prostratum, or R. lacustre), ' hveiti ' {Elymus arenarius), and ' mosur ' (Betula alba, i.e. B. papyrifera of many botanists), the discrepancies in geography, ethnology and zoology, which have been so troublesome in the past, will disappear; other features, usually considered obscure, will become luminous; and the older and less distorted sagas, at least in their main incidents, will become vivid records of actuaL geographic exploration." It is possible that Professor Fernald may show conclusively that Leif's landfall was north of the St Lawrence. That the " vinber " were mountain cranberries would explain the fact, mentioned in the Flatey Book saga, that Leif filled his after- boat with " vinber " in the spring, which is possible with the cranberries, as they are most palatable after having lain under the snow for the winter. But Thorfinn Karlsefni found no abundance of " vinber," in fact one of his followers composed some verses to express his disappointment on this score. " Vines " were found only in the southernmost regions visited by Karlsefni. It is to -be noted that the word "vines" is more prominent in the Hauk's Book narrative than the word " vinber." At present it does not seem likely that Professor Fernald's argument will seriously affect Professor Storm's contention that Thorfinn's colony was in Nova Scotia. At any rate, the incontrovertible facts of the Vinland voyages are that Leif and Thorfinn were historical characters, that they visited, in the early part of the nth century, some part of the American continent south-west of Greenland, that they found natives whose hostility prevented the founding of a permanent settlement, and that the sagas telling of these things are, on the whole, trustworthy descriptions of actual experience. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The bibliography of this subject is large, but adequate documents, accounts and discussions may be found in the following modern works: Gustav Storm, Studies on the Vine- land Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889); Arthur M. Reeves, The Finding of Wineland, the Good (London, 1890 and 1895); John Fiske, The Discovery of America, vol. i. (Boston, 1892); Juul Dieserud, " Norse Discoveries in America," in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, vol. xxxiii. (New York, 1901); Gudbrandr Vfgfusson and F. Yorke Powell, Origines Islandicae (Oxford, 1905); and Julius E. Olson and others, The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503 (New York, 1906), the first volume of Original Narratives of Early American History. (J. E. O.) VINOGRADOFF, PAUL (1854- ), Anglo-Russian jurist, was born at Kostroma in Russia. He became professor of history in the university of Moscow, but his zeal for the spread of education brought him into conflict with the authorities, and consequently he was obliged to leave Russia. Having settled in England, Vinogradoff brought a powerful and original mind to bear upon the social and economic conditions of early England, a subject which he had already begun to study in Moscow. His Villainage in England (1892) is perhaps the most important book written on the peasantry of the feudal age and the village community in England; it can only be compared for value with F. W. Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond. In masterly fashion Vinogradoff here shows that the villein of Norman times was the direct descendant of the Anglo-Saxon freeman, and that the typical Anglo-Saxon settlement was a free community, not a manor, the position of the freeman having steadily deteriorated in the centuries just around the Norman Conquest. The status of the villein and the conditions of the manor in the I2th and I3th centuries are set forth with a legal precision and a wealth of detail which shows its author, not only as a very capable historian, but also as a brilliant and learned jurist. Almost equally valuable was Vinogradofi's essay on " Folklan'd " in vol. viii. of the English Historical Review (1893), which proved for the first time' the real nature of this kind of land. Vinogradoff followed up his Villainage in England with The Growth of the Manor (1905) and English Society in the nth Century (1908), works on the lines of his earlier book. In 1903 he was appointed Corpus professor of jurisprudence in the university of Oxford, and subsequently became a fellow of the British Academy. He received honorary decrees from the principal universities, was made a member of several foreign academies and was appointed honoraiy professor of history at Moscow. VINOY, JOSEPH (1803-1880), French soldier, was originally intended for the Church, but, after some years at a seminary, he decided upon a military career, and entered the army in 1823. When he was a sergeant in the i4th line infantry, he took part in the Algerian expedition of 1830. He won his com- mission at the capture of Algiers, and during the subsequent campaigns he rose by good service to the rank cf colonel. He returned to France in 1850, and in the Crimean War served under Canrobert as general of brigade. For his brilliant con- duct at the Malakoff he was promoted general of division, and he led a division of Niel's corps in the campaign of Solferino. Retired on account of age in 1865, he was recalled to active service on the outbreak of the war of 1870, and after the early reverses was put at the head of the XIII. army corps, which, fortunately for France, did not arrive at the front in time to be involved in the catastrophe of Sedan. By a skilful retreat he brought his corps intact to Paris on September 7th. Vinoy during the siege commanded the III. army operating on the south side of the capital and took part in all the actions in that quarter. On Trochu's resignation he was appointed to the supreme command, in which capacity he had to negotiate the surrender. During the commune he held important commands in the army of Versailles, and occupied the burning Tuileries and the Louvre on May 23rd. He was in the same year made grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour. Vinoy wrote several memoirs on the war of 1870^-71; Operations de I'armee pendant le siege de Paris (1872), L' Armistice et la com- mune (1872), L' A rmee franchise (1873). VINT, a Russian card-game. It is generally considered as the immediate ancestor of Bridge (q.v.). Vint means in Russian " screw," and is given to the game because the four players, each in turn, propose, bid and overbid each other until one, having bid higher than the others care to follow, makes the trump, his vis-a-vis becoming his partner. It has many points of resemblance to Bridge. The cards have the same rank; the score of tricks is entered under the line, and points for slum, penalties and honours above the line; while the value of the different suits is the same as in Bridge: spades, clubs, diamonds, hearts and " no trumps." In a " no trump " declaration aces only count as honours; in a suit declaration both the aces and the five next highest cards. During the progress of the bidd:ng and declaring, opportunity is taken by the players to indicate by their calls their strength in the various suits and the high cards they hold, so that, when the playing begins, the position of the best cards and the strength of the different hands can often be fairly accurately estimated. VINTON— VIOLET 101 The leads are subject to much the same rules as those in Bridge. See The Laws and Principles of Vint, edited by Frank W. Haddan (London, 1900). VINTON, FREDERIC PORTER (1846- ), American portrait painter, was born at Bangor, Maine, on the zgth of January 1846. He was a pupil of Duveneck, of William M. Hunt in Boston, of Leon Bonnat and Jean Paul Laurens in Paris, and of the Royal Academy of Munich. In 1891 he was elected a full member of the National Academy of Design, New York. VIOL, a generic term for the bowed precursors of the violin (q.v.), but in England more specially applied to those immediate predecessors of the violin which are distinguished in Italy and Germany as the Gamba family. The chief characteristics of the viols were a flat back, sloping shoulders, "c "-shaped sound-holes, and a short finger-board with frets. All these features were changed or modified in the violin, the back becoming delicately arched, the shoulders reverting to the rounded outline of the guitar or troubadour fiddle, the shape of the sound-holes changing from " c " to " f," and the finger- board being carried considerably nearer the bridge. The viols, of which the origin may be traced to the I3th and I4th cen- tury German Minnesinger fiddle, characterized also by sloping shoulders, can hardly be said to have evolved into the violin. The latter was derived from the guitar-fiddle through the Italian lyre or viol-lyra family, distinguished as da braccio and da gamba, and having early in the I7th century the outline and " f " sound-holes of the violin. The viol family consisted of treble, alto, tenor and bass instruments, being further differentiated as da braccio or da gamba according to the position in which they were held against the arm or between the knees. The favourite viol da gamba, or division viol, frequently had a man or a woman's head instead of the scroll finish to the peg- box, and sometimes a few fine wire sympathetic strings tuned an octave higher than the strings in the bridge. Michael Praetorius mentions no less than five sizes of the viol da gamba, the largest corresponding to the double bass, and in a table he notes the various accordances in use for each. He carefully distinguishes these instruments as violen and the viole da braccio (our violin family) as geigen. Of the latter he gives six sizes, the highest being the pochette with vaulted back, a rebec in fact, and the lowest corresponding to the violoncello, which he calls bass viol or geige da braccio. The viols were very popular in England in the l6th and I7th centuries, holding their own for a long time after the introduction of the louder-toned violin ; they are fully described and figured in the musical works of the period, and more especially in Christopher Simpson's Division Viol (1667), Thomas Mace's Mustek's Monu- ment (1676) and John Playford's Introduction to the Skill of Music. (K. S.) VIOLA [Fr. viole, Ger. Bratsche, Ital. viola, a/to], the tenor member of the violin family. The construction of the viola is the same, but on a larger scale, as that of the violin (q.v.). The instrument is pitched a perfect fifth below the violin. VIOLET. The violets comprise a large botanical genus (Viola) — in which more than 200 species have been described — found principally in temperate or mountain regions of the northern hemisphere; they also occur in mountainous districts of South America and South and Tropical Africa, while a few are found in Australasia. The species are mostly low-growing herbs with alternate leaves provided with large leafy stipules (fig. i). The flowers, which are solitary, or rarely in pairs, at the end of slender axillary flower-stalks, are very irregular in form, with five sepals prolonged at the base, and five petals, the lowest one larger than the others and with a spur, in which collects the honey secreted by the spurs of the two adjoining stamens. The five anthers are remarkable for the coloured processes which extend beyond the anther cells and form a sort of cone around the style (fig. 2). The ovary is superior and one-celled, with three parietal placentas and numerous ovules; it bears a single style, which ends in a dilated or hood-like stigma (fig. 3). The fruit is a capsule bursting loculicidally, i.e. through the centre of each of the three valves. By the contraction of the valves the small smooth seeds, which form FIG. i. — Leaf of Viola tricolor (Pansy) showing the large leafy stipules (s). —e FIG. 2. — Two Stamens of Viola tricolor (Pansy), with their twoantherlobesand the processp extend- ing beyond them. One of the stamens has been deprived of its spur; the other shows its spur, c. a row down the centre, are shot out to some little distance from the parent plant. The irregular construction of the flower is connected with fertilization by insect agency. To reach the honey in the spur of the flower, the insect must thrust its proboscis into the flower close under the globular head of the stigma. This lies in the anterior part of a groove fringed with hairs on the inferior petal. The anthers shed their pollen into this groove, either of themselves or when the pistil is shaken by the insertion of the bee's proboscis. The proboscis, passing down this groove to the spur, becomes dusted with pollen; as it is drawn back, it presses up the lip-like valve of the stigma so that no pollen can enter the stigma tic chamber; but as it enters the next flower it leaves some pollen on the upper surface of the valve, and thus cross-fertilization is effected. In the sweet violet, V. odorata and other species, inconspicuous permanently closed or " cleistogamic " flowers (fig. 4) occur of a FIG. 3. — Pistil of Viola tricolor (Pansy), i. Vertical section to show the ovules o, attached to the parietes. Two rows of ovules are seen, one in front and the other in profile, p, a thickened line on the walls forming the placenta; c, calyx; d, ovary; s, hooded stigma terminating the short style. 2. Horizontal section of the same, p, placenta; o, ovules; s, suture, or median line of carpel. FIG. 4. — CleistogamicFIower of Viola sylvatica. I. FlowerX4. 2. Flower 'more highly magnified and cut open, a, anther; i, pistil; st, style; v, stig- matic surface. greenish colour, so that they offer no attractions to insect visitors and their form is correspondingly regular. The anthers are so situated that the pollen on escaping comes into contact with the stigma; in such flowers self-fertilization is compulsory and very effectual, as seeds in profusion are produced. Several species of Viola are native to Great Britain. Viola canina (fig. 5) is the dog violet, many forms or subspecies of which are recognized; V. odorata, sweet violet, is highly prized for its fragrance, and in cultivation numerous varieties have originated. The Neapolitan or Parma violet (var. paUida plena) is a form with very sweet-scented, double, pale lavender flowers; var. sulphurca has shining deep green leaves and lemon-yellow flowers, deeper yellow in the centre, and with a pale-violet spur. Sweet violets like a nch, fairly heavy soil, with a north or north-west aspect if possible; IO2 VIOLIN they are readily increased by dividing the crowns after flowering. Other species known in gardens are: V. altaica, flowers yellow or FIG. 5. — Dog Violet (Viola canina), half nat. size. 1. Floral diagram of Viola, showing arrangement of parts in hori- zontal plan, b, pair of bracteoles below the flower; s, sepals; p, petals; st, stamens; o, ovary. 2. Fruit, split open. violet with yellow eye ; V. biflora, a pretty little species 3-4 in. high with small yellow flowers, the large petal being streaked with black; V. calcarata, flowers light blue or white, or yellow in var. flava; V. cornuta, flowers pale blue — there are a few good varieties of this, including one with white flowers; V. cucullata, a free-flowering American species with violet-blue or purple flowers; V. Munbyana, a native of Algeria, with large violet or yellow flowers; V. pedata, the bird's-foot violet, with pedately divided leaves and usually bright blue flowers; V. rothomagensis, a native of western Europe, with flowers bright blue striped with black, and sometimes called the Rouen violet ; and V. suavis, a native of Asia Minor, the Russian violet, with pale-blue sweet-scented flowers. The garden pansies or heartseases are derivatives from V. tricolor, a cornfield weed, or V. altaica, a native of the Altai mountains. (See PANSY.) " Bedding violas," which differ from pansies in some slight technical details, have been raised from V. cornuta and V. lutea by crossing with the show pansies. The application of an infusion of violet leaves was at one time believed to have the power of reducing the size of cancerous growths, but its use is now discredited. VIOLIN, a musical instrument consisting essentially of a resonant box of peculiar form, over which four strings of different thicknesses are stretched across a bridge standing on the box, in such a way that the tension of the strings can be adjusted by means of revolving pegs to which they are severally attached at one end. The strings are tuned, by means of the pegs, in fifths, from the second or A string, which is tuned to a fundamental note of about 435 vibrations per second at the modern normal pitch: thus giving -=?• as the four open notes. To produce other notes of the scale the length of the strings is varied by stopping them with the fingers on a finger-board, attached to a " neck " at the end of which is the " head " in Which the pegs are inserted. The strings are set in vibration by drawing across them a bow strung with horse-hair, which is rosined to increase adhesion. The characteristic features which, in combination, distinguish the violin (including in that family name its larger brethren the viola and the violoncello) from other stringed instruments are: the restriction of the strings to four, and their tuning in fifths; the peculiar form of the body, or resonating chamber, especially the fully moulded back as well as front, or belly; the shallow sides or " ribs " bent into characteristic curves; the acute angles of the corners where the 'curves of the ends and middle " bouts " or waist ribs meet; and the position and shape of the sound-holes, cut in the belly. By a gradual process of development in all these particulars the modern violin was evolved from earlier bowed instruments, and attained its highest perfection at the hands of the great Italian makers in the i6th, iyth and early i8th centuries, since which time, although many experiments have been made, no material improvement has been effected upon the form and mode of construction then adopted. The body, or sounding-box, of the violin is built up of two arched plates of thin wood, the belly and the back, united by side pieces or ribs to form a shallow box. The belly is cut from soft elastic wood, pine being universally used for this purpose, while the back is made of a close-grained wood, generally sycamore or maple. Both back and belly are carved to their model from the solid, but for utilitarian reasons are generally, though not always, built up of two longitudinal sections; while the sides or ribs, of very thin sycamore or maple, usually in six sections, are bent on a mould, by the aid of heat, to the required form. Into the corners are glued corner-blocks of soft wood, which help to retain the ribs in their sharply recurved form, and materially strengthen the whole structure. Into the angle of the joints between the sides and the back and belly are glued thin lining strips, bent to the mould, giving a bearing surface for the glued joint along the whole outline of the instrument; while, in addition, end blocks are inserted at the head and bottom of the body, the former to receive the base of the neck, and the latter the " tail pin " to which is attached the tail-piece, carrying the lower (fixed) ends of the strings. The belly is pierced with two sound- holes in the form of TT near, and approximately parallel to, the " bouts." The size, shape and position of these holes have an important influence on the character of the tone of the instrument, and present distinctive variations in the instruments of the different great makers. The neck, made of maple, is glued and now always mortised into the block at the upper end of the body,1 bearing against a small semicircular projection of the back, and is inclined at such an angle that the finger-board, when glued on to its upper surface, may lie clear of the belly, over which it projects, but in such relation to the height of the bridge as to allow the strings to be stretched nearly parallel to, and at a convenient distance above, its own surface. The bridge, cut out of maple, in the peculiar form devised by Stradivari in the 1 7th century, and not since materially departed from, is in the violin about ij in. high by if in. wide, and tapers in thickness from 'about | in. at the base to ^ at the crown; but the dimensions of this very important member vary for different instru- ments according to the arch of the belly, the strength of the wood and other considerations. It is placed on the belly exactly midway between the sound-holes and in such a position as to stand on a transverse line dividing the surface into two approximately equal areas, that is, about if in. below the middle, the lower end of the body being wider than the upper part or shoulders; whereby a greater length is rendered available for the vibrating portion of the strings.. A short distance behind the right foot of the bridge, the sound- post, a rod of soft pine about j in. thick, is fixed inside the body in contact with the belly and the back, and serves directly, not only to sustain the belly against the pressure of the bridge under the tension of the strings, but to convey vibrations to the back. It also exer- cises a very important influence on the nodal arrangement of these vibrating plates. The pressure of the other foot of the bridge, where the tension of the fourth string is far less than that of the first string, is partly sustained by the bass-bar — a strip of wood tapering from the middle to both ends, which is j*lued underneath the belly and extends to within rather less than 2 in. of the ends of the instrument. This fitting not only serves to strengthen the belly mechanically, but exerts a profound effect upon the vibrations of that plate. The fixed structure is completed by the head, which surmounts the neck and consists primarily of a narrow box into the sides of which are inserted the pegs round which the free ends of the strings are wound. The head is finished by an ornamentation which in the hands of the Italian makers followed the traditional pattern of a scroll, or volute, offering the skilled craftsmen infinite scope for boldness and freedom in its execution ; but sometimes, especially in the Tirolean instruments, it was carved in the form of an animal's head, usually a lion's. The strings, fastened at one end to an ebony tail-piece or tongue, which is itself attached by a gut "loop to the pin at the base of the instrument, pass over the bridge, along the finger board and over the nut (a dwarf bridge forming the termination of the finger-board) to the pegs. The effective vibrating portion of the strings is accord- ingly the length between the nut and the bridge, and measures now 1 Up to about the year 1800 the old Italian makers, including Stradivari (in his earlier instruments), usually strengthened the attachment of the neck by driving nails, frequently three and some- times four, through the top block into the base of the neck, which was not mortised into the block. VIOLIN 103 in an ordinary full-sized violin about 13 in. The portion of the strings to which the bow is applied lies over the space, measuring about 2}in., between the bridge and the free end of the finger- board. The strings are manufactured from so-called catgut, made from the intestines of lambs, and range in thickness from the first to the third or D string from -026 to -046 in. more or less. The -sary weight is given to the string of lowest pitch, G, without unduly sacrificing its elasticity, by winding a thin gut string with fine silver wire to about the same thickness as the A string. An ornamental feature characteristic of nearly all viofins is the purfling, a very thin slip of wood with margins of ebony or (rarely) whalebone, inlaid in thin strips close to the edge of both piates, and following the entire outline of the instrument. In some in- struments, especially of the Brescian school, a double line of purfling xv. is inserted. The total number of pieces of wood of which the violin is composed amounts to about 70, varying, as the plates are made in one piece or built together, and with the number of sections in which the ribs are put together. Of this number 57 pieces are built into the permanent structure, while 13 may be described as fittings. The whole of the permanent structure is cemented together with glue alone, and it is a striking testimony to the mechanical condi- tions satisfied by the design, that the instrument built of such slender material withstands without deformation the considerable stresses applied to it. It is worthy of remark that after the lapse of so many years, since it attained perfect musical efficiency, no unessential adjunct has entered into the construction of this in- strument. No play of fancy has grafted anything beyond quite minor ornamentation on a work of art distinguished by its simplicity of pure outline and proportion. The following are the exact principal dimensions of a very fine specimen of Stradivari's work, which has been preserved in perfect condition since the latter end of the I7th century: — Length of body = 14 in. full. Width across top =6}J in. bare. Width across bottom = 8J in. Height of sides (top) = i-ft „ Height of sides (bottom) . . . . = i/j ,, The back is in one piece, supplemented a little in width at the lower part, after a common practice of the great makers, and is cut from very handsome wood ; the ribs are of the same wood, while the belly is formed of two pieces of soft pine of rather fine and beautifully even grain. The sound-holes, cut with perfect precision, exhibit much grace and freedom of design. The scroll, which is very char- acteristic of the maker's style and beautifully modelled, harmonizes admirably with the general modelling of the instrument. The mode! is flatter than in violins of the earlier period, and the design bold, while displaying all Stradivari's microscopic perfection of workmanship. The whole is coated with a very fine orange-red- brown varnish, untouched since it left the maker's hand in 1690, and the only respects in which the instrument has been altered since that date are in the fitting of the longer neck and stronger bass-bar necessitated by the increased compass and raised pitch of modern violin music. The measurements given above are the same as those of a well- known Stradivari of later date (1714). The acoustics of the violin are extremely complex, and not- withstanding many investigations by men of science, and the Acoustics enunciation °f some plausible hypotheses with regard to details of its operation as a musical instrument, remain as a whole obscure. So far as the elementary principles which govern its action are concerned, the violin follows familiar laws (see SOUND). The different notes of the scale are produced by vibrating strings differing in weight and tension, and varying in length under the hand of the player. -^The vibrations of the strings are conveyed through the bridge to the body of the instrument, which fulfils the common function of a resonator in reinforcing the notes initiated by the strings. So far first principles carry us at once. But when we endeavour to elucidate in detail the causes of the peculiar character of tone of the violin family, the great range and variety in that character obtained in different instruments, the extent to which those qualities can be controlled by the bow of the player, and the mode in which they are influenced by minute variations in almost every component part of the instrument, we find ourselves faced by a series of problems which have so far defie*d any but very partial solution. The distinctive quality of the musical tones of the violin is generally admitted to be due largely to its richness in the upper harmonic or partial tones superimposed on the fundamental notes produced by the simple vibrations of the strings. The characteristic tone and its control by the player are un- doubtedly conditioned in the first place by the peculiar path of the vibrating string under the action of the rosined bow. This takes the form not of a symmetrical oscillation but of a succession of alternating bound and free movements, as the string adheres to the bow according to the pressure applied and, releasing itself by its elasticity, rebounds. The lightness of the material of which the strings are made conduces to the production of very high upper partial tones which give brilliancy ol sound, while the low elasticity of the gut causes these high constituents to be quickly damped, thus softening the ultimate quality of the note. In order that the resonating body of the instrument may fulfil its highest purpose in reinforcing the complex vibrations set up by the strings vibrating in the manner above described, not only as a whole, but in the number of related segments whose oscillations determine the upper partial tones, it is essential that the plates, and consequently the body of air contained between them, should respond sensitively to the selective impulses communicated to them. It is the attainment of this perfect selective responsiveness which marks the construction cf the best instruments. Many factors contribute to this result. The thickness of the plates in different parts of their areas, the size and form of the interior of the body, the size and shape of the sound-holes through which the vibrations of the contained air are communicated to the external air, and which also influence the nodal points in the belly, according to the number of fibres of the wood cut across, varying with the angle at which the sound-holes cross the grain of the wood. Their position in this respect also affects the width of the central vibrating portion of the belly under the bridge. All these important factors are influenced by the quality and elasticity of the wood employed. Much has been written and many speculations have been ad- vanced with regard to the superiority in tone of the old Italian instruments over those of modern construction. This superiority has sometimes been disputed, and, judging from the many examples of second-rate instruments which have survived from the I7th and i8th centuries, it is certain that antiquity alone does not confer upon violins the merits which have frequently been claimed for it. When, however, we compare the comparatively few really fine specimens of the Italian school which have survived in good condition, with the best examples of modern construction in which the propor- tions of the older masterpieces have been faithfully followed, and in which the most careful workmanship of skilled hands has been embodied, it cannot be denied that the former possess a superiority in the quality of their' tone which the musical ear immediately recognizes. After taking into account the practical identity in dimensions and construction between the classical and many of the best modern models, the conclusion suggests itself that the difference must be attributed to the nature of the materials used, or to the method of their employment, as influenced by local conditions and practice. The argument, not infrequently advanced, that the great makers of Italy Tiad special local sources of supply, jealously guarded, for wood with exceptional acoustical properties, can hardly be sustained. Undoubtedly they exercised great care" in the selec- tion of sound and handsome wood; but there is evidence that some of the finest wood they used was imported from across the Adriatic in the ordinary course of trade; and the matter was for them, in all probability, largely one of expense. There is good reason to suppose that a far larger choice of equally good material is accessible to modern makers. There remains the varnish with which the completed instrument is coated. This was an item in the manufacture which received most careful attention at the hands of the great makers, and much im- portance has been attached to the superiority of their varnish over that used in more recent times — so much so that its composition has been attributed to secret processes known only to themselves. The probability is that they were able to exercise more personal selection of the materials used than has been generally practised by makers dependent upon commercial products under modern conditions, and the general result has been analogous to that seen in the pigments employed by modern painters as compared with those made up for themselves by the old masters who could ensure perfect purity in their ingredients. But that the Italian makers individually or collectively attempted, or were able, to preserve as a secret the composition of the varnish they used is unlikely. Instruments exhibiting similar excellence in this respect were too widespread in their range, both of period and locality, to justify the assumption that the general composition of the finest varnish of the early makers was not a matter of common knowledge in an industry so flourishing as that of violin-making in the I7th and early i8th centuries. The excellence of an instrument in respect of its varnish depended on the quality of the constituent materials, on the proportions in which they were combined, and, perhaps mainly, on the method of its application. The most enduring and perfect varnish used for violins is an oil varnish, and the best results there- with can only be obtained under the most advantageous conditions for the drying process. In this respect there can be no doubt that the southern climate placed the makers whose work lies in higher latitudes at a disadvantage. In a letter to Galileo in 1638 concern- ing a violin he had ordered from Cremona, the writer states that 104 VIOLIN " it cannot be brought to perfection without the strong heat of the sun"; and all recorded experience indicates the great importance of slow drying of the varnish under suitable conditions. Stradivari himself wrote to account for delay in the delivery of an instrument because of the time required for the drying of the varnish. That a perfect varnish conduces to the preservation of a fine tone in the instrument is generally admitted; and its operation in this respect is due, not merely to the external protection of the wood from deterioration, but especially to its action, when supplied under favourable conditions to wood at a ripe stage of seasoning (when that process has proceeded far enough, but not so far as to allow the fibres to become brittle), in soaking into the pores of the wood and preserving its elasticity. This being so, successful varnishing will be seen to be an operation of great delicacy, and one in which the old masters found full scope for their skill and large experience. The effects, upon the vibrational qualities of the wood, of thickness of coat, texture and gradual absorption into the pores of the wood under favourable conditions of drying, are great and far-reaching, as is proved in the survival through two centuries of the great qualities of the specimens most fittingly treated in this respect. After the early part of the i8th century the use of the fine oil varnish employed by the great makers was gradually abandoned, con- currently with the decline of the instrument maker's art in Italy. Except in the hands of the fast-diminishing band of craftsmen trained in the old traditions, its place was taken by the newer spirit varnishes which, with their quick-drying qualities and ease of application, satisfied the requirements of the more cheaply manufactured instruments of the period following the death of Stradivari; and before the end of the century these inferior varnishes had quite supplanted the old recipes. Having regard to all these considerations it is not unreasonable to conclude that the varnish of the old instruments contributed probably the most important single element of thair superiority in tone to their more modern copies. It must, however, be borne in mind that the instrument makers of the i6th and I7th centuries carried on a great and flourishing and a highly Developed craft; and that their best creations owe their distinction largely to causes similar to those which produced the great art works of the same period. The violin makers had a lifelong training in their craft. The productions of the famous among them were eagerly sought after. Throughout western Europe the highest in the land were true amateurs of music, and vied with one another to secure the masterpieces of Brescia and Cremona. In such circumstances the trained judgment and wide experience of the craftsman were naturally concentrated upon securing the preliminary conditions of high excellence in his work: the choice of sound and handsome wood ; perfection of design and workmanship; the composition of his varnish, and the utmost care and skill in applying it under the best conditions; and, not least important, time for deliberate and thoughtful production. The masterpieces of that period were not constructed upon any exact or scientific system, but were the pro- ducts of devejopment of a traditional craft working on empirical lines. Such theories of their construction as have been propounded are based on analysis of an already perfected organism ; and careful historical research has revealed no record or trace of laws or rules by which the great makers worked. Elaborate attempts have been made, notably by Savart early in the igth century, to educe from experiments on the elasticities and vibration periods of various specimens of wood used in some of the older instrument's an exact system for the adjustment of these factors to the production of the best results; but data obtained by experiments with test specimens of regular shape do not carry us very far when applied to so complex and irregular a structure as the violin. The vibrating plates of the violin are neither sym- metrical nor uniform in dimensions. They are not free plates, but are fixed round the whole edge of a very irregular outline; and these conditions, taken together with their unsymmetrically arched form, held under pressure by the tension of the strings, establish a state of complex stresses under vibration which have so far escaped analysis. Their vibratory movements are moreover influenced by so many accessory features of the instrument, such as the bass-bar, already described, the reaction of the sound-post, and the different pres- sures by the two feet of the bridge, that it is impossible to figure closely the vibrations of any given area of the instrument. It is certainly very remarkable that so precise a pattern of irregular form should nave been arrived at empirically, and should have survived as the standard, apparently for all time. Not only is the arch of the plates unsymmetrical in its longitudinal section, but, as is less commonly noticed, the upper bouts, especially in violins of the Cremona school, are slightly shallower than the lower; so that the edges of the belly are not strictly oarallel to those of the back, but the two plates converge in the direction of the head. Probably the most successful attempts at analysing the vibrations of the violin have been those made by Sir William Huggins, by means of direct tactile observation with the finger holding a small rod of soft wood upon various spots on the surface of the vibrating plates. By this method he made a number of observations partially con- firming, and in part correcting the determinations of previous investigators. He found that the position of maximum vibration of the belly is close to the foot of the bridge, under the fourth string, while that of least vibration is exactly over the top of the sound-post. The back, which is strongly agitated, also has its point of least vibration where the sound-post rests upon it. With the sound-post removed the belly vibrated almost equally on both sides of its area, while the vibration of the back was very feeble, and the tone became very poor; supporting the view that in the complete instrument the vibrations of the back are derived from the belly mainly through the sound-post. Pressure on that point in the belly noniially in contact with the top of the sound-pest partially restored the proper character though not the power of the tone; indicating the im- portant function of the sound-post in establishing a nodal point which largely determines the normal vibration of the belly. Modifications of the material of which the sound-post was made produced a pro- found effect upon the quality, but comparatively small effect upon the power of the tone. Of the part played by the sides in trans- mitting vibrations from belly to back, the most important share is borne by the middle bouts, or incurved sides at the waist of the instrument. Experiments made latejy afford some interesting evidence as to the nature of the vibrations set up in a sounding-box in response to those of a string at various pitches and under various conditions of bowing. These observations were made on a monochord and restricted to one portion of a sounding-board of regular shape. Experiments on similar lines made with an actual violin body might throw further light upon the behaviour of that instrument as a resonator; but such researches entail prolonged investigation. Two phenomena, familiar to violin players, are suggestive of further lines of research that may help to elucidate the problems of the localization of the principal responses in the body of the violin, and of the action of the wood under vibration. Many violins, especially old and inferior ones, fail to resonate clearly and fully to particular notes, the sounds produced being commonly known as " Wolf " notes; and these notes are, certainly sometimes and'possibly always, associated with particular spots in the body of the instrument; for, if pressure be applied at these spots, the resonance of the respective " Wolf " notes is improved. This observation suggests that the region concerned has been cut, or has become disproportionately thin in relation to the normal thick- ness of the plate; and, when stimulated by the appropriate note, sets up a local system of vibrations, which interfere with, instead of sharing, the proper vibrations of the plate as a whole; this inter- fering vibration being damped by local pressure. These defects are said to develop with age and constant use, and to be minimized by the use of thin strings but aggravated by thick ones; a circum- stance which tends to support the hypothesis of thin regions in the plate, which might be expected to respond more truly to the vibra- tions of lighter, than to those of heavier strings. Detailed investi- gation of these phenomena on the lines of the experiments already referred to may have valuable results. Another well-known char- acteristic of the violin is that a new instrument, or one that has been long in disuse, is found to be " sleepy," that is, it fails to speak readily in response to the bow, a defect which gradually disappears with use. Experiments made to test the effect of prolonged trans- verse vibrations upon strips of suitable wood have shown that such treatment increases the flexibility of the wood, which returns to its normal degree of rigidity after a period of rest. No conclusive interpretation of these experiments has yet been offered ; but they indicate the probability of modifications of the internal viscosity of the wood, by molecular changes under the influence of continued vibratory movement. The function of the bridge, as above mentioned, is to communicate the vibrations of the strings to the resonating body of the violin. This communication is made mainly, though not entirely, through the left foot of the bridge, which under the comparatively low tension of the G string rests with light pressure upon the belly, which at that point has accordingly greater freedom of movement than under the other foot, in proximity to which the sound-post, extending from back to belly, maintains that region of the plates in a state of relative rigidity, under the high tension of the E string. The view, however, maintained by some writers that the right foot of the bridge communicates no vibrations directly to the belly is inaccurate. The main object of placing the sound-post some dis- tance behind, instead of immediately under, the bridge foot is to allow the belly under that foot to vibrate with some freedom. This has been proved by the destructive effect produced upon the tone by fixing the sound-post immediately under the foot of the bridge. The form into which the bridge is fretted after the pattern devised by Stradivari has given rise to some speculation ; but the justifica- tion of this form is probably to be found in the explanation pro- pounded by Sir William Huggins, namely, that the strings, when agitated by the bow, vibrate in a plane oblique to the vertical axis of the bridge; the vibrations may be accordingly resolved into two components, one horizontal along the length of the bridge, the other vertical — that is, in a direction favourable for setting the belly into vibration across its lines of support. It is advantageous to maintain simplicity in direction of the vibrations communicated to the body, and therefore to eliminate VIOLIN 105 the transverse vibrations before they reach the belly. This is accomplished by a certain lateral elasticity of the bridge itself, attained by under-cutting the sides so as to allow the upper half of the bridge to oscillate or rock from side to side upon its central trunk; the work done in setting up this oscillation absorbing the transverse vibrations above mentioned. The function of the sound-post is on the one hand mechanical, and on the other acoustical. It serves the purpose of sustaining the greater share of the pressure of the strings, not so much to save the belly from yielding under that pressure, as to enable it to vibrate more freely in its several parts than it could do, if unsup- ported, under the stresses which would be set up in its substance by that pressure. The chosen position of the post, allowing some freedom of vibration under the bridge, ensures the belly's proper vibrations being directly set up before the impulses are transmitted to the back through the sound-post: this transmission being, as already shown, its principal function. The post also by its contact with both vibrating plates is, as already shown, a governing factor in determining the nodal division of their surfaces, and its position therefore influences fundamentally the related states of vibration of the two plates of the instrument, and the compound oscillations set up in the contained body of air. This is an important element in determining the tone character of the instrument. The immediate ancestors of the violins were the viols, which were the principal bowed instruments in use from the end of the I5th to the end of the iyth century, during the latter uy' part of which period they were gradually supplanted by the violins; but the bass viol did not go out of use finally until towards the later part of the i8th century, when the general adoption of the larger pattern of violoncello drove the viol from the field it had occupied so long. The sole survivor of the viol type of instrument, although not itself an original member of the family, is the double bass of the modern orchestra, which retains many of the characteristic features of the viol, notably the flat back, with an oblique slope at the shoulders, the high bridge and deep ribs. Excepting the marine trumpet or bowed monochord, we find in Europe no trace of any large bowed in- struments before the appearance of the viols; the bowed instruments of the middle ages being all small enough to be rested on or against the shoulder during performance. The viols probably owe their origin directly to the minnesinger fiddles, which possessed several of the typical features of the violin, as distinct from the guitar family, and were sounded by a bow. These in their turn may be traced to the " guitar fiddle " (q.v.), a bowed instrument of the i3th century, with five strings, the lowest of which was longer than the rest, and was attached to a peg outside the head so as to clear the nut and finger-board, thus providing a fixed bass, or bourdon. This instrument had incurved sides, forming a waist to facilitate the use of the bow, and was larger than its descendants the fiddles and violins. None of these earlier instruments can have had a deeper compass than a boy's voice. The use of the fidel in the hands of the troubadours, to accompany the adult male voice, may explain the attempts which we trace in the ijth century to lengthen the oval form of the instrument. The parentage of the fiddle family may safely be ascribed to the rebec, a bowed instrument of the early middle ages, with two or three strings stretched over a low bridge, and a pear-shaped body pierced with sound-holes, having no separate neck, but narrowed at the upper end to provide a finger-board, and (judging by pictorial representations, for no actual example is known) surmounted by a carved head holding the pegs, in a manner similar to that of the violin. The bow, which was short and clumsy, had a considerable curvature. So far it is justifiable to trace back the descent of the violin in a direct line; but the earlier ancestry of this family is largely a matter of speculation. The best authorities are agreed that stringed instruments in general are mainly of Asiatic origin, and there is evidence of the mention of bowed instruments in Sanskrit documents of great antiquity. Too much genealogical importance has been attached by some writers to similarities in form and construction between the bowed and plucked instruments of ancient times. They prob- ably developed to a great extent independently; and the bow is of too great and undoubted antiquity to be regarded as a development of the plectrum or other devices for agitating the plucked string. The two classes of instrument no doubt were Discant viol. under mutual obligations from time to time in their develop- ment. Thus the stringing of the viols was partly adapted from that of the lute; and the form of the modern Spanish guitar was probably derived from that of the fidel. The Italian and Spanish forms (ribeba, rabe) of the French name rebec suggest etymologically a relationship, which seems to find confirmation in the striking similarity of general appear- ance between that instrument and the Persian rebab, mentioned in the i2th century, and used by the Arabs in a primitive form to this day. The British crwth, which has been claimed by some writers as a progenitor of the violin, was primarily a plucked instrument, and cannot be accepted as in the direct line of ancestry of the viols. The viol was made in three main kinds — discant, tenor and bass — answering to the cantus, medius and bassus of vocal music. Each of these three kinds admitted of some variation in dimensions, especially the bass, of which three distinct sizes ultimately came to be made — (i) the largest, called the concert bass viol; (2) the division or solo bass viol, usually known by its Italian name of viola da gamba; and (3) the lyra or tabla- ture bass viol. The normal tuning of the viols, as laid down in the earliest books, was adapted from the lute to the bass viol, and repeated in higher in- Distant Viol, tervals in the rest. The fundamental idea, as in the lute, was that the outermost strings should be two octaves apart — hence the intervals of fourths with a third in the middle. The highest, or discant viol, is not a treble but an alto instrument, the three viols answering to the three male voices. As a treble instrument, not only for street and dance music, but in orchestras, the rebec or geige did duty until the invention of the violin, and long after- wards. The discant viol first became a real treble instrument in the hands of the French makers, who converted it into the quinton. The earliest use of the viols was to double the parts of vocal concerted music; they were next employed in special composi- tions for the viol trio written hi the same compass. Develop- Many such works in the form of " fantasies " or meat of " fancies," and preludes with suites in dance form, by ***''&>/s. the masters of the end of the i6th and iyth centuries, exist in manuscript; a set by Orlando Gibbons, which are good specimens, has been published by the English Musical Antiquarian Society. Later, the viols, especially the bass, were employed as solo instruments, the methods of composition and execution being based on those of the lute. Most lute music is in fact equally adapted for the bass viol, and vice versa. In the 1 7th century, when the violin was coming into general use, con- structive innovations began which resulted in the abandonment of the trio of pure six-stringed viols. Instruments which show these innovations are the quinton and the viola d'amore. The first-mentioned is of a type intermediate between the viol and the violin. In the case of the discant and tenor viol the lowest string, which was probably found to be of little use, was aban- doned, and the pressure on the bass side of the belly thus con- siderably lightened. The five strings were then spread out, as it were, to the compass of the six, so as to retain the fundamental principle of the outer strings being two octaves apart. This was effected by tuning the lower half of the instrument in fifths, as in the violin, and the upper half in fourths. This innovation altered the T tuning of the treble and tenor viols, thus — One half of the instrument was therefore tuned like a viol, the other half as in a violin, the middle string forming Tenoc Quinton. a the division. The tenor viol thus improved was called in France the quinte, and the treble corresponding to it the quinton. From the numerous specimens which survive it must have been a popular instru- ment, as it is undoubtedly a substantially excellent one. The io6 VIOLIN relief in the bass, and the additional pressure caused by the higher tuning in the treble, gave it greater brilliancy, without destroying the pure, ready and sympathetic tone which charac- terizes the viol. While the tendency in the case of the discant and tenor was to lighten and brighten them, the reverse process took place in that of the bass. The richer and more sonorous tones of the viola da gamba were extended downwards by the addition of a string tuned to double bass A. Marais, a French virtuoso, is usually credited with this improvement; and this extended compass is recognized in the classical viola da gamba writings of Sebastian Bach and De Caix d'Hervelois. The result, however, was not universally satisfactory, for Abel used the six-stringed instrument; and the seven strings never came into general use in England, where the viola da gamba was more generally employed and survived longer than elsewhere. The chief defect of the viols was their weakness of tone; this the makers thought to remedy in two ways: first by additional strings in unisons, fifths and octaves; and secondly by sympathetic strings of fine steel wire, laid under the finger- board as close as possible to the belly, and sounding in sympathy with the notes produced on the bowed strings. The sympathetic strings were attached to ivory pegs driven into the bottom block, and, passing through the lower part of the bridge, or over a very low bridge of their own, were stretched to pitch either by means of additional pegs or by wrest pins driven into the sides of the head, and tuned with a key. Originally six, seven or eight wire strings were used, tuned to the diatonic scale of the piece to be performed. Later on a chromatic set of twelve was employed, and occasionally viols were made with twenty-four wire strings, two for each semitone in the scale. This system of reinforcement was applied to all the various sizes of viols in use during that period. The improvements which resulted in the production of the violin proceeded on different lines. They consisted in increas- ing the resonance of the body of the instrument, by making it lighter and more symmetrical, and by stringing it more lightly. These changes transformed the body of the viol into that of the violin, and the transformation was completed by rejecting the lute tuning with its many strings, and tuning the instrument by fifths, as the fiddle had been tuned. The tenor viol appears to have been the first instrument in which the change was made, and thus the viola or tencr may probably be claimed as the father of the modern violin family. Violas were used in church music before the modern violin period, and violins as we know them were at first called " Piccoli Violini " to distinguish them from the earlier and larger instruments. A tenor viol of date 1500 is still extant, bearing in general out- line the typical features of the violin, as distinct from the viol family. This instrument was exhibited in 1872 in the Loan Exhibition of Musical Instruments at South Kensington with the label " Pietro Zanure, Brescia, 1509." From existing specimens we know that a bass violin, precursor of the violon- cello, with a tuning an octave below the tenor, appeared shortly after that instrument. A double bass violin, tuned B .. a fourth below the violon- Tenot Violin. Violoncello. ^^ cello and usuaUy known as -gy the " basso da camera," com- — gr — pleted the set of instruments =* in violin shape; but from . the difficulty attending its manipulation it never came into general use. The celebrated double bass player, Dragonetti, occasionally used the* basso da camera, and an English player named Hancock, who dispensed with the highest or E string, is still remembered for his performances on this unusual instrument. The tenor and violoncello are made on the same general model and principles as the violin, but with modifications. Tenor Both are, relatively to their pitch, made in smaller pro- vioiiaand portions than the violin, because, if they were con- vioioa- structed to dimensions having the same relation to pitch and tension of strings as the violin, they would not only have an overpowering tone but would be unmanageable from their size. These relatively diminished dimensions, both in the size of the instrument and in the thickness of the wood and strings, give to the tenor and violoncello a graver and more sympathetic tone. To some extent the reduced size is com- pensated by giving them a greater proportional height in the ribs and bridge; an increase hardly perceptible in the tenor, but very noticeable in the violoncello. To lighten the tension and thus allow greater freedom of vibration to the belly on the bass side, as with the lowest string of the violin, the two lowest of the tenor and violoncello are made of thin gut, covered with fine metal wire; thus providing the necessary weight without inconvenient thickness. If the tension of the lowest string, or the two lowest strings, be increased, not only will they be elevated in pitch, but the violin will produce a more powerful tone; if the bass string be lowered, the contrary will take place. By adapting the music to this altered tuning (scordatura) some novel effects are pro- duced. The following are the principal scordature which have been occasionally employed by various players: — Scorda- tun. Tartini, Castrucci. (Scotch Reels.) Biber. Biber. Nardini. Barbella. Campagnoli. Lolli. De Be'riot, Prume, Mazas, &c. De Benot. Paganini. Baillot. The violoncello is less amenable to the scordatura than the violin; the only classical instance is the tuning employed by Bach in his fifth sonata, which consists in lowering the first string by a tone. Bach. The early Italian school is chiefly represented by the Brescian makers, Caspar da Salo, Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Giovita Rodiani and Zanetto Peregrino. It is, however, Early somewhat misleading to denominate it the Brescian Italian school, for its characteristics are shared by the earliest makers. makers of Cremona and Venice. To eyes familiar with the geometrical curves of the later Cremona school, most of the violins of these makers have a rude and uncouth appearance. The height of the model varies; the pattern is attenuated; the /-holes share the general rudeness of design, and are set high in the pattern. Andreas Amati of Cremona, the eldest maker of that name, effected some improvements on this primitive model; but the violin owes most to his sons, Antonio and Geronimo, who were partners. They introduced the substantial improvements which developed the Brescian violin into the modern instrument. These improvements were in their inception probably of an artistic rather than a scientific nature. Painting and inlaying had long been employed in the decoration of stringed instruments; but the brothers Amati were the first who applied to the violin the fundamental law of decorative art, that the decorative and constructive elements should be blended in their conception: in other words, the construction should be itself decorative and the decoration itself constructive. Nicholas Amati (1596-1684), son of Gero- nimo, made some slight improvements in the model, and his pupil Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) finally settled the typical Cremona pattern, which has been generally followed; for the majority of violins since made, whether by good or bad makers, are copies of Stradivari. Besides the last-named, the following makers worked generally on the Amati model — Cappa, Gobetti, the Grancino family, Andreas Guarnieri and his son Giuseppe, the Ruggieri family and Serafin of Venice. The Bergonzi family, Alessandro Gagliano, the earlier members of the Gua- dagnini family, and Panormo were either pupils or followers of Stradivari. But excepting Carlo Bergonzi and Stradivari's two sons, Omobono and Francesco, there is no evidence of VIOLLET— VIOLLET-LE-DUC 107 any having actually worked with or for him. Landolfi, Storioni, and Carlo Giuseppe Testore, a pupil of Giovanni Grancino, leaned to the model of Giuseppe Guarnieri del Gesii. Some resemblances, especially in the matter of the varnish, are traceable between the works of makers who lived con- temporaneously in the same town, e.g. in Naples, Milan and Venice. A high model was adopted by Jacob Stainer of Absam, near Hall in Tirol, whose well-known pattern was chiefly followed by German tne ma'ters °f England, Tirol and Germany, down to English ' the middle of the i8th century. It thenceforward fell •ad into disuse, owing to the superior musical qualities of the Cremona violin. Theschoolof Stainer is represented by Albani, Hornsteiner, the Klotz family (who made large numbers of instruments excellent in their kind), Schorn of Salz- burg and Withalm of Nuremberg, and others. The English makers may be divided into three successive groups: (i) an antique English school, having a character of its own (Rayman, Urquhart, Pamphilon, Barak Norman, Duke, of Oxford, &c.); (2) imitators of Stainer, at the head of whom stands Peter Wamsley (Smith, Barrett, Cross, Hill, Aireton, Norris, &c.); (3) a later school who leaned to the Cremona model (Banks, Duke, of Holborn, Belts, the Forsters, Gilkes, Carter, Fendt, Parker, Harris, Matthew Hardie of Edinburgh, &c.). The early French makers have little merit or interest (Bocquay, Gavinies, Pierray, Guersan, &c.), but the later copyists of the Cremona models (Lupot, Aldric, Chanot the elder, Nicholas, Pique, Silvestre, Vuillaume, &c.) produced ad- mirable instruments, some of which rank next in merit to the first-rate makers of Cremona. The general form of the violin, as finally developed under the hands of the leading makers, resolved itself into two main types, the high and the flat models, of which the latter, on the lines ultimately adopted by Stradivari, has survived as the most efficient pattern lor all modern instruments. The distinction is one of degree only, the maximum difference of actual measurement in extreme cases amounting to little more than a quarter of an inch in the convexity of the belly above the top line of the ribs; but the difference in character of tone of the two types is, in the main, well marked. Speaking generally, the tone of the high-built instru- ment is less powerful and sweeter, and it speaks more readily, but responds less completely to gradations of tone under the action of the bow than the flatter type, which yields a tone of greater carrying power and flexibility, susceptible to more subtle variation by the player, and with a peculiar penetrating quality lacking in the highly arched model. These differences in tone probably depend less upon any direct effect of variations in depth of the sounding- box than on the incidental effects of cutting the wood to the higher or .lower arch ; for it would seem that the best results in tone have been attained in instruments with a fairly constant volume of contained air, the depth of the sides being roughly in inverse pro- portion to the height of arch in the best examples of the different models. In the high-cut arch the fibres of the wood on the upper surface are necessarily cut shorter, with the result that the plate as a whole does not vibrate so perfectly as in the flatter model, and this has a weakening effect on the tone. Again, the higher arch, with steeper curves towards the sides, necessitates the inclina- tion of the sound-holes at a considerable angle to the main horizontal plane of the instrument ; and it is conceivable that, under such con- ditions, the vibrations of the upper layer of air within the body are dissipated too readily, before the composite vibrations of the whole mass of air inside the instrument have attained their full harmonic value. Apart from these acoustical considerations, the question is probably one of material, the flatter construction demanding the use of a very strong and elastic wood in relation to the most suitable thickness, in order to withstand the pressure of the bridge, a resistance which the higher arch renders possible with a stiffer and more brittle material; and the effect of these qualities upon tone must be taken into account in estimating the tone characters of the two types of instrument. Broadly speaking, the higher-arched type found favour with the earlier makers up to the end of the Amati period. Stainer in Tirol inclined particularly in the direction of this model, which he appears to have developed on independent lines, the tradition that he learnt his craft from the Amati being no longer tenable. The flatter model was gradually evolved by Stradivari as he outgrew the immediate influence of the Amati and developed on his own incomparable lines a somewhat larger and more powerful instru- ment, adapted to the requirements of the increasing class of solo players. The violins as a distinctive family of instruments cannot be fully discussed without reference to the bow (q.v.) as an essential adjunct, on account of the very important rfte ^^ part taken by the bow in determining, as already mentioned, the peculiar form of the vibrations of the string, and in controlling, in the hand of a skilled player, the subtle gradations of tone produced from the instrument. The evolu- tion of the modern bow has taken place almost entirely since the violin attained its final form, and has followed, more completely perhaps than the instrument itself, the develop- ment of violin music and the requirements of the player. It reached its highest perfection at the hands of the celebrated Francois Tourte of Paris, about 1780, whose bows have served as a model for all succeeding makers, even more exclusively than the violins of Stradivari controlled the pattern of later instruments; and at the present time Tourte bows are valued beyond any others. For more than 250 years the violin and its larger brethren have held the leading position among musical instruments. For them have been written some of the most inspired works of the great musicians. Famous composers, such as Tartini, Corelli, Spohr and Viotti have been great violinists, and by their compositions, as much as by their talents as virtuosi, have largely developed the capacity of the violin as a vehicle of profound musical expression. To the listener the violin speaks with an intensity, a sympathy, and evokes a thrill of the senses such as no other instrument can produce. For the player it seems to respond to every pulse of his emotions. REFERENCES. — A. Vidal, La Lutherie el les lulhiers (Paris, 1889); . Hart, The Violin (London, 1875); Hill, Antonio Stradivari (London, 1902) ; Sir W. Huggins, " On the Function of the Sound- G. Hart, The Violin (London, 1875); Hill, Antonio Stradivari (London, 1902) ; Sir W. Huggins, " On the Function of the Sound- Post, &c., of the Violin," Proc. Royal Society, vol. xxxv. p. 241 ; H. Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone, Sfc. (trans, by A. J. Ellis); E. H. Barton and C. A. B. Garrett, "Vibration Curves obtained from a Monochord Sound Box and String," Philosophical Mag. (July 1905); Carl Engel, Musical Instruments (London, 1875); A. J. Hipkins. Musical Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique (Edinburgh, 1887). (R. W. F. H.) VIOLLET, PAUL MARIE (1840- ), French historian, was born at Tours on the 24th of October 1840. After serving his native city as secretary and archivist, he became archivist to the national archives in Paris in 1866, and later librarian to the faculty of law. In 1800 he was appointed professor of civil and canon law at the 6cole des chartes. His work mainly concerns the history of law and institutions, and on this subject he published two valuable and scholarly books — Drpit public: Histoire des institutions politiques et administratites de la France (1890-98), and Precis de I'histoire du droit franc.ais (1886). VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE EMMANUEL (1814-1879), French architect and writer on archaeology, was born in Paris on the 2ist of January 1814. He was a pupil of Achille Leclere, and in 1836-37 spent a year studying Greek and Roman architecture in Sicily and Rome. His chief interest was, however, in the art of the Gothic period, and, like Sir Gilbert Scott in England, he was employed to " restore " some of the chief medieval buildings of France, his earliest works being the abbey church of Vezelay, various churches at Poissy, St Michel at Carcassonne, the church of Semur in Cdte-Ki'Or, and the fine Gothic town halls of Saint-Antonin and Narbonne, all carried out between 1840 and 1850. From 1845 to 1856 he was occupied on the restoration of Notre Dame in Paris in conjunction with Lassus,1 and also with that of the abbey of St Denis. In 1849 he began the restoration of the fortifications of Carcassonne and of Amiens cathedral; and in later years he restored Laon cathedral, the chateau of Pierrefonds, and many other important buildings. He was an intimate friend of Napoleon III., and during the siege of Paris (1871) gave valuable help as an engineer to the beleaguered army. He held many important offices, both artistic and political, and was for many years inspector-general of the ancient buildings throughout a large part of France. His last work was the general scheme 1 He published in 1867-69 a fine work showing his not very successful coloured decoration applied to the chapels of Notre Dame. io8 VIOLONCELLO— VIPER for the Paris exhibition buildings in 1878. He died on the 17th of September 1879 at Lausanne. As a designer Viollet-le-Duc occupied only a secondary place; but as a writer on medieval architecture and the kindred arts he takes the highest rank. His two great dictionaries are the standard works in their class, and are most beautifully illustrated with very skilful drawings by his own hand. Viollet- le-Duc was a man of the most varied and brilliant abilities, endowed with a power of work which has seldom been equalled. He was at once an artist, a man of science, a learned archaeologist and a scholar. The map in his Le Massif du Mont Blanc, showing the rock contours and the glaciers of Mont Blanc, is a model of its kind, which combines great artistic beauty with the accuracy of the most skilful engineer. His strong poetical fancy enabled him to reconstruct the life and buildings of the middle ages in the most vivid way. His principal literary works were the Dictionnaire de V architecture franfaise du XI. au XVI. sikcle (18541-68) ; Dictionnaire du mobilier frangais (1858-75); L' Architecture militaire au moyen age (1854); Enlretiens sur V architecture (1863-72); Cites et mines americaines (1863); Memoire sur la defense de Paris (1871); Habitations modernes (1874-77); Histoire d'une maison (1873); Histoire d'une forteresse (1874) ; Histoire de I'habitation humaine (1875) ; Le Massif du Mont Blanc (1876) ; L'Art russe (1877) > Histoire d'un Mtel-de-ville et d'une cathedrale (1878) ; La Decoration appliquee aux edifices (1879) ; as well as many minor works dealing with separate buildings. VIOLONCELLO (Fr. violoncelle, Ger. Violoncell, Ital. violon- cello), the bass member of the violin family. Although the word violoncello is a diminutive, signifying " small violone," or double bass, the instrument is really a bass violin, formed on a different model from the violone, which has the sloping shoulders and flat back of the viol family, whereas those of the violoncello are rounded as in the violin. The construction of the violoncello is therefore the same as that of the violin (q.ii.) but on a much larger scale. It is either held, on account of its size, between the performer's knees, or rests on the floor supported on a foot or spike. VIONVILLE, a village of Lorraine, between Metz and the French frontier, celebrated as the scene of the battle of Vion- ville (Rezonville or Mars-la-Tour) , fought on the i6th of August 1870 between the French and the Germans (see METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). VIOTTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1824), Italian violinist and musical composer, was born at Fontanetto in the province of Turin on the 23rd of May 1753. He learned the rudiments of music from his father, a blacksmith who played- the horn; and in 1764 Giovannini taught him the violin for a year. Two years later he was placed at the cost of the prince de la Cisterne under the violinist G. Pugnani at Turin, where he became vio'inist in the court chapel. In 1780 Viotti, having already made himself a name, travelled through Germany and Poland to Russia, where the empress Catherine honoured him with marks of extraordinary favour. He next appeared in London, in company with Pugnani, and at once achieved a brilliant and lasting reputation. In 1782 he was equally successful in Paris. Two years later he was appointed leader of the prince de Soubise's private orchestra; and in 1788 he undertook the direction of the opera, raising the perfor- mances, with Cherubini's assistance, to a very high level. He had also started an Italian opera in co-operation with the barber Leonard, which was opened in 1789 in the Tuileries, being subsequently amalgamated with the Theatre de la Foire St Germain in 1790 and finally merged in the new Theatre Feydeau in 1791. In 1791 the Revolution compelled Viotti to fly to London, where he took part in the Hanover Square concerts; but being suspected to be an agent of the Revolu- tionary Committee in Paris he was compelled to retire for a time to the neighbourhood of Hamburg, which he subsequently quitted, although the date of his departure, often given as 1795, does not seem probable. It is possible that he was already in 1794 in London, where he took shares in a wine business, and he resided almost uninterruptedly there until 1819, when he once more settled in Paris, resumed the direction of the opera, and retired in 1822 with a pension. He died in London on the loth (or 3rd) of March 1824. Viotti's playing was distinguished by an extreme purity of style, a magnificent tone, and an inexhaustible variety of poetical and imaginative expression. Among his works are 29 violin concertos, a series of symphonies concertantes for two violins, 45 duos, 1 8 trios and 21 quartets, and a great number of sonatas, notturnos and other instrumental works. His school was worthily perpetu- ated by his pupil Rode. VIPER. The vipers constitute a family of Old-World poisonous snakes, with a pair of poisonous fangs in the maxillary bones, which are short and movable. The main anatomical features are described in the article SNAKES. In the present article only the Viperinae, namely those without an external pit between the eye and the nose, are described. Pit vipers, or Crotalinae, are treated under SNAKES, and those which are possessed of a rattle under RATTLESNAKE. The true vipers comprise about nine genera with some forty species, which can be distinguished as follows: — Causus in Africa, and Azemiophis feae in Burma, are the only vipers which have the head covered with large symmetrical shields, while in the other genera the head shields are broken up into small shields, or into still more numerous scales. C. rhombeatus, common from the Gambia to the Cape. Atractaspis, small burrowing snakes in Africa, without post- frontal bones. Echis and Athens have only one row of subcaudal shields. E. carinata, scarcely exceeding 20 in. in length, is very poisonous and easily overlooked on account of its light brown coloration, with pale spots and delicate markings on the keels of the scales of the back. It is a desert type, having the lateral scales strongly keeled and directed downwards, by means of which it shuffles itself into the sand; by folding itself and rubbing the scales together ,*«?** FIG. i. — Echis carinata. The " Krait " of India, it produces a rustling sound. It ranges from India, where it is known as the " Krait," called " Kuppur " in Sind, through North Africa. This desert type is replaced farther south in Africa, where vegeta- tion flourishes, by the closely allied genus, Athens, which, however, possesses a prehensile tail and vivid coloration and has assumed truly arboreal habits. Cerastes is another desert form, but is restricted to Africa; the arrangement of the scales of the sides of the body is similar to that of VIRBIUS 109 Echis, but it lias two rows of subcaudals. C. cornutus, the " horned viper " of North Africa, trorn Algeria to Palestine, has a large horny spike above each eye. This, the " Efa " of the Arabs, buries itself in the sand, with only the eyes, nostrils and the horns appearing above the surface. It attains a length of 2 J ft. C. vipera is hornless. Bills s. Echidna s. Clotho has two rows of shields on the underside of the very short tail; the thick head is much depressed, like the body. The nasal shields are separated from the rostral by small ^, otherwise much resembling the genus Vipera. B. arietans, the " puff-adder " of nearly the whole of Africa, an ugly, very dangerous brute growing to a length of 4 or 5 ft. B. naticornis, the West African nose-horned viper, has a pair of erectile scales on the nose. Scarcely smaller and less bulky than the puff-adder and just as poisonous, it is yet very handsomely marked with a . of large pale, dark-edged spots and oblique crosses on a purplish or reddish brown ground. Especially handsome are the young, which at birth are as much as I ft. in length. On one occasion one of these snakes, after giving birth to twenty-one young (which bit and killed mice within five minutes of being born), became very ill-tempered, and when two adult males were placed in her cage she bit one with such violence as to break off one of her fangs, which she left, about three-quarters of an inch in length, sticking FIG. 2. — Atheris burtoni. (Length, 12 in.) jn his back. He, however, appeared not to suffer the slightest inconvenience, and was never the worse lor it (see Proc. ZooT. Soc 1871, p. 638). Vipera. — The head is covered with small scales and a few larger shields. The eye is separated from the labials by small scales; the nasals are in contact with the rostral shield or separated by one naso-rostral. The scales of the body are strongly keeled; two" rows of subcaudals on the short tail. This genus of about ten species with numerous local varieties ranges over Europe, Asia and the greater part of Africa. . berus, the common European viper, ranging from Wales to Saghalien Island and from Caithness to the north of Spain, from the northern boundary of Persia to beyond the Arctic circle in Scandinavia. It inhabits all sorts of situations, but prefers heaths, moors and mixed woods with sunny slopes. It ascends the Alps up to 6000 or 7000 ft. The coloration is very variable, grey, brown, reddish or entirely black specimens occurring in the same country-. ich-spoken-of black zigzag line along the back is so often indistinct, that it cannot be relied upon as a safe character. The full-grown males are smaller than the females, and have usually darker markings and a lighter ground colour. A specimen which is 2 It. long is rare, and is invariably a female. The chief food is mice which are hunted after sunset. They cannot climb and they avoid going into water. The pairing takes place from March to May FIG. 3. — Bitis nasicornis. and the young are born about four months later. During the pairing, and ^ for hibernation, they often collect in considerable numbers. Whilst most snakes readily take proper food in cap- tivity, these vipers prefer starving themselves to death, a feat which they accomplish within six to nine months according to conditions. As a rule their bite is not fatal to man, but the consequences are often serious and protracted. For treatment see SNAKES. V. aspis is the more southern and western continental European viper; it is slightly snub-nosed, and this feature is still more pro- nounced in V. latastei of Spain and Portugal. In V. ammoaytes of south-eastern Europe the raised portion is produced into a soft, scaly appendage. V. russelli, the " Daboia," is one of the most poisonous snakes of India, Ceylon, Java, Burma and Siam. It is pale brown with three longitudinal series of black, light-edged rings which sometimes encircle reddish spots. It grows to a length of about 5 ft. (H. F. G.) VIRBIUS, an old Italian divinity, associated with the worship of Diana at Aricia (see DIANA). Under Greek influence, he was identified with Hippolytus (g.f.), who after he had been trampled to death by the horses of Poseidon was restored to life by Asclepius and removed by Artemis to the grove at Aricia, which horses were not allowed to enter. Virbius was the oldest priest of Diana, the first " king of the grove " (Rex Nemorensis). He is said to have established the rule that any candidate for the office should meet and slay in single combat its holder at the time, who always went about armed with a drawn sword in anticipation of the struggle. Candidates had further to be fugitives (probably slaves) , and as a preliminary had to break off a bough from a specified tree. By the eponymous nymph Aricia, Virbius had a son of the same name, who fought on the side of the Rutulian Turnus against Aeneas. J. G. Frazer formerly held Virbius to be a wood and tree spirit, to whom horses, in which form tree spirits were often represented, were offered in sacrifice. His identification with Hippolytus and the manner of the latter's death would explain the exclusion of horses from his grove. This spirit might easily be confounded with the sun, whose potfer was supposed to be stored up in the warmth- giving tree. Sauer (in Roscher's Lexikon) also identifies no VIRCHOW Hippolytus with the " health-giving sun," and Virbius with a healing god akin to Asclepius. Frazer's latest view is that he is the old cult associate of Diana of Aricia (to whom he is related as Attis to Cybele or Adonis to Venus), the mythical predecessor or archetype of the kings of the grove. This grove was probably an oak grove, and the oak being sacred to Jupiter, the king of the grove (and consequently Virbius) was a local form of Jupiter. A. B. Cook suggests that he may be the god of the stream of Nemi. See Virgil, Aen. vii. 761 and Servius, ad loc.; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 265, vi. 737, Metam. xv. 497; Suetonius, Caligula, 35; Strabo, v. p. 239; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (1902), according to whom Virbius was a divinity who assisted at childbirth (cp. the nixi di); J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough (1900), ii. p. 313, iii. p. 456, and Early History of the Kingship (1905), pp. 24, 281 ; A. B. Cook in Classical Review, xvi. p. 372. VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821-1902), German pathologist and politician, was born on the I3th of October 1821 at Scbivelbein, in Pomerania, where his father was a small farmer and shopkeeper. As a boy he attended the Volksschule of his native village, and at the age of seventeen, having passed through the gymnasium of Koslin, went to Berlin to study medicine. He took his doctor's degree in 1843, and almost immediately received an appointment as assistant-surgeon at the Charite Hospital, becoming pro-rector three years later. In 1847 he began to act as Privatdozent in the university, and founded with Reinhardt the Archiv fur pathologische Anatomic und Physiologic, which, after his collaborator's death in 1852, he carried on alone, and in 1848 he went as a member of a government commission to investigate an outbreak of typhus in upper Silesia. About the same time, having shown too open sympathy with the revolu- tionary or reforming tendencies of 1848, he was for political reasons obliged to leave Berlin and retire to the seclusion of Wiirzburg, the medical school of which profited enormously by his labours as professor of pathological anatomy, and secured a wide extension of its reputation. In 1856 he was recalled to Berlin as ordinary professor of pathological anatomy in the university, and as director of the Pathological Institute formed a centre for research whence has flowed a constant stream of original work on the nature and processes of disease. On the 1 4th of October 1901 his eightieth birthday was celebrated in Berlin amid a brilliant gathering of men of science, part of the ceremonies taking place in the new Pathological Museum, near the Charite, which owes its existence mainly to his energy and powers of organization. On that occasion all Europe united to do him honour, many learned societies sent delegates to express their congratulations, the king of Italy gave him his own portrait on a gold medallion, and among the numerous addresses he received was one from Kaiser Wilhelm II., who took the oppor- tunity of presenting him with the Grand Gold Medal for Science. In the early part of 1902 he slipped from a tramcar in Berlin and fractured his thigh; from this injury he never really recovered, and his death occurred in Berlin on the 5th of September 1902. Wide as were Virchow's studies, and successful as he was in all, yet the foremost place must be given to his achievements in pathological investigation. He may, in fact, be called the father of modern pathology, for his view, that every animal is constituted by a sum of vital units, each of which manifests the characteristics of life, has almost uniformly dominated the theory of disease-since the middle of the igth century, when it was enunciated. The beginnings of his doctrine of cellular pathology date from the earliest period in his career. When, towards the end of his student-days in Berlin, he was acting as clinical assistant in the eye department of the Berlin Hospital, he noticed that in keratitis and corneal wounds healing took place without the appearance of plastic exudation. This observation led him to further work, and he succeeded in showing that in vascular organs the presence of cells in inflammatory exudates is not the result of exudation but of multiplication of pre-existing cells. Eventually he was able to prove that the biological doctrine of omnis cellula e cellula applies to pathological processes as well as to those of normal growth, and in his famous book on Cellular-pathologic, published at Berlin in 1858, he established what Lord Lister described as the " true and fertile doctrine that every morbid structure consists of cells which have been derived from pre-existing cells as a progeny." But in addition to bringing forward a fundamental and philosophical view of morbid pro- cesses, which probably contributed more than any other single cause to vindicate for pathology the place which he claimed for it among the biological sciences, Virchow made many important contributions to histology and morbid anatomy and to the study of particular diseases. The classification into epithelial organs, connective tissues, and the more specialized muscle and nerve, was largely due to him; and he proved the presence of neuroglia in the brain and spinal cord, discovered crystalline haematoidine, and made out the structure of the umbilical cord. Medical science further owes to him the classification of new growths on a natural histological basis, the elucidation of leucaemia, glioma and lardaceous tumours, and detailed investigations into many diseases — tuberculosis, pyaemia, diphtheria, leprosy, typhus, &c. Among the books he published on pathological and medical subjects may be mentioned Vorlesungen uber Pathologic, the first volume of which was the Cellular-pathologic (1858), and the remaining three Die Krankhaflen Geschiviilsle (1863-67); Hand- buck der speziellen Pathologic und Therapie (3 vols., 1854-62), in collaboration with other German surgeons; Gesammelte Abhand- lungen zur wissenschaftlichen Medizin (1856); Vier Reden uber Leben und Kranksein (1862); Untersuchungen uber die Entivick- lung des Schddelgrundes (1857); Lehre von den Trichinen (1865); Ueber den Hunger-typhus (1868); and Gesammelte Abhandlungcn aus dem Gebiete der offentlichen Medizin und der Seuchenlehre (1879). In England his pathological work won general recogni- tion. The Royal Society awarded him the Copley medal in 1892, and selected him as Croonian lecturer in the following year, his subject being the position of pathology among the biological sciences; and in 1898 he delivered the second Huxley memorial lecture at Charing Cross Hospital. Another science which Virchow cultivated with conspicuous success was anthropology, which he did much to put on a sound critical basis. At the meeting of the Naturforscherversammlung at Innsbruck in 1869, he was one of the founders of the German Anthropological Society, of which he became president in the following year; and from 1869 onwards he presided over the Berlin Anthropological Society, also acting as editor of its pro- ceedings in the Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic. In ethnology he published a volume of essays on the physical anthropology of the Germans, with special reference to the Frisians; and at his instance a census, which yielded remarkable results, was carried out among school children throughout Germany, to determine the relative distribution of blondes and brunettes. His archaeo- logical work included the investigation of lake dwellings and other prehistoric structures; he went with Schliemann to Troy in 1879, fruits of the expedition being two books, ZurLandeskunde der Troas (1880) and Alt-trojanische Graber und Schadel (1882); in 1 88 1 he visited the Caucasus, and on his return published Das Graberfeld von Koban im Lande der Osseten; and in 1888 he accompanied Schliemann to Egypt, Nubia and the Peloponnese. As a politician Virchow had an active career. In 1862 he was elected a member of the Prussian Lower House. Professing advanced Liberal and democratic views, he was a founder and leader of the Fortschrittspartei, and the expression Kultur- kampf had, it is believed, its origin in one of his electoral manifestoes. For many years he was chairman of the finance committee, and in that capacity may be looked upon as a chief founder of the constitutional Prussian Budget system. In 1880 he entered the Reichstag as representative of a Berlin constituency, but was ousted in 1893 by a Social Democrat. In the Reichstag he became the leader of the Opposition, and a vigorous antagonist to Bismarck. In the local and municipal politics of Berlin again he took a leading part, and as a member of the municipal council was largely responsible for the trans- formation which came over the city in the last thirty years of the 1 9th century. That it has become one of the healthiest cities in the world from being one of the unhealthiest is VIRE— VIRGIL in attributable in great measure to his insistence on the necessity of sanitary reform, and it was his unceasing efforts that secured for its inhabitants the drainage system, the sewage farms and the good water-supply, the benefits of which are reflected in the decreased death-rate they now enjoy. In respect of hospitals and the treatment of the sick his energy and know- ledge were of enormous advantage to his country, both in times of peace and of war, and the unrivalled accommodation for medical treatment possessed by Berlin is a standing tribute to his name, which will be perpetuated in one of the largest hospitals of the city. Of his writings on social and political questions may be mentioned Die Erziehung des Weibes (1865); Ueber die nationale Entivicklung und Bedeutung der Natururissenschaften (1865); Die Aufgaben der Naturwissenschaften in dem neiten nationalen Leben Deutschlands (1871); Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im modernen Stoat (1877), in which he opposed the idea of Haeckel — that the principles of evolution should be taught in elementary schools — on the ground that they were not as yet proved, and that it was mischievous to teach a hypothesis which still remained in the speculative stage. See Lives by Becher (Berlin, 1894) and Page) (Leipzig, 1906); Rudolf Virchow als Patholog by Marchand (Munich, 1902): Rudolf 1830-1864, _ . „. . works was published at Berlin in 1901. VIRE, a town of north-western France, capital of an ar- rondissement in the department of Calvados, 47 m. S.W. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 6228. Vire stands on an eminence surrounded on three sides by the Vire and crowned by the remains of a 12th-century chateau. The church of Notre Dame (lath to isth century), and the picturesque Tour de 1'Horloge (i3th century), beneath which runs the chief street, are the principal buildings. A library and a small museum with good collections of porcelain, pictures and curiosities, are installed in the town hall (i?th and i8th centuries). In the public garden there is a statue of Marshal Jacques Goyon, comte de Matignon (1525-1597); and the native poets C. J. L. Chenedolle and P. L. R. Castel are represented, the former by a marble bust, the latter by a bronze statue. Vire grew up around a castle built in the I2th century by Henry I. of England, and in the middle ages was one of the important strongholds of Normandy. South-west of the town is the gorge called Vaux-de-Vire, in which was situated the mill of Olivier Basselin (iSth century), the fuller and reputed author of the satiric songs, hence known as "vaudevilles" (see BASSELIN, OLIVIER). VI RELAY, the title applied to more than one fixed form of verse, from the French virer, to turn or veer. The history and exact character of the vi relay are more obscure than those of any other of the old French forms. It is possible that it is connected with the Provengal ley. Historians of poetry have agreed in stating that it is a modification of the medieval lai, but it is curious that no example of the lai is forthcoming, except the following, which was first printed by the Pere Mourgues in his Traiti de la Potsie : — " Sur I'appui du Monde Que faut-il qu'on fonde D'espoir? Cette mer profonde Et debris feconde Fait voir Calme au matin 1'onde Et 1'orage y gronde Le Soir." But this appears to be, not a complete poem, but a fragment of a virelay, which proceeds by shifting or " veering " the two rhymes to an extent limited only by the poet's ingenuity. This is the Old Virelay (virelai anrien), of which examples have been rare in recent literature. There is, however, a New Virelay (virelai noweeau), the newness of which is merely relative, since it was used by Alain Chartier in the isth century. In French the old and popular verses beginning — " Adieu vous dy triste Lyre, C'est trop apprfiter a rire," form a perfect example of the New Virelay, and in English we have at least one admirable specimen in Mr Austin Dohson's "July" " Good-bye to the Town! good-bye! Hurrah! for the sea and the sky! " The New Virelay is entirely written on two rhymes, and begins with two lines which are destined to form recurrent refrains throughout the whole course of the poem, and, reversed in order, to close.it with a couplet. The virelay is a vaguer and less vertebrate form of verse than the sonnet, the ballad or the villanelle, and is of less importance than these in the history of prosody. (E. G.) VIRGIL (PUBLICS VERGILIUS MARo),the great Roman poet, was born on the isth of October in the year 70 B.C., on a farm on the banks of the Mincio, in the district of Andes, not far from the town of Mantua. In the region north of the Po a race of more imaginative susceptibility than the people of Latium formed part of the Latin-speaking population. It was favourable to his development as a national poet that he was born and educated during the interval of comparative calm between the first and second civil wars, and that he belonged to a generation which, as the result of the social war, first enjoyed the sense of an Italian nationality. Yet it was only after Virgil had grown to manhood that the province to which he belonged obtained the full rights of Roman citizen- ship. It is remarkable that the two poets whose imagination seems to have been most powerfully possessed by the spell of Rome — Ennius and Virgil — were born outside the pale of Roman citizenship. The scenery familiar to his childhood, which he recalls with affection both in the Eclogues and the Georgia, was that of the green banks and slow windings of the Mincio and the rich pastures in its neighbourhood. Like his friend and contem- porary Horace, he sprung from the class of yeomen, whose state he pronounces the happiest allotted to man and most conducive to virtue and piety. Virgil, as well as Horace, was fortunate in having a father who, though probably uneducated himself, discerned his genius and spared no pains in giving it the best culture then obtainable in the world. At the age of twelve he was taken for his education to Cremona, and from an expression in one of the minor poems attributed to him, about the authen- ticity of which there cannot be any reasonable doubt, it may be inferred that his father accompanied him. Afterwards he removed to Milan, where he continued engaged in study till he went to Rome two years later. The time of his removal to Rome must have nearly coincided with the publica- tion of the poem of Lucretius and of the collected poems of Catullus. After studying rhetoric he began the study of philosophy under Siron the Epicurean. One of the minor poems written about this time in the scazon metre tells of his delight at the immediate prospect of entering on the study of philo- sophy, and of the first stirring of that enthusiasm for philo- sophical investigation which haunted him through the whole of his life. At the end of the poem, the real master- passion of his life, the charm of the Muses, reasserts itself (Catalepton v.). Our next knowledge of him is derived from allusions in the Eclogues, and belongs to a period nine or ten years later. Of what happened to him in the interval, during which the first civil war took place and Julius Caesar was assassinated, we have no indication from ancient testimony or from his own writings. In 42 B.C., the year of the battle of Philippi, we find him " cultivating his woodland Muse " under the protection of Asinius Pollio, governor of the district north of the Po. In the following year the famous confiscations of land for the benefit of the soldiers of the triumvirs took place. Of the impression produced on Virgil by these confiscations, and of their effect on his fortunes, we have a vivid record in the first and ninth eclogues. Mantua, in consequence of its vicinity to Cremona, which had been faithful to the cause of the re- public, was involved in this calamity; and Virgil's father was 112 VIRGIL driven from his farm. By the influence of his powerful friends, and by personal application to the young Octavian, Virgil obtained the restitution of his land. In the meantime he had taken his father and family with him to the small country house of his old teacher Siron (Cataleplon x.). Soon afterwards we hear of him living in Rome, enjoying, in addition to the patronage of Pollio, the favour of Maecenas, intimate with Varius, who was at first regarded as the rising poet of the new era, and later on with Horace. His friendship with Callus, for whom he indicates a warmer affection and more enthusiastic admiration than for any one else, was formed before his second residence in Rome, in the Cisalpine province, with which Callus also was connected both by birth and office. The pastoral poems, or " eclogues," commenced in his native district, were finished and published in Rome, probably in 37 B.C. Soon afterwards he withdrew from habitual residence in Rome, and lived chiefly in Campania, either at Naples or hi the neighbourhood of Nola. He was one of the companions of Horace in the famous journey to Brundisium; and it seems not unlikely that, some time before 23 B.C., he made the voyage to Athens which forms the subject of the third ode of the first book of the Odes of Horace. The seven years from 37 to 30 B.C. were devoted to the com- position of the Georgics. In the following year he read the poem to Augustus, on his return from Asia. The remaining years of his life were spent on the composition of the Asneid. In 19 B.C., after the Aeneid was finished but not finally corrected, he set out for Athens, intending to pass three years hi Greece and Asia and to devote that time to perfecting the poem. At Athens he met Augustus, and was persuaded by him to return with him to Italy. While visiting Megara under a burning sun, he was seized with illness, and, as he continued his voyage without interruption, he grew rapidly worse, and died on the zist of September, in his fifty-first year, a few days after landing at Brundisium. In his last illness he called for the cases con- taining his manuscripts, with the intention of burning the Aeneid. He had previously left directions in his will that his literary executors, Varius and Tucca, should publish nothing of his which had not already been given to the world by himself. This pathetic desire that the work to which he had given so much care, and of which such great expectations were formed, should not survive him has been used as an argument to prove his own dissatisfaction with the poem. A passage from a letter of his to Augustus is also quoted, hi which he speaks as if he felt that the undertaking of the work had been a mistake. This dissatisfaction with his work may be ascribed to his passion for perfection of workmanship, which death prevented him from attaining. The command of Augustus overrode the poet's wish and rescued the poem. Virgil was buried at Naples, where his tomb was long regarded with religious veneration. Horace is our most direct witness of the affection which he inspired among his contemporaries. The qualities by which he gained their love were, according to his testimony, candor — sincerity of nature and goodness of heart — and pittas — the union of deep affection for kindred, friends and country with a spirit of reverence. The statement of his biographer, that he was known in Naples by the name " Par- thenias," is a testimony to the exceptional purity of his life in an age of licence. The seclusion of his life and his devotion to his art touched the imagination of his countrymen as the finer qualities of his nature touched the heart of his friends. It had been, from the time of Cicero,1 the ambition of the men of finest culture and most original genius in Rome to produce a national literature which might rival that of Greece; and the feeling that at last a poem was about to appear which would equal 1 Cf. Tusc. Disp. ii. 2: " Quamobrem hortor omnes quj facere id possunt, ut hujus quoque generis laudem jam languenti Graeciae eripiant," &c. These words apply specially to philosophical litera- ture, but other passages in the same and in other works imply that Cicero thought that the Romans had equal aptitudes for other de- partments of literature; and the practice of the Augustan poets in each appropriating to himself a special province of Greek literary art seems to indicate the same ambition. or surpass the greatest among all the works of Greek genius found a voice in the lines of Propertius — " Cedite Romani scriptoies, cedite Graii; Nescio quid majus nascitur Iliade." The feeling of his countrymen and contemporaries seems justified by the personal impression which he produces on modern readers — an impression of sanctity, as of one who habitually lived in a higher and serener sphere than that of this- world. The veneration in which his name was held during the long interval between the overthrow of Western civilization and the revival of letters affords testimony of the depth of the impression which he made on the heart and imagination of the ancient world. The traditional belief in his pre-eminence has been on the whole sustained, though not with absolute una- nimity, hi modern times. By the scholars and men of letters of the i6th, I7th and i8th centuries it was never seriously questioned. During the first half of the igth century his right to be ranked among the great poets of the world was disputed by some German and English critic?. The effect of this was a juster estimate of Virgil's relative position among the poets of the world. It may still be a matter of individual opinion whether Lucretius himself was not a more powerful and original poetical force, whether he does not speak more directly to the heart and imagination of our own time. But it can hardly be questioned, on a survey of Roman litera- ture, as a continuous expression of the national mind, from the age of Naevius to the age of Claudian, that the position of Virgil is central and commanding, while that of Lucretius is in a great measure isolated. If we could imagine the place of Virgil in Roman literature vacant, it would be much the same as if we imagined the place of Dante vacant hi modern Italian, and that of Goethe in German literature. The serious efforts of the early Roman literature — the efforts of the older epic and tragic poetry — found their fulfilment in him. The revelation of the power and life of Nature, first made to Lucretius, was able to charm the Roman mind, only after it had passed into the mind of Virgil. Virgil is the only complete representative of the deepest senti- ment and highest mood of his countrymen and of his time. In his pastoral and didactic poems he gives a living voice to the whole charm of Italy, in the Aeneid to the whole glory of Rome. He was in the maturity of his powers at the most critical epoch of the national life, one of the most critical epochs in the history of the world. Keeping aloof from the trivial daily life of his con- temporaries, he was moved more profoundly than any of them by the deeper currents of emotion in the sphere of government, religion, morals and human feeling which were then changing the world; and in uttering the enthusiasm of the hour, and all the new sensibilities that were stirring in his own heart and imagina- tion, he had, hi the words of Sainte-Beuve, " divined at a decisive hour of the world what the future would love." He was also by universal acknowledgment the greatest literary artist whom Rome produced. Virgil had a more catholic sympathy with the whole range of Greek poetry, from Homer and Hesiod to Theocritus and the Alexandrians, than any one else at any period of Roman literature. The effort of the preceding genera- tion to attain to beauty of form and finish of artistic execution found in him, at the most susceptible period of his life, a ready recipient of its influence. The rude dialect of Latium had been moulded into a powerful and harmonious organ of literary expression by a long series of orators; the Latin hexameter, first shaped by Ennius to meet the wants of his own spirit and of his high argument, had been smoothed and polished by Lucretius, and still more perfected by the finer ear and more careful industry of Catullus and his circle; but neither had yet attained their final development. It was left for Virgil to bring both diction and rhythm to as high a pitch of artistic perfection as has been attained in any literature. This great work was accomplished by the steady devotion of his genius to his appointed task. For the first half of his life he prepared himself to be the poet of his time and country with a high ambition and unresting industry. The second half of his career VIRGIL was a religious consecration of all his powers of heart, mind and spirit to his high office. Virgil's fame as a poet rests on the three acknowledged works of his early and mature manhood — the pastoral poems or Eclogues, the Georgia and the Aeneid — all written in that hexameter verse which Tennyson has called " The stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man." The pastoral poems or Eclogues — a word denoting short selected pieces — were composed between the years 42 .and 37 B.C., when Eclogue*. Virgil was between the age of twenty-eight and thirty- three. By his invocation to the " Sicelides Musae " and " Arethusa," and by many other indications, he avows the purpose of eliciting from the strong Latin language the melody which the " Sicilian shepherd " drew out of the " Done reed," and of expressing that tender feeling for the beauty of Italian scenes which Theocritus had expressed for the beauty of Sicily. The earliest poems in the series were the second, third and fifth ; and these, along with the seventh, are the most purely Theocritean in character. The first and ninth, which probably were next in order, are much more Italian in sentiment, are much more an expression of the poet's own feelings, and have a much more direct reference both to his own circumstances and the circumstances of the time. The first is a true poetical reflex of the distress and confusion which arose out of the new distribution of lands, and blends the poet's own deep love of his home, and of the sights and sounds familiar to him from childhood, with his Italian suscepti- bility to the beauty of nature. The ninth is immediately connected in subject with the first. It contains the lines which seem accurately to describe the site of Virgil's farm, at the point where the range of hills which accompany the river for some distance from the foot of the Lago di Garda sinks into the plain about 14 or 15 m. above Mantua. The sixth is addressed to Varus, who succeeded Pollio as governor of the Cisalpine district. Its theme is the creation of the world (according to the Epicurean cosmogony), and the oldest tales of mythology.1 The fourth and eighth are both closely associated with the name of Virgil's earliest protector, Pollio. The fourth celebrates the consulship of his patron in 40 B.C., and also the prospective birth of a child, though it was disputed in antiquity, and still is disputed, who was meant by this child whose birth was to be coincident with the advent of the new era, and who, after filling the other great offices of state, was to " rule with his father's virtues the world at peace."* The main purpose of the poem, however, is to express the longing of the world for a new era bf peace and happiness, of which the treaty of Brundisium seemed to hold out some definite hopes. There is no trace in this poem of Theocritean influence. The ideas are derived partly from Greek representations of the Golden Age, and partly, it is supposed, from the later Sibylline prophecies, circulated after the burning in the time of Sulla of the old Sibylline books, and possibly tinged with Jewish ideas. Some of the phraseology of the poem led to a belief in the early Christian church that Virgil had been an unconscious instrument of inspired prophecy. The date of the eighth is fixed by a reference to the campaign of Pollio against the Dalmatians in 39 B.C. It is founded on the QapfiaKfurpia. of Theocritus, but brings before us, with Italian associations, two love tales of homely Italian life. The tenth reproduces the Daphnis of Theocritus, and is a dirge over the unhappy love of Callus and Lycoris. As in the other poems, the second and eighth, of which love is the burden, it is to the romantic and fantastic melancholy which the passion assumes in certain natures that Virgil gives a voice. There is no important work in Latin literature, with the exception of the comedy of Terence, so imitative as the Eclogues. But they are not, like the comedies of Terence, purely exotic as well as imitative. They are rather composite, partly Greek and partly Italian, and, as a vehicle for the expression of feeling, hold an undefined place between the objectivity of'the Greek idyll and the subjectivity of the Latin elegy. For the most part, they express the sentiment inspired by the beauty of the world, and the kindred sentiment inspired by the charm of human relationships. Virgil's susceptibility to the beauty of nature appears in the truth with which his work suggests the charm of Italy — the fresh life of an Italian spring, the delicate hues of the wild flowers and the quiet beauty of the pastures and orchards of his native district. The representative character of the poems is enhanced by the fidelity and grace with which he has expressed the Italian peasant's love of his home and of all things associated with it. The supreme charm of -the diction and rhythm is universally recognized. The power of varied harmony is as conspicuous in Virgil's earliest poems as in the maturer and more elaborate workmanship of the Georgics and Aeneid. The Italian language, without sacrifice of the fulness, strength and majesty of its tones, acquired a more tender grace and more liquid flow from the gift — jhe " molle atque facetum " — which the Muses of country life bestowed on Virgil. 1 In the Georgics also Virgil attempts to combine science with the poetic fancies which filled its place in older times. * See Virgil's Messianic Eclogue: Its Meaning, Occasion and Sources, three studies by J. B. Mayor, W. Warde Fowler and R. S. Conway (1907). But these Muses had a more serious and dignified function to fulfil than that of glorifying the picturesque pastime, the " otia dia," of rural life. The Italian imagination formed an ideal of aeonk*. the happiness of a country life nobler than that of passive susceptibility to the sights and sounds of the outward world. It is stated that Maecenas, acting on the principle of employing the poets of the time in favour of the conservative and restorative policy of the new government, directed the genius of Virgil to the subject of the Georgics. No object could be of more consequence in the eyes of a statesman whose master inherited the policy of the popular leaders than the revival of the great national industry, associated with happier memories of Rome, which had fallen into abeyance owing to the long unsettlement of the revolutionary era as well as to other causes. Virgil's previous life and associations made it natural for him to identify himself with this object, while his genius fitted him to enlist the imagination of his countrymen in its favour. It would be a most inadequate view of his purpose to suppose that, like the Alexandrian poets or the didactic poets of modern times, he desired merely to make useful information more attractive by the aid of verse. His aim was rather to describe with realistic fidelity, and to surround with an atmosphere of poetry, the annual round of labour in which the Italian yeoman's life was passed; to bring out the intimate relation with nature into which man was brought in the course of that life, and to suggest the delight to heart and imagination which he drew from it; to contrast the simplicity, security and sanctity of such a life with the luxury and lawless passions of the great world; and to associate the ideal of a life of rustic labour with the beauties of Italy and the glories of Rome. This larger conception of the dignity of his subject separates the didactic poem of Virgil from all other didactic, as distinct from philosophic, poems. He has produced in the Georgics a new type of didactic, as in the Aeneid he has produced a new type of epic, poetry. The subject is treated in four books, varying in length from 514 to 566 lines. The first treats of the tillage of the fields, of the constella- tions, the rise and setting of which form the farmer's calendar, and of the signs of the weather, on which the success of his labours largely depends. The second treats of trees, and especially of the vine and olive, two great staples of the national wealth and industry of Italy ; the third of the rearing of herds and flocks and the breeding of horses; the fourth of bees. As he had found in Theocritus a model for the form in which his idler fancies were expressed, he turned to an older page in Greek literature for the outline of the form in which his graver interest in rural affairs was to find its outlet. The Works and Days of Hesiod could not supply an adequate mould for the systematic treatment of all the processes of rural industry, and still less for the treatment of the larger ideas to which this was sub- sidiary, yet that Virgil considered him as his prototype is shown by the line which concludes one of the cardinal episodes of the poem — " Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen." Virgil accepts also the guidance of the Alexandrian poets who treated the science of their day — astronomy, natural history and geography — in the metre and diction of epic poetry. But, in availing himself of the work of the Alexandrians, Virgil is like a great master making use of mechanical assistants. A more power- ful influence on the form, ideas, sentiment and diction of the Georgics was exercised by the great philosophical poem of Lucretius, of which Virgil had probably been a diligent student since the time of its first appearance, and with which nis mind was saturated when he was engaged in the composition of the Georgics. Virgil is at once attracted and repelled by the genius and attitude of the philosophic poet. He is possessed by his imaginative conception of nature, as a living, all-pervading power; he shares his Italian love of the beauty of the world, and his sympathy with animal as well as human life. He recognizes with enthusiasm his contemplative elevation above the petty interests and passions of life. But he is repelled by his apparent separation from the ordinary beliefs, hopes and fears of his fellow-men. Virgil is in thorough sympathy with the best restorative tendencies — religious, social and national — of his time; Lucretius was driven into isolation by the anarchic and dissolving forces of his. So far as any speculative idea underlying the details of the Georgics can be detected, it is one of which the source can be traced to Lucretius — the idea of the struggle of human force with the forces of nature. In Virgil this idea is modified by Italian piety and by the Italian delight in the results of labour. In the general plan of the poem Virgil follows the guidance of Lucretius rather than that of any Greek model. The distinction between a poem addressed to national and one addressed to philosophical sympathies is marked by the prominence assigned in the one poem to Caesar as the supreme personality of the age, in the other to Epicurus as the supreme master in the realms of mind. The invocation to the " Di agrestes," to the old gods of mythology and art, to the living Caesar as the latest power added to the pagan Pantheon, is both a parallel and a contrast to the invocation to the all-pervading principle of life, personified as '' Alma Venus." In the systematic treatment of his materials, and the interspersion of episodes dealing uman interest of the subject. Virgil with the deeper poetical and human adheres to the practice of the older poet. He uses his connecting VIRGIL links and formulas, such as " principle," " nunc age," &c., but uses them more sparingly, so as to make the logical mechanism of the poem less rigid, while he still keeps up the liveliness of a personal address. All his topics admit of being vitalized by attributing to natural processes the vivacity of human relationships and sensibility, and by association with the joy which the ideal farmer feels in the results of his energy. Much of the argument of Lucretius, on the other hand, is as remote from the genial presence of nature as from human associations. Virgil makes a much larger use than Lucretius of ornament borrowed from older poetry, art, science and mythology. There is uniformity of chastened excellence in the diction and versification of the Georgia, contrasting with the imaginative force of isolated expressions and the majesty of isolated lines and passages in Lucretius. The " vivida vis ' of imagination is more apparent in the older poet ; the artistic perfection of Virgil is even more conspicuous in the Georgia than in the Eclogues or the Aeneid. The principal episodes of the poem, in which the true dignity and human interest of the subject are brought out, occur in the first and second books. Other shorter episodes add variety to the different books. These episodes are not detached or isolated ornaments, but give a higher unity to the poem, and are the main ground of its permanent hold upon the world. There is indeed one marked exception to this rule. The long episode with which the whole poem ends — the tale of the shepherd Aristaeus, with which is connected the more poetical fable of Orpheus and Eurydice-p has only the slightest connexion with the general ideas and senti- ment of the poem. It is altogether at variance with the truthful realism and the Italian feeling which pervade it. But we are distinctly told that the original conclusion had contained the praises of Gallus, the friend of Virgil's youth, who, about the time when Virgil was finishing the poem, had gained distinction in the war against Cleopatra, and had in consequence been made the first governor of the new province of Egypt. Such a conclusion might well have been in keeping with the mam purpose of the poem. After the fall of Gallus, owing to his ambitious failure in his Egyptian administration, and his death in 26 B.C., the poet, accord- ing to the story, in obedience to the command of the emperor, substituted for this encomium the beautiful but irrelevant fable of Orpheus and Eurydice, in which he first "displayed the narrative skill, the pathos and the magical power of making the mystery of the unseen world present to the imagination which characterize the Aeneid. The cardinal episodes of the poem, as it now stands, are the passages in bk. i. from line 464 to the end, and in bk. ii. from 136 to 176 and from 475 to 542. The first, introduced in connexion with the signs of the weather, recounts the omens which accom- panied the death of Julius Caesar, and shows how the misery of Italy and the neglected state of the fields are the punishment for the great sin of the previous generation. In the second of these passages the true keynote of the poem is struck in the invocation to Italy— " Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum." The thought of the beauties of the land, of the abundance and variety of its products,' of its ancient cities and mighty works of man, its brave and hardy races, the great men who had fought for her in old times, and of him, the greatest among her sons, who was then defending Rome against her enemies in the farthest East, inspires the poet, and gives dignity to the trivial details of farm life. But a still higher and more catholic interest is given to the subject in the greatest of the episodes — the most perfect passage in all Latin poetry — that from line 458, " O fortunatos nimium," to the end. The subject is there glorified by its connexion not only with the national well-being but with the highest life and purest happiness of man. The old delight in the labours of the field blends with the new delight in the beauty of nature, and is associated with that purity and happiness of family life which was an Italian ideal, and with the poetry of those religious beliefs and observances which imparted a sense of security, a constantly recurring charm, and a bond of social sympathy to the old rustic life. The Georgia is not only the most perfect, but the most native of all the works of the ancient Italian genius. Even where he borrows from Greek originals, Virgil makes the Greek mind tributary to his national design. The Georgia, the poem of the land, is as essen- tially Italian as the Odyssey, the poem of the sea, is essentially Greek. Nature is presented to us as she is revealed in the soft luxuriance of Italian landscape, not in the clearly defined forms of Greek scenery. The poem shows the Italian susceptibility to the beauty of the outward world, the dignity and sobriety of the Italian imagination, the firm and enduring structure of ajl Roman work- manship, while it is essentially Italian in its religious and ethical feeling. The work which yet remained for Virgil to accomplish was the addition of a great Roman epic to literature. This had been the Aeaeld earliest effort of the national imagination, when it first departed from the mere imitative reproduction of Greek originals. The work which had given the truest expression to the genius of Rome before the time of Virgil had been the Annales of Ennius. This had been supplemented by various historical poems but had never been superseded. It satisfied the national imagination as an expression of the national life in its vigorous prime, but it could not satisfy the newly developed sense of art ; and the expansion of the national life since the days of Ennius, and the changed conditions into which it passed after the battle of Actium, demanded a newer and ampler expression. It had been Virgil's earliest ambition to write an heroic poem on the traditions of Alba Longa; and he had been repeatedly urged by Augustus to celebrate his exploits. The problem before him was to compose a work of art on a large scale, which should represent a great action of the heroic age, and should at the same time embody the most vital ideas and sentiment of the hour — which in substance should glorify Rome and the present ruler of Rome, while in form it should follow closely the great models of epic poetry and reproduce all their sources of interest. It was his ambition to be the Homer, as he had been the Theocritus and Hesiod, of his country. Various objects had thus to be combined in a work of art on the model of the Greek epic: the revival of interest in the heroic fore- time; the satisfaction of national sentiment; the expression of the deeper currents of emotion of the age; the personal celebration of Augustus. A new type of epic poetry had to be created. It was desirable to select a single heroic action which should belong to the cycle of legendary events celebrated in the Homeric poems, and which could be associated with Rome. The only subject which in any way satisfied these conditions was that of the wanderings of Aeneas and of his final settlement in Latium. The story, though not of Roman origin but of a composite growth, had long been familiar to the Romans, and had been recognized by official acts of senate and people. The subject enabled Virgil to tell again of the fall of Troy, and to weave a tale of sea-adventure similar to that of the wanderings of Odysseus. It was also recommended by the claim which the Julii, a patrician family of Alban origin, made to descent from lulus, the supposed son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. The Aeneid is thus at once the epic of the national life under its new conditions and an epic of human character. The true keynote of the poem is struck in the line with which the proem closes — " Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem." The idea which underlies the whole action of the poem is that of the great part played by Rome in the history of the world, that part being from of old determined by divine decree, and carried out through the virtue of her sons. The idea of universal empire is thus the dominant idea of the poem. With this idea that of the unbroken continuity of the national life is intimately associated. The reverence for old customs and for the traditions of the past was a large element in the national sentiment, and has a prominent place in the Aeneid. So too has the feeling of local attachment and of the power of local association over the imagination. The poem is also characteristically Roman in the religious belief and observances which it embodies. Behind all the conventional machinery of the old Olympic gods there is the Roman apprehension of a great inscrutable power, manifesting itself by arbitrary signs, exacting jealously certain observances, working out its own secret purposes through the agency of Roman arms and Roman counsels. The poem is thus a religious as well as a national epic, and this explains the large part played in the development of the action by special revelation, omens, prophecies, ceremonial usages and prayer. But, while the predominant religious idea of the poem is that of a divine purpose carried out regardlessly of human feeling, in other parts of the poem, and especially in that passage of the sixth book in which Virgil tries to formulate his deepest convictions on individual destiny, the agency of fate seems to yield to that of a spiritual dispensation, awarding to men their portions according to their actions. The idealization of Augustus is no expression of servile adulation. It is through the prominence assigned to him that the poem is truly representative of the critical epoch in human affairs at which it was written. The cardinal fact of that epoch was the substitution of personal rule for the rule of the old commonwealth over the Roman world. Virgil shows the imaginative significance of that fact by revealing the emperor as chosen from of old in the counsels of the supreme ruler of the world to fulfil the national destiny, as the descendant of gods and of heroes of old poetic renown; as one, moreover, who, in the actual work done by him, as victor in a great decisive battle between the forces of the Western and the Eastern world, as the organizer of empire and restorer of peace, order and religion, had rendered better service to mankind than any one of the heroes who in an older time had been raised for their great deeds to the company of the gods. Virgil's true and yet idealizing interpretation of the imperial idea of Rome is the basis of the greatness of the Aeneid as a repre- sentative poem. It is on this representative character and on the excellence of its artistic execution that the claim of the Aeneid to rank as one of the great poems of the world mainly rests. The inferiority of the poem to the Iliad and the Odyssey as a direct representation of human life is so unquestionable that we are in danger of underrating the real though secondary interest which the poem possesses as an imitative epic of human action, manners VIRGIL and character. In the first place it should be remarked that the action is chosen not only as suited to embody the idea of Rome but as having a peculiar nobleness and dignity of its own. Ii brings before us the spectacle of the destruction of the city of greatesi name in poetry or legend, of the foundation of the imperial city of the western seas, in which Rome had encountered her most powerful antagonist in her long struggle for supremacy, and that of the first rude settlement on the hills of Rome itself. The scenes through which the action is carried are familiar, yet full of great memories and associations — Troy and its neighbourhood, the seas and islands of Greece, the coasts of Epirus, familiar to all travellers between Italy and the East, Sicily, the site of Carthage, Campania, Latium, the Tiber, and all the country within sight of Rome. The personages of the action are prominent in poetry" a°d legend, or by their ethnical names stir the sentiment of national enthusiasm— Aeneas and Anchises, Dido, Acestes, Evander, Turnus. The spheres ol activity in which they are engaged are war and sea-adventure. The passion of love is a powerful addition to the older sources of interest. The Aeneid revives, by a conventional compromise between the present and the remote past, some image of the eld romance ol ('.recce; it creates the romance of " that Italy for which Camilla the virgin, Euryalus, and Turnus and Nisus died of wounds." It might be said of the manner of life represented in the Aeneid, that it is no more true to any actual condition of human society than that represented in the Eclogues. But may not the same be said of all idealizing restoration of a remote past in an age of advanced civilization? The life represented in the Oedipus Tyrannus or in King Lear is not the life of the Periclean nor of the Elizabethan age, nor is it conceivable as the real life of a prehistoric age. The truth of such a representation is to be judged, not by its relation to any actual state of things ever realized in the world, but by its relation to an ideal of the imagination — the ideal conception of how man, endowed with the gifts and graces of a civilized time, but yet not without the buoyancy of a more primitive age, might play his part under circumstances which would afford scope for the passions and activities of a vigorous personality, and for the refined emotions and subtle reflection of an era of high intellectual and moral cultivation. The verdict of most readers of the Aeneid will be that Virgil does not satisfy this condition as it is satisfied by Sophocles and Shakespeare. Yet there is a courtesy, dignity and consideration for the feelings of others in the manners of his chief personages, such as might be exhibited by the noblest in an age of chivalry and in an age of culture. The charm of primitive simplicity is present in some passages of the Aeneid, the spell of luxurious pomp in others. The delight of voyaging past beautiful islands is enhanced by the suggestion of the adventurous spirit which sent the first explorers abroad. Where Virgil is least real, and most purely imitative, is in the battle-scenes of the later books. They afford scope, however, to his patriotic desire to do justice to the martial energy of the Italian races; and some of them have a peculiar beauty from the pathos with which the deaths of some of the heroes are described. But the adverse criticisms of the Aeneid are chiefly based on Virgil's supposed failure in the crucial test of the creation of char- acter. And his chief failure is pronounced to be the " pious Aeneas." Is Aeneas a worthy and interesting hero of a great poem of action? Not, certainly, according to the ideals realized in Achilles and Odysseus, nor according to the modern ideal of heroism. Virgil wishes to hold up in Aeneas an ideal of pious obedience and per- sistent purpose — a religious ideal belonging to the ages of faith combined with the humane and self-sacrificing qualities belonging to an era of moral enlightenment. His own sympathy is with his religious ideal rather than with that of chivalrous romance. Yet that there was in his own imagination a chord responsive to the chivalrous emotion of a later time is seen in the love and pathos which he has thrown into his delineations of Pallas, Lausus and Camilla. But he felt that the deepest need of his time was not military glory, but peace, reconciliation, the restoration of law, order and piety. In Dido Roman poetry has added to thegreat gallery of men and women, created by the imaginative art of different times and peoples, the ideal of a true queen and a true woman. On the episode of which she is the heroine the most passionate human interest is concentrated. It has been objected that Virgil does not really sympathize with his own creation, that he rives his approval to the cold desertion of her by Aeneas. But if he does not condemn his hero, he sees in the desertion and death of Dido a great tragic issue in which a noble and generous nature is sacrificed to the larger purpose of the gods. But that Virgil really sympathized with the creation of his imagination appears, not only in the sympathy which she still inspires, but in the part which he assigns to her in that shadowy realm — " Conjunx ubi pristinus illi Respondet curis, aequatque Sychaeus amorem." Even those who have been insensible to the representative and to the human interest of the Aeneid have generally recognized the artistic excellence of the poem. This is conspicuous both in the conception of the action and the arrangement of its successive stages and in the workmanship of details. Each of the first eight books has a large and distinct sphere of interest, and they each contribute to the impression of the work as a whole.. In the first book we have the storm, the prophecy of Jove and the building of Carthage; in the second the destruction of Troy; in the third the voyage among the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean; in the fourth the tragedy of Dido; in the fifth the rest in tha Sicilian bay, at the foot of Mount Eryx; in the sixth the revelation of the spiritual world of Virgil's imagination, and of the souls of those who built up the greatness of Rome in their pre-existent state; in the seventh the arrival of the Trojans at the mouth of the Tiber and the gathering of the Italian clans; in the eighth the first sight of the hillf of Rome, and the prophetic representation of the great crises in Roman history, leading up to the greatest of them all, the crowning victory of Actium. Among these books we may infer that Virgil assigned the palm to the second, the fourth and the sixth, as he selected them to read to Augustus and the imperial family. The interest is generally thought to flag in the last four books; nor is it possible to feel that culminating sympathy with the final combat between Turnus and Aeneas that we feel with the combat between Hector and Achilles. Yet a personal interest is awakened in the ad- ventures and fate of Pallas, Lausus and Camilla. Virgil may himself have become weary of the succession of battle-scenes — " eadem hprrida bella " — which the requirements of epic poetry called upon him to portray. There is not only a less varied interest, there is greater inequality of workmanship in the later bocks, owing to the fact that they had not received their author's final revisal. Yet in them there are many lines and passages of great power, pathos and beauty. Virgil brought the two great instrument* of varied and continuous harmony and of a rich, chastened and noble style to the highest perfection of which the Latin tongue was capable. The rhythm and style of the Aeneid is more unequal than the rhythm and style of the Georgics, but is a larger and more varied instrument. The note of his supremacy among all the poetic artists of his country is that subtle fusion of the music and the meaning of language which touches the deepest and most secret springs of emotion. He touches especially the emotions of reverence and of yearning for a higher spiritual life, and the sense of noble- ness in human affairs, in great institutions, and great natures; the sense of the sanctity of human affections, of the imaginative spell exercised by the past, o'f the mystery of the unseen world. This is the secret of the power which his words have had over some of the deepest and greatest natures in all ages. (W. Y. S. ; T. R. G.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Appendix Vergiliana.— Under this collective name there are current several poems of some little length and some groups of shorter pieces, all attributed to Virgil in antiquity. Virgfl wrote a Culex, but not the Culex now extant, though it passed for his half a century after his death. The Aetna, the Ciris and the Copa are clearly not Virgil's. The Moretum is said to have been translated by him from a Greek poem by his teacher Parthenius; it is an exquisite piece of work, familiar perhaps to English readers in Cowper's translation. The case of the Catalepton («ard WrAi>) is peculiar. Two of these little poems (lie hinc indnes and Villula quae Sironis) are generally accepted as Virgil's; opinion varies as to the rest, with very little to go upon, but generally rejecting them. The whole are printed in the larger editions of Virgil. For English readers the most obvious edition is that of Robinson Ellis (1907), who has also edited the Aetna separately. Manuscripts. — Gellius (Noctes Atticae, ix. 14, 7) tells us of people who had inspected idiographum librum Vereilii, but this has of course in all probability long since perished. There are, however, seven very ancient MSS. of Virgil, (i) The Mediceus at Florence, with a note purporting to be by a man, who was consul in 494, to say he had read it. (2) The Palatinus Vaticanus of the 4th or 5th century. (3) The Vaticanus of the same period. (4) The " Schedae Vaticanae." (5) The " Schedae Berolinenses," perhaps of the 4th century. (6) The " Schedae Sangallenses." (7) The " Schedae rescriptae Veronenses " — the last three of insignificant extent. For a full account of the MSS., see Henry, Aenetdea, i., and Ribbeck, Prolegomena ad Verg. Ancient Commentators. — Commentaries on Virgil began to be written at a very early date. Suetonius, V. Verg. 44, mentions an Aeneidomastix of Carvilius Pictor and other works on Virgil's " thefts " and " faults," besides eight " volumina " of Q. Octavius Avitus, setting out in parallel passages the " likenesses " (6/ioi4ri7rct was the name of the work) between Virgil and more ancient authors. M. Valerius Probus (latter part of 1st century A.D.) wrote a com- mentary, but it is doubtful for how much of what passes under his name he is responsible, if for any of it. At the end of the 4th :entury come the commentaries of Tiberius Claudius Donatus and of Servius, the former writing as a teacher of rhetoric, the latter of style and grammar. The work of Servius was afterwards expanded by another scholar, whose additions greatly added to its worth, as they ire drawn from older commentators and give us very valuable nformation on the old Roman religion and constitution, Greek md Latin legends, old Latin and linguistic usages. In this enlarged orm the commentary of Servius and the Saturnalia of Macrobius 'also of the end of the 4th century) are both of great interest to he student of Virgil. There are, further, sets of Scholia in MSS. at Verona and Bern, which draw their material from ancient u6 VIRGIL, POLYDORE commentaries. See H. Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature, xi., and Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, ch. 5. Editions. — The editions of Virgil are innumerable; Heyne (1767-1800), Forbiger (1872-75) and Ribbeck (1859-66) in Germany, Benoist (1876) in France, and Conington (completed by Nettleship, and edited by Haverfield) in England, are perhaps the most im- portant. Good school editions in English have been produced by Page, Sidgwick and Papillon. Conington's work, however, is with- out question the best in English. Translations. — Famous English translations have been made by Dryden and by a host of others since his day. Since the middle of the i gth century the most important are Conington (Aeneid in verse, whole works in prose) ; J. W. Mackail (Aeneid and Georgics in prose) ; William Morris (Aeneid in verse); Lord Justice Bowen (Eclogues and Aeneid, i.— vi. in verse); Canon Thornhill (verse); C. J. Billson (verse, 1906); J. Rhoades (verse, new ed., 1907). For essays on translating Virgil, see Conington, Miscellaneous Works, vol. i. ; R. V. Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (appendix). AUTHORITIES. — For full bibliographies of Virgil consult Schanz, Gesch. der Romischen Litteratur (1899) (in Iwan von Muller's series, Handbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft), and Teuffel, History of Roman Literature, edited by L. Schwabe and tr. by G. C. W. Warr (1900). On the life of Virgil: Nettleship's Ancient Lives of Vergil (1879) discusses the authorities, printing one of the lives, which he shows to be by Suetonius. On the Eclogues: Glaser, V. als Naturdichter u. Theist (1880) ; Cattault, Etude sur les Bucoliques de V. (1897). On the Georgics: Morsch, De Graecis in Georgicis a V. expresses (1878); Norden, " V.-studien " (in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893) (Norden has little patience with " aesthetic criticism "). On the Aeneid: Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. vol. i. (1853); Cauer, De fabulis Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus ; Hild, La Legende d'Enee avant V. (1883); Forstemann, Zur Gesch. des Aeneasmythus; H. de la Ville de Mirmont, Apollonios de Rhodes et Virgile (1894) (rather too long) ; Pluss, V. u. die cpische Kunst (1884) ; Georgii, Die politische Tendenz der Aen. (1880); Boissier, Nouvelles promenades archeo- logiques (1886) (trans, under title The Country of Horace and Virgil, by D. Havelock Fisher, 1895); Gibbon, Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of the Aeneid (1770); Boissier, La Religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins (1884) (with section on sixth Aeneid); Ettig, Acheruntica (Leipziger Studien, 1891); Norden, " V.-studien " (in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893), on sixth Aeneid, and papers in Neue Jahrbiicher fur hi. Altertutn (1901); Dieterich, Nekyia (1893) (on Apocalypse of Peter and ancient teaching on the other life — a valuable book) ; Henry, Aeneidea (1873-79) (a book of very great learning, wit, sense and literary judgment; the author, an Irish physician, gave twenty years to it, examining MSS., exploring Virgil's country, and reading every author whom Virgil could have used and nearly every ancient writer who used Virgil). Virgil-literature: Sainte-Beuve. Etude sur Virgile (one of the great books on Virgil); Comparetti, Virgilio nel media Evo (1872)^ — Eng.tr., Vergilin the Middle Ages, by E. F. M. Benecke (1895) (a book of very great and varied interest) ; Heinze, Virgil's epische Technik (1902); W. Y. Sellar, Roman Poets of the Augustan Age: Virgil (2nd ed. 1883); Glover, Studies in Virgil (1904). Essays in the following: F. W. H. Myers, Essays [Classical] (1883), the most famous English essay on Virgil; J. R. Green, Stray Studies (1876) (an excellent study of Aeneas); W. Warde Fowler, A Year with the Birds (on Virgil's bird-lore) ; Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature (1884); Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (1898); Patin, Essais sur la poesie Latine (4th ed. 1900) (one of the finest critics of Latin literature) ; Goumy, Les Latins (1892) (a volume of very bright essays); J. W. Mackail, Latin Literature (3rd ed. 1899). (T. R. G.) The Virgil Legend. Virgil's great popularity in the middle ages is to be partly explained by the fact that he was to a certain extent recognized by the Church. He was supposed to have prophesied the coming of Christ in the fourth Eclogue, and by some divines the Aeneid was held to be an allegory of sacred things. This position was sufficiently emphasized by Dante when be chose him from among all the sages of antiquity to be his guide in the Divina Commedia. Ancient poets and philosophers were commonly transformed by medieval writers into necromancers; and Virgil and Aristotle became popularly famous, not for poetry and science, but for their supposed knowledge of the black art. Naples appears to have been the home of the popular legend of Virgil, which represented him as the special protector of the city, but was probably never quite independent of learned tradition. One of the earliest references to the magical skill of Virgil1 occurs in a letter of the imperial chancellor Conrad of Querfurt (1194), 1 The Irish apostle to Carinthia, St Virgilius, bishop of Salzburg (d. 784), who held original views on the subject of antipodes, may have been the real eponym of the legend. reproduced by Arnold of Liibeck in the continuation of the Chronica Slavorum of Helmold. John of Salisbury alludes to the brazen fly fabricated by Virgil; Helinand (d. 1227) speaks of similar marvels in a work from which Vincent of Beauvais has borrowed; and Gervase of Tilbury, in his Otia Imperialia (1212), and Alexander of Neckam (d. 1217), in De Naturis Rerutn, have reproduced these traditions, with additions. German and French poets did not overlook this accessory to their repertory. The Roman de Cleo- mades of Adenes li rois (i2th century) and the Image du Monde of Gauthier de Metz (1245) contain numerous references to the prodigies of the enchanter. Reynard the Fox informs King Lion that he had from the wise Virgil a quantity of valuable receipts. He also plays a considerable part in the popular folk-tale The Seven Wise Masters, and appears in the Gesta Romanorum and that curious guidebook for pilgrims, the Mirabilia Romae. He is to be found in John Gower's Confessio Amantis and in John Lydgate's Bochas. A Spanish romance, Vergilios, is included by E. de Ochoa in his Tesoro (Paris, 1838), and Juan Ruiz, archpriest of Hita (d. c. 1360), also wrote a poem on the subject. Many of the tales of magic throughout Europe were referred to Virgil, and gradually developed into a completely new life, strangely different from that of the real hero. They were collected in French under the title of Les Faitz Meryeilleux de Virgille (c. 1499), a quarto chapbook of ten pages, which became extremely popular, and was printed, with more or less additional matter, in other languages. The English version, beginning "This is resqnable to wryght the mervelus dedes done by Virgilius," was printed about 1520. We are told how Virgil beguiled the devil at a very early age, in the same fashion as the fisherman persuaded the jinnee in the Arabian Nights to re-enter Solomon's casket. Another reproduction of a widely spread tale was that of the lady who kept Virgil suspended in a basket. To revenge the affront the magician extinguished all the fires in the city, and no one could rekindle them without subject- ing the lady to an ordeal highly offensive to her modesty. Virgil made for the emperor a castle in which he could see and hear every- thing done or said in Rome, an ever-blooming orchard, statues of the tributary princes which gave warning of treason or rebellion, and a lamp to supply light to the city. He abducted the soldan's daughter, and built for her the city of Naples upon a secure foundation of eggs. At last, having performed many extraordinary things, he knew that his time was come. In order to escape the common lot he placed all his treasures in a castle defended by images unceasingly wielding iron flails, and directed his confidential servant to hew him in pieces, which he was to salt and place in a barrel in the cellar, Under which a lamp was to be kept burning. The servant was assured that after seven days his master would re'.'ive, a young man. The directions were carried out; but the emperor, missing his medicine-man, forced the servant to divulge the secret and to quiet the whirling flails. The emperor and his retinue entered the castle and at last found the mangled corpse. In his wrath he slew the servant, whereupon a little naked child ran thrice round the barrel, crying, " Cursed be the hour that ye ever came here," and vanished. For the legends connected with Virgil see especially D. Com- paretti, Virguio nel media evo (2nd ed., Florence, 1896; English trans., E. F. M. Benecke, 1895). The chief original source for the Neapolitan legends is the 14th-century Cronica di Partenope. See further W. J. Thorns, Early Eng. Prose Romances (1858) ; G. Brunei, Les Faitz merveilleux de Virgile (Geneva, 1867) ; E. Dumeril, "Virgile enchanteur " (Melanges archeologiques, 1850); Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imper. (ed. Liebrecht, 1856); P. Schwubbe, Virgilius per mediam aetatem (Paderborn, 1852); Siebenhaar, De fabulis quae media aetate de Virgilio circumf. (Berlin, 1837); J. G. T. Graesse, Beilrage zur Lilt. u. Sage des Mittelalters (1850); Bartsch, " Gedicht auf. d. Zaub. Virgil " (Pfeiffer's Germania, iv. 1859); F. Liebrecht, " Der Zauberer Virgilius" (ibid. x. 1865); K. L. Roth, " Ober d. Zaub. Virgilius" (ibid. iv. 1859); W. Victor, " Der Ursprung der Virgilsage " (Zeit. f. rpm. Phil. i. 1877) ; A. Graf, Roma nella memoria e nelle imaeinazioni del media evo (Turin, 1882) ; F. W. Genthe, Leben und Fortleben des Publius Virg ilius Maro als Dichter und Zauberer (2nd ed., Magdeburg, 1857). (M. BR.) VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555), English historian, of Italian extraction, otherwise known as P. V. CASTELLENSIS, was a kinsman of Cardinal Hadrian Castellensis, a native of Castro in Etruria. His father's name is said to have been George Virgil; his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, " a man well skilled in medicine and astrology," had professed philo- sophy at Paris, as did Polydore's own brother and prot6g6 John Matthew Virgil, at Pavia, in 1517. A third brother was a London merchant in 1511. Polydore was born at Urbino, is said to have been educated at Bologna, and was probably in the service of Guido Ubaldo, duke of Urbino, before 1458, as in the dedication of his first work, Liber Proverbiorum (April 1498), he styles himself this prince's client. Polydore's second book, De Inventoribus Rerum, is dedicated to Guido's tutor, VIRGINAL— VIRGINIA 117 Ludovicus Odaxius, from Urbino, in August 1499. After being chamberlain to Alexander VI. he came to England in 1501 as deputy collector of Peter's pence for the cardinal. As rian's proxy, he was enthroned bishop of Bath and Wells in October 1504. It was at Henry VII. 's instance that he com- menced his Historic Anglica — a work which, though seemingly begun as early as 1505, was not completed till August 1533, the date of its dedication to Henry VIII., nor published till 1534. In May 1514 he and his patron the cardinal are found supporting Wolsey's claims to the cardinalship, but he had lost the great minister's favour before the year was out. A rash letter, reflecting 'severely on Henry VIII. and Wolsey, intercepted early in 1515, after which Polydore was cast into prison and supplanted in his collectorship (March and April). He was not without some powerful supporters, as both Catherine de' Medici and Leo X. wrote to the king on his behalf. From his prison he sent an abject and almost blas- phemous letter to the offended minister, begging that the fast approaching Christmas — a time which witnessed the restitution of a world — might see his pardon also. He was set at liberty before Christmas 1515, though he never regained his collector- ship. In 1525 he published the first edition of Gildas, dedicating the work to Tunstall, bishop of London. Next year appeared his Liber de Prodigiis, dedicated from London (July) to Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino. Somewhere about 1538 he left England, and remained in Italy for some time. Ill-health, he tells us, forbade him on his return to continue his custom of making daily notes on contemporary events. About the end of 1551 he went home to Urbino, where he appears to have died in 1555. He had been naturalized an Englishman in October 1510, and had held several clerical appointments in England. In 1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and in 1513 prebendary of Oxgate in St Paul's cathedral, both of which offices he held after his return to Urbino. The first edition of the Historia Anglica (twenty-six books) was printed at Basel in 1534; the twenty-seventh book, dealing with the reign of Henry VI If. down to the birth of Edward VI. (October 1536), was added to the third edition of 1555. Polydore claims to have been very careful in collecting materials for this work, and takes credit for using foreign historians as well as English; for which reason, he remarks, the English, Scotch and French will find several things reported in his pages far differently from the way in which they are told in current national story. In his search after information he applied to James IV. of Scotland for a list of the Scottish kings and their annals; but not even his friendship for Gayin Douglas could induce him to give credit to the historical notions of this accomplished bishop, who traced the pedigree of the Scots down from the banished son of an Athenian king and Scotta the daughter of the Egyptian tyrant of the Israelites. A similar scepticism made him doubt the veracity of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and thus called forth Leland's Defensio Gallofndi and Assertio Incomparabilis Arturii. This doubting instinct led to his being accused of many offences against learning, such as that of burning cartloads of MSS. lest his errors should be discovered, of purloining books from libraries and shipping them off by the vesselful to Rome. As a matter of fact, it is of course mainly from the time of Henry VI., where our contemporary records begin to fail so sadly, that Polydore's work is useful. He must have been personally acquainted with many men whose memories could carry them back to the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Dr Brewer speaks somewhat harshly of him as an authority for the reign of Henry VIII., and indeed his spite against Wolsey is evident; but it is impossible to read his social and geographical accounts of England and Scotland without gratitude for a writer who has preserved so many interest- ing detafls. Polydore's Adagio, (Venice, April 1498) was the first collection of Latin proverbs ever printed; it preceded Erasmus's by two years, and the slight misunderstanding that arose for the moment out of rival claims gave place to a sincere friendship. A second series of Biblical proverbs (553 in number) was dedicated to Wolsey's follower, Richard Pace, and is preceded by an interesting letter (June 1519), which gives the names of many of Polydore's English friends, from More and Archbishop Warham to Linacre and Tunstall. The De Inventoribus, treating of the origin of all things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris, 1499), originally consisted of only seven books, but was increased to eight in 1521. It was exceedingly popular, and was early translated into French (1521), German (1537), English (1546) and Spanish (1551). All editions, however, except those following the text sanctioned by Gregory II. in 1576, are on the Index Expurgatorius. The De Pwdighs also achieved a great popularity, and was soon translated into Italian (1543), English (1546) and Spanish (1550). This treatise takes the form of a Latin dialogue between Polydore and his Cambridge friend Robert Ridley. It takes place in the open air, at Polydore s country house near London. Polydore's duty is to state ^the problems and supply the historical illustrations; his friend's to explain, rationalize and depreciate as best he can Here, as in the Historic. Anglica, it is plain that the writer plumes himself specially on the excellence of his Latin, which in Sir Henry Ellis's opinion is purer than that of any of his contemporaries. VIRGINAL, or PAIR or VIRGINALS, a name applied in England, and also recognized on the continent of Europe, to the spinet, and more especially to the small pentagonal and to the rectangular models. The word virginal, bestowed because it was pre-eminently the instrument for girls, denotes before all a keyboard instrument, having for each note one string only, plucked by means of a quill attached to a jack.1 The fine instrument in the Victoria and Albert Museum, known as Queen Elizabeth's virginal, is an Italian pentagonal spinet, elaborately emblazoned with the coat of arms of the queen, and having a compass of just over four octaves. King Henry VIII. and his daughters, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, were all accomplished performers on the virginal. (K. S.) VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA, in Roman legendary history, daughter of L. Virginius, a plebeian centurion. Her beauty attracted the notice of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who instructed Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, to claim her as his slave. Marcus accordingly brought her before Appius, and asserted that she was the daughter of one of his female slaves, who had been stolen and passed off by the wife of Virginius as her own child. Virginius presented him- self with his daughter before the tribunal of Appius, who, refusing to listen to any argument, declared Virginia to be a slave and the property of Marcus. Virginius thereupon stabbed her to the heart in the presence of Appius and the people. A storm of popular indignation arose and the decem- virs were forced to resign. The people for the second time " seceded " to the Sacred Mount, and refused to return to Rome until the old form of government was re-established. See Livy iii. 44-58; Dion. Halic. xi. 28-45, whose account differs in some respects from Livy's; Cicero, De finibus, ii. 20; Val. Max. vi. I, 2; for a critical examination of the story and its connexion with the downfall of the decemvirs, see Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History, ii. ; Schwegler, Romische GeschichU, bk. xxx. 4, 5; also E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History (Eng. trans. 1906), p. 185, according to whom the Wends of Virginia and Lucretia (two different versions of one and the same story, connecting the history of Roman liberty with the martyrdom of a woman) are nothing but late elaborations of legends connected with the cults of Ardea. VIRGINIA, one of the more N. of the S.E. Atlantic states of the United States of America, lying between latitudes 36° 30' and 39° 30' N., and longitude 75° 15' and 83° 40' W. It is bounded on the N.W. by Kentucky and West Virginia, the irregular boundary line following mountain ridges for a part of its course; on the N.E. by Maryland, from which it is separated by the Potomac river; on the S. by North Carolina and Tennessee, the boundary line being nominally a parallel of latitude, but actually a more irregular line. Virginia has an area of 42,627 sq. m., of which 2365 sq. m. are water surface, including land-locked bays and harbours, rivers and Lake Drummond. The state has a length of about 440 m. E. and W., measured along its S. boundary; and an extreme breadth N. and S. of about 200 m. Physical Features.— Virginia is crossed from N. to S. or N.E. to S.W. by four distinct physiographic provinces. The easternmost is the Coastal Plain Province, and forms a part of the great Coastal Plain bordering the S.E. United States from New .York Harbour to the Rio Grande. This province occupies about 11,000 sq. m. of the state, and is known as " Tidewater Virginia." After the plain had been raised above sea-level to a higher elevation than it now occupies, it was mnch dissected by streams and then depressed, allowing the sea to invade the stream valleys. Such is the origin of the branching bays or " drowned river valleys," among which may be noted the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James rivers. Chesapeake Bay itself is the drowned lower course of the Susquehanna river, to which the other streams mentioned were 1 The mechanism is described under PIANOFORTE and SPISET. n8 VIRGINIA tributary previous to the depression which transformed them into bays. The land between the drowned valleys is relatively flat, and varies in height from sea-level on the E. to 150-300 ft. on the W. border. Passing westward across the " fall-line," the next province is the Piedmont, a part of the extensive Piedmont Belt reaching from Pennsylvania to Alabama. This is the most ex- tensive of the subdivisions of Virginia, comprising 18,000 sq. m. of its area, and varying in elevation from 150-300 ft. on the E. to 700-1200 ft. along the foot of the Blue Ridge at the W. The slop- ing surface is gently rolling, and has resulted from the uplift and dissection of a nearly level plain of erosion developed on folded, crystalline rocks. Occasional hard rock ridges rise to a moderate elevation above the general level, while areas of unusually weak Triassic sandstones have been worn down to form lowlands. W. of the Piedmont, and like it consisting of crystalline rocks, is the Blue Ridge, a mountain belt from 3 to 20 m. in breadth, narrowing toward the N., where it passes into Maryland, and broadening southward toward its great expansion in W. North Carolina and E. Tennessee, where it is transformed into massive mountain groups. In elevation the Blue Ridge of Virginia varies from 1460 ft. at Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac river breaks through it in a splendid water-gap, to 5719 ft. in Mt. Rogers, Grayson county. About 2500 sq. m. of the state are comprised in this province. W. of the Blue Ridge is the Newer Appalachian or Great Valley Province, characterized by parallel ridges and valleys developed by erosion on folded beds of sandstone, limestone and shales, and comprising an area of about 10,400 sq. m. in Virginia. The belts of non-resistant rock have been worn away, leaving longitudinal valleys separated by hard rock ridges. A portion of this province in which weak rocks predominate gives an unusually broad valley region, known as the Valley of Virginia, drained by the Shenandoah river, and the headwaters of the James, Roanpke, New, and Holston rivers, which dissect the broad valley floor into gently rolling low hills. At the N., near the mouth of the Shenandoah, the valley is about 250 ft. above sea-level, but rises south-westward to an eleva- tion of more than 1600 ft. at the S. boundary of the state. The rivers of the state flow in general from N.W. to S.E., across the Blue Ridge, the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain, following courses which were established before erosion had produced much of the present topography. But in the Newer Appalachians the streams more often follow the trend of the structure until they empty into one of the larger, transverse streams. Thus the Shen- andoah flows N.E. to the Potomac, the Holston S.W. toward the Tennessee. A part of this same province, in the S.W. part of the state, is drained by the New river, which flows N.W. across the ridges to the Kanawha and Ohio rivers in the Appalachian Plateau. In the limestone regions caverns and natural bridges occur, among which Luray Cavern and the Natural Bridge are well known. The drowned lower courses of the S.E. flowing streams are navigable, and afford many excellent harbours. Chesapeake Bay covers much land that might otherwise be agriculturally valuable, but repays this loss, in part at least, by its excellent fisheries, including those for oysters. In the S.E., where the low, flat Coastal Plain is poorly drained, is the Great Dismal Swamp, a fresh-water marsh covering 700 sq. m., in the midst of which is Lake Drummond, 2 m. or more in diameter. Along the shores of Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean are low, sandy beaches, often enclosing lagoons or salt marshes. Fauna. — Till about the middle of the l8th century the bison and the elk roamed the W. part of the state. The Virginia deer is common in the bottomlands; a few beaver still frequent the remoter streams; in the higher portions are still a few black bears and pumas, besides the lynx, the Virginia varying hare, the wood- chuck, the red and the fox squirrel and flying squirrels. The grey squirrel is plentiful in wooded districts. On the Coastal Plain are the musk-rat, the eastern cotton-tail, chipmunk, grey fox, common mole and Virginia opossum. In colonial times the Atlantic right-whale was killed in some numbers off the coast. Many species of water and shore birds migrate along the coast, where also others breed, as the royal, common and least terns and black skimmer; practically all the ducks are migrant species, though the wood-duck breeds. Swan, geese and brant winter on the coast. The yellow-crowned night-heron and the little blue heron nest rarely. The turkey-buzzard and the barn-owl are resident. Red-headed and red-bellied woodpeckers, orchard orioles, yellow- winged sparrows, the cardinal, the blue grosbeak, the Carolina wren and the mocking-bird are characteristic of the lower elevations. The ruffed grouse ana wild turkey are found in the wooded moun- tainous districts, while the quail (here called " partridge ") is a game bird of the open stubble fields. Of reptiles, the rattlesnake and copperhead are the only poisonous species, but numerous harmless varieties are common. In the salt marshes of the coast occurs the diamond-backed terrapin. Trout abound in the mountain streams, and black bass in the rivers of the interior. The cat-fish grows to a large size in the sluggish rivers. On the coast, the striped bass, sea-bass, drum, sheepshead, weakfish. bluefish and Spanish mackerel are important as food fishes. There are valuable oyster fisheries in Chesapeake Bay. Flora. — The Coastal Plain of Virginia is covered with pine forests which merge westward with the hard woods of the Piedmont Belt, where oaks formerly prevailed, but where a second growth of pine now constitutes part of the forest. Even on the Coastal Plain the Jersey and oldfield pines of to-day replace more valuable species of the original growth. The Blue Ridge and Newer Appalachian regions are covered with pine, hemlock, white oak, cherry and yellow poplar; while that portion of these provinces lying in the S.W. part of the state still contains valuable forests of hickory and walnut, besides oak and cherry. On the Coastal Plain the cypress grows in the Dismal Swamp, river birch along the streams, and sweet gum and black gum in swampy woods. Other characteristic plants of the Coastal Plain are the cranberry, wild rice, wild yam, wax myrtle, wistaria, trumpet flower, passion flower, holly and white alder. Many of these species spread into the Piedmont Belt. Rhododendron, mountain laurel and azaleas are common in the mountains. The blackberry, black raspberry, huckleberry, blue- berry, wild ginger and ginseng are widely distributed. Ctimate. — The climate of Virginia is generally free from extremes of heat and cold. In the Coastal Plain region the temperature is quite stable from day to day, as a result of the equalizing effect of the numerous bays which indent this province. The mean winter temperature is 39-8°, the mean summer temperature 77-2J, with a mean annual of 58-6°. Killing frosts do not occur before the middle of October, nor later than the last part of April, in the Piedmont Province temperature conditions are naturally less stable, owing to the distance from the sea and to the greater inequality of surface topography. In autumn and winter sudden temperature changes are experienced, though not frequently. The mean winter temperature of this province is 35-8°; mean summer temperature, 75°; mean annual, 55-9°. Killing frosts may occur as early as the first of October and as late as the last of May. The greatest variability in temperature conditions in the state occurs in the Blue Ridge, Newer Appalachian Provinces, where the most rugged and variable topography is likewise found. The mean winter temperature for this section is 33-8°; mean summer temperature, 71-3 ; mean annual, 53-2°. Soil. — Marshy soils are found along the lowest portions of the Coastal Plain, and are exceedingly productive wherever reclaimed by draining, as in portions of the Dismal Swamp. Other portions of the Coastal Plain afford more valuable soils, sandy loams over- lying sandy clays. On the higher elevations the soil is light and sandy, and such areas remain relatively unproductive. The crystalline rocks of the Piedmont area are covered with residuat soils of variable composition and moderate fertility. Passing the high and rugged Blue Ridge, which is infertile except in the inter- vening valleys of its S.W. expansion, we reach the Newer Appal- achians, where fertile limestone soils cover the valley floors. The Valley of Virginia is the most productive part of the state. Forests. — The woodland area of Virginia was estimated in 1900 at 23,400 sq. m., or 58 % of the area of the state. The timber area originally comprised three divisions: the mountain regions growing pine and hard woods and hemlock; the Piedmont region producing chiefly oaks with some pine; and the lands below the " Fall Line, which were forested with yellow pine. Most of the pine of the mountain region has been cut, and the yellow pine and hard woods have also largely disappeared. The production of timber has, however, steadily increased. In 1900 the value of the product was $12,137,177, representing chiefly yellow pine. Fisheries. — Oysters are by far the most valuable of the fisheries products, but, of the 400,000 acres of waters within the state suitable for oyster culture, in 1909 only about one-third was used for that purpose. Next in importance were the catches of men- haden, shad, clams, squeteague and alewives; while minor catches were made of crabs, croaker, bluefish, butterfish, catfish, perch and spotted and striped bass. Agriculture. — Tobacco was an important crop in the earlier history of the colony, and Virginia continued to be the leading • tobacco-producing state of the Union (reporting in 1850 28-4% of the total crop) until after the Civil War, which, with the division of the state, caused it to fall into second place, Kentucky taking the lead; and in 1900 the crop of North Carolina also was larger. The state's production of tobacco in 1909 was 120,125,000 ft, valued at $10,210,625. The production of Indian corn in 1909 was 47,328.000 bus., valued at $35,023,000; of wheat, 8,848,000 bus., valued at $10,175,000; of oats, 3,800,000 bus., valued at $2,052,000; of rye, 184,000 bus., valued at $155,000; of buckwheat, 378,000 bus., valued at $287,000; the hay crop was valued at $8,060,000 (606,000 tons). The amount of the cotton crop in 1909 was 10,000 soo-lb bales. The value of horses in 1910 was $34,561,000 (323,000 head); of mules, $7,020,000 (54,000 head); of neat cattle, $20,034,000 (875,000 head); of swine, $5,031,000 (774,000 head); of sheep, $2,036,000 (522,000 head). Minerals. — The value of all mineral products in 1908 was $13,127,395. By far the most valuable single product was bitu- minous coal ($3.868,524; 4,259,042 tons). The existence of this mineral in the vicinity of Richmond was known as early as 1770, and the mining of it there began in 1775, but it was practically VIRGINIA 119 discontinued about the middle of the igth century. The most important coalfields of the state lie in the Appalachian regions in, the S.W. part of the state, though there are also rich deposits in the counties of Henrico, Chesterfield and Goochland, and in parts of Powhatan and Amelia counties. In the S.E. portion of the Kanawha basin, including Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Buchanan, Wise and Lee counties, occur rich deposits of coal, which are of great value because of their proximity to vast deposits of iron ores. In Tazewell county is the famous Pocahontas bed, which produces one of the most valuable grades of coking and steam coal to be found in the United States. There are remarkably rich deposits of iron ore in the Alleghanies, and the W. foothills of the Blue Ridge, from which most of the iron ore of the state is procured, are lined with brown hematite. Iron-mining — perhaps the first in the New Woild — was begun in Virginia in 1608, when the Virginia Company shipped a quantity of ore to England; and in 1619 the Company established on Falling Creek, a tributary of the James river, a. colony of about 150 iron- workers from Warwickshire, Staffordshire and Sussex, who had established there several ore-reducing plants under the general management of John Berkeley of Gloucester, England, when on the 22nd of March 1622 the entire colony, excepting a girl and a boy, were massacred by the Indians. The first blast-furnace in the colony seems to have been owned by Governor Spotswood, and was built and operated at the head of the Rappahannock river about 17'5 by a colony of German Protestants. Immediately after the War of Independence Virginia became an important iron-producing state. The industry waned rapidly toward the middle of the igth century, but was renewed upon the discovery of the high-grade ores in the S.W. part of the state and the development of railway facilities. The product of iron ore in 1908 was 692,223 long tons, valued at $1,465,691. The product of pig-iron in 1908 was 320,458 long tons, valued at $4,578,000. Manganese ore-mining began in Virginia in 1857 in the Shenandoah Valley, and the product increased from about 100 tons in that year to about 5000 tons (mined near Warminster, Nelson county) in 1868 and 1869. Thereafter Virginia and Georgia supplied most of this mineral produced in the United States, and the greater part of it has been shipped to England. Between 1885 and 1891 the average annual production was about 15,000 tons, the greatest output — 20,567 tons — being mined in 1886. After 1891 the product declined rapidly, amounting in 1907 to 800 tons valued at $4800. In the production of pyrite, which is found in Louisa county and is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid employed in the treat- ment of wood pulp for paper-making and in the manufacture of superphosphates from phosphate rock, Virginia took first rank in 1902 with an output valued at $501,642, or 64-7 % of the total yield of this mineral in the United States; and this rank was maintained in 1908, when the product was 1 16,340 long tons, valued at $435,522. Limestone is found in the region west of the Blue Ridge, and has been quarried extensively, the product, used chiefly for flux, being valued in 1908 at $645,385. Virginia was by far the most important state in 1908 in the pro- duction of soapstone, nearly the whole product being taken from a long narrow belt running north-east from Nelson county into Albemarle county; more than 90% of the output was sawed into slabs for laundry and laboratory appliances. The product of talc and soapstone in 1908 was 19,616 short tons, valued at $458,252. The value of mineral waters produced in 1908 was $207,115. The state has many mineral springs occurring in connexion with faults in the Appalachian chain of mountains; in 1908, 46 were reported, making the state third among the states of the United States in number of springs, and of these several have been in high medical repute. At 18 of these resorts are situated, some of which have at times had considerable social vogue. White Sulphur Springs, in Greenbrier county, impregnated with sulphur, with therapeutic application in jaundice, dyspepsia, &c. ; Alleghany Springs, in Montgomery county, calcareous and earthy, purgative and diuretic; Rawley Springs in Rockingham county, Sweet Chalybeate Springs in Alleghany county, and Rockbridge Alum Springs in Rockbridge county, classed as iron springs and reputed of value as tonics, and the thermal springs, Healing Springs (88° F.) and Hot Springs (no F.), both in Bath county are noted medicinal springs. The value of metals produced in 1908 was as follows: gold (which is found in a belt that extends from the Potomac river to Halifax county and varies from 15 to 25 in. in width), $3600 (174 fine oz. troy); copper, $3312 (25,087 lb); and lead, $1092 (13 short tons). Minerals produced in small quantities include gypsum, millstones, salt and sandstone, and among those found out not produced (in 1902) in commercial quantities may be mentioned allanite, alum, arsenic, bismuth, carbonite, felspar, kaolin, marble, plumbago, quartz, serpentine and tin. Asbestos was formerly mined in the western and south-western parts of the state. Barytes is mined near Lynchburg; the value of the output in 1907 was $32i833, since which date the output has decreased. Manufactures. — Virginia's manufacturing establishments increased very rapidly in number and in the value of their products during the last two decades of the igth century. The number of all establishments increased from 5710 in 1880 to 8248 in 1900; the capital invested from $26,968,990 to $103,670,988, the average number of wage-earners from 40,184 to 72,702, the total wages from $7,425,261 to $22,445,720, and the value of products from $51 ,770, 992 to $132,172,910. The number of factories' increased from 3186 in 1900 to 3187 in 1905, the capital invested from $92,299,589 to $147,989,182, the average number of wage-earners from 66,223 to 80,285, the total wages from $20,269,026 to $27,943,053, ana the value of products from $108,644,150 to $148,856,525. The manu- facture of all forms of tobacco is the most important industry ; the value of its products in 1905 was $16,768,204. Since 1880 there has been a rapid development in textile manufacture, for which the water power of the Piedmont region is used. A peculiar industry is the grading, roasting, cleaning and shelling of peanuts. Transportation and Commerce. — Four large railway systems prac- tically originate in the state and radiate to the S. and W.: the Southern railway, with its main line traversing the state in the direction of its greatest length leaving Washington to run south-west through Alexandria, Charlottesville, Lynchburg and Danville to the North Carolina line, with connexions to Richmond and a line to Norfolk on the east ; the Atlantic Coast line with its main lines running S. from Richmond and Norfolk; the Seaboard Air line, having its main lines also running to the S. from Richmond and Norfolk; the Norfolk & Western crossing the state from east to west in the southern part with Norfolk its eastern terminus, passing through Lynchburg and leaving the state at the south-western corner at Bristol, and the Chesapeake & Ohio crossing the state from east to west farther north than the Norfolk & Western from Newport News on the coast through Richmond to the West Virginia line. Of more recent construction is the Virginian railway, a project of H. H. Rogers, opened for traffic in 1909, which connects the coal region of West Virginia with Norfolk, crossing the southern part of the state from E. to W., and is designed chiefly for heavy freight traffic. The N. W. part of the state is entered by the Baltimore & Ohio, which has a line down the Shenandoah Valley to Lexington. Connexion between Richmond and Washington is by a union line (Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac and Washington Southern railways) operated jointly by the Southern, Atlantic Coast line, Seaboard Air line, Chesapeake & Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Baltimore & Ohio railways. In 1850 there were 384 m. of railway in Virginia; in 1880, 1839 m., and in 1890 it had nearly doubled, having increased to 3,359-54 m., a gain coincident with • the newly awakened industrial activity of the Southern States and an era of railway building throughout this section. The railway mileage in 1900 was 3,789-58, and in January 1909 it was 4,348-53. Hampton Roads at the mouth of the James river, which forms the harbour for the leading ports of the state, Norfolk and Newport News, affords one of the best anchorages of the Atlantic coast. It gives shelter not only to vessels plying to its adjoining ports but serves as a harbour of refuge for snipping bound up or down the Atlantic coast, and is frequently used for the assembling of naval fleets. There is a large foreign trade and a regular steamship service to Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia and Savannah from Norfolk, and there is a considerable traffic on Chesapeake Bay, the Rappahannock, York, James and Elizabeth rivers. Fredericksburg at the head of navigation on the Rappahannock and West Point on the York have traffic of commercial importance in lumber and timber, oysters and farm produce, cotton and tobacco especially being shipped in coastwise vessels from West Point. Petersburg and Richmond on the James are connected with regular steamship lines with Norfolk, Richmond's water trade being chiefly in coal, oil, logs and fertilizer. Steamboats plying on Chesapeake Bay- connect Alexandria with Norfolk. From the Elizabeth river on which Norfolk is situated lead the Albemarle & Chesapeake Canal and the Dismal Swamp Canal, which connect with the waters of Albemarle Sound. Traffic through these canals consists chiefly of forest products, logs, lumber and shingles. Population. — The population of Virginia in 1890 was 1.6ss,98o; in 1900, 1,854,184; and in 1910, 2,061,612.* Of the total population in 1900, 1,173,787 were native whites, 19,461 were foreign-born, 660,722 (or 35-7% of the total population) were negroes, 354 were Indians, 243 were Chinese and 10 were Japanese. The state was fifth among the states and Territories in the number of negro inhabitants, but showed a marked decrease in the ratio of negroes to the total population in the decade from 1890 to 1900, the percentage of the total popula- tion in 1890 having been 38-4. Of the inhabitants born in the United States 53,235 were natives of North Carolina, 12,504 were natives of Maryland, and 10,273 were natives of Pennsylvania. Of the foreign-born 4504 were 1 Statistics for 1890 represent the value of all manufactures; those for 1900 (from this point) and 1905 show values under the factory system, excluding neighbourhood industries and hand trades. •According to previous censuses the population was as follows: (1790), 747,610; (1800), 880,200; (1810), 974,600; (1820), 1,065,366; (1830), 1,211.405; (1840), 1,239,797; (1850), 1.421,661; (i860), 1,596,318; (1870). 1,225,163; (1880), 1,512,565. I2O VIRGINIA Germans, 3534 were natives of Ireland and 3425 of England. Of the total population 52,264 were of foreign parentage (i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born) and 9769 were of German, 8235 of Irish and 4792 of English parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's side. Out of the total of 793,546 members of religious denominations in 1906, more than half, 415,987, were Baptists; the Methodists numbered 200,771; and there were 39,628 Presbyterians, 28,700 Roman Catholics, 28,487 Protestant Episcopalians, 26,248 Disciples of Christ, and 15,010 Lutherans. Virginia in 1900 had 46-2 inhabitants to the square mile. The prin- cipal cities of the state are: Richmond (the capital), Norfolk, Petersburg, Roanoke, Newport News, Lynchburg, Portsmouth and Danville. Government. — Virginia has had six state constitutions: the first was adopted in 1776, the second in 1830, the third in 1851, the fourth in 1864, the fifth in 1869, and the sixth, the present, in 1902. Amendments to the present constitu- tion may be proposed in either house of the General Assembly, and if they pass both houses of that and the succeeding General Assembly by a majority of the members elected to each house and are subsequently approved by a majority of the people who vote on the question at the next general election they become a part of the constitution. A majority of the members in each house of the General Assembly may at any time propose a convention to revise the constitution and, if at the next succeeding election a majority of the people voting on the question approve, the General Assembly must provide for the election of delegates. To be entitled to vote one must be a male citizen of the United States and twenty-one years of age; have been a resident of the state for two years, of the county, city, or town for one year, and of the election precinct for thirty days next preceding the election; have paid, at least six months before the election, all state poll taxes assessed against him for three years next preceding the election, unless he is a veteran of the Civil War; and have registered after the adoption of the constitution (1902). For registration prior to 1904 one of four additional qualifications was required: service in the army or navy of the United States, of the Con- federate States, or of some state of the United States or of the Confederate States; direct descent from one who so served; ownership of property upon which state taxes amounting to at least one dollar were paid in the preceding year; or ability to read the constitution or at least to show an understanding of it. And to qualify for registration after 1904 one must have paid all state poll taxes assessed against him for the three years immediately preceding his application, unless he is a veteran of the Civil War; and unless physically unable he must " make application in his own handwriting, without aid, suggestion or memorandum, in the presence of the regis- tration officers, stating therein his name, age, date and place of birth, residence and occupation at the time and for two years next preceding, whether he has previously voted, and, if so, the state, county and precinct in which he voted last "; and must answer questions relating to his qualifications. Executive. — The governor, lieutenant-governor, attorney-general, secretary of the commonwealth, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction and commissioner of agriculture are elected for a term of four years, every fourth year from 1905; and each new administra- tion begins on the 1st of February. The governor must be at least thirty years of age, a resident of the state for five years next pre- ceding his election; and, if of foreign birth, a citizen of the United States for ten years. He appoints numerous officers with the con- currence of the Senate, has the usual power of vetoing legislative bills, and has authority to inspect the records of officers, or to employ accountants to do so, and to suspend, during a recess of the General Assembly, any executive officer at the seat of government except the lieutenant-governor; he must, however, report to the General Assembly at its next session the cause of any suspension and that body determines whether the suspended officer shall be restored or removed. Legislature. — The General Assembly consists of a Senate and a House of Delegates. The Constitution provides that the number of senators shall not be more than forty nor less than thirty-three, and that the number of delegates shall not be more than one hundred nor less than ninety. Senators and delegates are elected by single districts (into which the state is apportioned once every ten years, according to population), the senators for a term of four years, the delegates for a term of two years. The only qualifications for senators and delegates are those required of an elector and residence in their districts; there are, however, a few disqualifications, such as holding certain offices in the state or a salaried Federal office. The General Assembly meets regularly at Richmond on the second Wednesday in January of each even-numbered year, and the governor must call an extra session on the application of two-thirds of the members of both houses, and may call one whenever he thinks the interests of the state require it. The length of a regular session is limited to sixty days unless three-fifths of the members of each house concur in extending it, and no extension may exceed thirty days. Senators and delegates are paid $500 each for each regular session and $250 for each extra session. Any bill may originate in either house, but a bill of special, private or local interest must be referred to a standing committee of five members appointed by the Senate and seven members appointed by the House of Dele- gates, before it is referred to the committee of the house in which it originated, "'he governor's veto power extends to items in appro- priation bills, and to overcome his veto, whether of a whole bill or an item of an appropriation bill, a two-thirds vote in each house of the members present is required, and such two-thirds must include in each house a majority of the members elected to that house. When- ever the governor approves of the general purpose of a bill, but disapproves of some portion or portions, he may return the bill with his recommendations for amendment, and when it comes back to him, he may, whether his recommendations have been adopted or not, treat it as if it were before him for the first time. Judiciary. — The administration of justice is vested principally in a supreme court of appeals, circuit courts, city courts and courts of a justice of the peace. The supreme court of appeals consists of five judges, but any three of them may hold a court. They are chosen for a term of twelve years by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of Delegates. The court sits at Richmond, Staunton and Wytheville. The concurrence of at least three j udges is necessary to the decision of a case involving the constitutionality of a law. Whenever the docket of this court is crowded, or there is a case upon it in which it is improper for a majority of the j udges to sit, the General Assembly may provide for a special court of appeals, to be composed of not more than five nor less than three judges of the circuit courts and city courts, in cities having a population of 10,000 or more. The state is divided into thirty judicial circuits and in each of these a circuit judge is chosen for a term of eight years by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of Delegates. The jurisdiction of the circuit courts was extended by the present Constitution to include that which, under the preceding Constitution, was vested in county courts, and the principal restriction is that they shall not have original jurisdiction in civil cases for the recovery of personal property amounting to less than $20. Similar to the circuit court is the corporation court in each city having a population of 10,000 or more; the judge of each of these corporation courts is chosen for a term of eight years by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of Delegates, and he may hold a circuit as well as a corporation court. Circuit courts and corporation courts appoint the commissioners in chancery. Three justices of the peace are elected in each magis- terial district for a term of four years. There are also justices of the peace (elected) and police justices (appointed) in cities, and in various minor cases a justice's court has original jurisdiction, either exclusive or concurrent with the circuit and corporation courts. In each city having a population of 70,000 or more a special justice of the peace, known as a civil justice, is elected by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of Delegates few a term of four years. Local Government. — Each county is divided into magisterial districts, varying in number from three to eleven. Each district elects a supervisor for a term of four years, and the district supervisors constitute a county board of supervisors, which represents the county as a corporation, manages the county property and county business, levies the county taxes, audits the accounts of the county, and recommends for appointment by the circuit court a county sur- veyor and a county superintendent of the poor. Each county also elects a treasurer, a sheriff, an attorney and one or more com- missioners of the revenue, each for a term of four years, and a clerk, who is clerk of the circuit court, for a term of eight years. The coroner is appointed by the circuit court for a term of two years. Each magisterial district elects, besides a supervisor and justices of the peace, a constable and an overseer of the poor, each for a term of four years. The Constitution provides that all " communities " with a population less than 5000, incorporated after its adoption, shall be known as towns, and that those with a population of 5000 or more shall be known as cities. In each city incorporated after its adoption, the Constitution requires the election in each of a mayor, a treasurer and a sergeant, each for a term of four years, and the election or appointment of a commissioner of the revenue for an equal term; that in cities having a population of 10,000 or more the council shall be composed of two branches; that the mayor shall have a veto on all acts of the council and on items of appro- priation, ordinances or resolutions, which can be overridden only by an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members elected to each branch; and that no city shall incur a bonded indebtedness ex- ceeding 18% of the assessed value of its real estate. Miscellaneous Laws. — A married woman may manage her separate VIRGINIA 121 property as if she were single, except that she cannot by her sole act deprive her husband of his courtesy in her real estate. A widow is entitled to a dower in one-third of the real estate of which her husband was seized at any time during coverture. If the husband dies intestate, leaving no descendants and no paternal or maternal kindred, the whole of his estate goes to his widow absolutely. If the husband dies intestate, leaving a widow and issue, either by her or by a former marriage, the widow is entitled to at least one-third of his personal estate: if he leaves no issue by her, she is entitled to so much of his personal estate as was acquired by him by virtue of his marriage with her prior to the 4th of April 1877; if he leaves no issue whatever, she is entitled to one-half of his persona) estate. A widower is entitled by courtesy to a life interest in all his wife's real estate; if she dies intestate, he is entitled to all her personal estate; if she dies intestate, leaving no descendants and no paternal or maternal kindred, he is entitled to her whole estate absolutely. The causes for an absolute divorce are adultery; impotency; desertion for three years; a sentence to confinement in the peni- tentiary; a conviction of an infamous offence before marriage unknown to the other; or, if one of the parties is charged with an offence punishable with death or confinement in the penitentiary, and has been a fugitive from justice for two years; pregnancy of the wife before marriage unknown to the husband, or the wife's being a prostitute before marriage unknown to the husband. One party must be a resident of the state for one year preceding the commencement of a suit for a divorce. When a divorce is obtained because of adultery, permission of the guilty party to marry again is in the discretion of the court. Marriages between whites and negroes and bigamous marriages are void. The homestead of a householder or head of a family to the value of $2000 and properly recorded is exempt from levy, seizure, garnishment or forced sale, except for purchase money, for services of a labouring person or mechanic, for liabilities incurred by a public officer, fiduciary or attorney for money collected, for taxes, for rent or for legal fees of a public officer. If the owner is a married man his homestead cannot be sold except by the joint deed of himself and his wife; neither can it be mortgaged without his wife's consent except for purchase money or for the erection or repair of buildings upon it. The exemption continues after his death so long as there is an unmarried widow or an unmarried minor child. The family library, family pictures, school books, a seat or pew in a house of worship, a lot in a burial ground, necessary wearing apparel, a limited amount of furniture and household utensils, some of a farmer's domestic animals and agricultural implements, and the wages of a labouring man who is a householder are exempt from levy or distress. A law enacted in 1908 forbids the employment of children under fourteen years of age in any factory, workshop, mercantile establishment, or mine within the state, except that orphans or other children dependent upon their own labour for support or upon whom invalid parents are dependent may be so employed after they are twelve years of age, and that a parent may work his or her own children in his or her own factory, workshop, mercantile establishment or mine. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — Virginia has four hospitals for the insane: the Eastern State Hospital (1773), at Williams- burg; the South-Western State Hospital (1887), at Marion; the Western State Hospital (1828), with an epileptic colony, at Staun- ton; and the Central State Hospital (1870; for negroes), at Peters- burg. For the care of the deaf and blind there is the Virginia School for Deaf and Blind (1839), at Staunton, and the Virginia School for Coloured Deaf and Blind Children (1908), at Newport News. The State Penitentiary is at Richmond. The Prison Association of Virginia with an Industrial School (1890) at Laurel Station, the Negro Reformatory Association of Virginia with a Manual Labour School (1897) at Broadneck Farm, Hanover, and the Virginia Home and Industrial School for white girls (1910) at Bon Air take care of juvenile offenders; these are all owned and controlled by self-perpetuating boards of trustees, but are supported by the state, receiving an allowance per capita. For each state hospital for the insane there is a special board of directors consisting of three members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate, one every two years, and over them all is the com- missioner of state hospitals for the insane, who is appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a term of four years. The members of the special boards under the chairmanship of the commissioner constitute a general board for all the hospitals, and the superintendent of each hospital is appointed by the general board. Each school for the deaf and blind is managed by a board of visitors appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate. About five-sixths of the convicts are negroes. Some of them are employed on a state farm at Lassiter, Goochland county, on which there is a tuberculosis hospital, and some of them on the public roads; in 1909 there were 350 men at the state farm, 14 road camps with about 630 men, and 1273 men and 96 women in the penitentiary at Richmond. When a prisoner has served one- half of his term and his conduct has been good for two years (if he has been confined for that period) the board of directors may parole him for the remainder of his term, provided there is satisfactory assurance that he will not be dependent on public charity. The Prison Association of Virginia, the Negro Reformatory Association of Virginia and the Virginia Home and Industrial School for girls are each under a board of trustees appointed by the General Assembly, and each is authorized to establish houses of correction, reformatories and industrial schools. A general supervision of all state, county, municipal and private charities and corrections is vested by a law enacted in 1908 in a board of charities and correc- tions consisting of five members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate. Education. — The public free school system is administered by a state board of education, a superintendent of public instruction, division superintendents, and district and county school boards. The state board of education consists of the governor; the attorney- general; the superintendent of public instruction, who is ex ojficio its president; three experienced educators chosen quadrennially by the Senate from members of the faculties of the University of Virginia, the Virginia Military Institute, the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, the State Female Normal School at Farmville, the School for the Deaf and Blind, and the College of William and Mary; and two division superintendents, one from a county and one from a city, chosen biennially by the other members of the board. This board prescribes the duties of the superintendent of public instruc- tion and decides appeals from his decisions; keeps the state divided into school divisions, comprising not less than one county or city each ; appoints quadrennially, with the concurrence of the Senate, one superintendent for each school division and prescribes his powers and duties; selects textbooks; provides for examination of teachers; and appoints school inspectors. In each county an electoral board, consisting of the attorney for the Commonwealth, the division superintendent and one member appointed by the judge of the circuit court, appoints a board of three school trustees for each district, one each year. The division superintendent and the school trustees of the several districts constitute a county school board. The elementary schools are maintained from the proceeds of the state school funds, consisting of interest on the literary fund, a portion of the state poll tax, a property tax not less than one mill nor more than five mills on the dollar, and special appropriations; county funds, consisting principally of a property tax; and district funds, consisting principally of a property tax and a dog tax. A law enacted in 1908 encourages the establish- ment of departments of agriculture, cfomestic economy and manual training in at least one high school in each congressional district. A law enacted in 1910 provides a fund for special aid from the state to rural graded schools with at least two rooms. With state aid normal training departments are maintained in several of the high schools in counties which adopt the provisions of the statute. All children between the ages of eight and twelve years are required to attend a public school at least twelve weeks in a year (six weeks consecutively) unless excused on account of weakness of mind or body, unless the child can read and write and is attending a private school, or unless the child lives more than two miles from the nearest school and more than one mile from an established public school wagon route. The State Female Normal School, at Farm- ville, is governed by a board consisting of the state superintendent and thirteen trustees appointed by the governor with the con- currence of the Senate for a term of four years. The Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, at Petersburg, is governed by a board of visitors consisting of the superintendent of public instruc- tion and four other members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for four years. In 1908 the General Assembly made an appropriation for establishing two state normal and industrial schools for women, one at Harrisonburg and the other at Fredericksburg, both under a board of trustees consisting of the superintendent of public instruction and ten other members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate. The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Institute, at Blacksburg, is governed by a board consisting of the state superintendent and eight visitors appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate. The Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, is governed by a board of visitors consisting of the adjutant general, the superintendent of public instruction and nine other members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate. The University of Virginia (£»•), at Charlottesville, was founded in 1817 and opened in 1825. The College of William and Mary (1693), at Williamsburg, became a state institution in 1906 and is likewise governed under a board appointed by the governor. Other institutions of higher learning which are net under state control are: Washington and Lee University (non- sectarian, 1749), at Lexington; Hampden-Sidney College (Presby- terian, 1776), at Hampden-Sidney; Richmond College (Baptist, 1832), at Richmond; Randolph- Macon College (Methodist Episco- pal, 1832), at Ashland; Emory and Henry College (Methodist Episcopal, 1838), at Emory; Roanoke College (Lutheran, 1853), at Salem; Brio'gewater College (German Baptist, 1879), at Bridge- water; Fredericksburg College (Presbyterian, 1893), at Fredericks- burg; Virgjnia Union University (Baptist, 1899), at Richmond; and Virginia Christian College (Christian, 1903), at Lynchburg. Finance. — Revenue for state, county and municipal purposes is derived principally from taxes on real estate, tangible personal property, incomes in excess of $1000, wills and administrations, 122 VIRGINIA deeds, seals, lawsuits, banks, trust and security companies, insurance companies, express companies, railway and canal corporations, sleeping-car, parlour-car and dining-car companies, telegraph and telephone companies, franchise taxes, poll taxes, an inheritance tax and taxes on various business and professional licences. The tax laws require that property shall be assessed at its full value by commissioners of the revenue elected by counties and cities. The revenue is collected by county and city treasurers, clerks of courts, and the state corporation commission, consisting of three members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the General Assembly in joint session. The total receipts in the fiscal year 1908-1909 amounted to $5,536,510 and the total disbursements to $5,796,980. By the 1st of January 1861 Virginia had incurred a debt amounting to nearly $39,000,000, principally in aid of internal improvements. She was unable to pay the interest on this during the Civil War, and in March 1871 the principal together with the overdue interest amounted to about $47,000,000. The General Assembly passed an act at that time for refunding two-thirds of it, claiming that the other third should be paid by West Virginia. But the advocates of a " forcible readjustment " of the debt carried the election in 1879 with the aid of the negro vote, and after prolonged negotiations in 1892 a settlement was effected under which a debt amounting to about $28,000.000 was again refunded. In 1908 this had been reduced to about $24,000,000. The sinking fund consists of damages recovered against defaulting revenue collectors, railway stock and appropriations from time to time by the legislature. History. — Virginia was the first permanent English settle- ment in North America. From 1583 to 1588 attempts had been made by Sir Walter Raleigh and others to establish colonies on the coast of what is now North Carolina. The only result was the naming of the country Virginia in honour of Queen Eliza- beth. But glowing accounts were brought back by the early adventurers, and in 1606 an expedition was sent out by the London Company, which was chartered with rights of trade and settlement between 34° and 41° N. lat. It landed, at a place which was called Jamestown, on the i3th cf May 1607, and resulted in the establishment of many plantations along the James river. The purpose of the company was to build up a profitable commercial and agricultural com- munity; but the hostility of the natives, unfavourable climatic conditions and the character of the colonists delayed the growth of the new community. John Smith became the head of the government in September 1608, compelled the colonists to submit to law and order, built a church and prepared for more extensive agricultural and fishing operations. In 1609 the London Company was reorganized, other colonists were sent out and the boundaries of the new country were fixed, according to which Virginia was to extend from a point 200 m. south of Old Point Comfort, at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, to another point 200 m. north, " west and northwest to the South Sea." The government of the country was in the hands of the London Company, which in turn committed administrative and local affairs to a governor and council who were to reside in the colony. Before the arrival of the " government " and their shiploads of settlers the original colony was reduced to the direst straits. Captain Christopher Newport (d. 1618), Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, the new authorities, reached Jamestown at last with 150 men, but finding things in such a deplorable state all agreed (June 10, 1610) to give up the effort to found a colony on the James and set sail for New- foundland. At the mouth of the river they met Lord Delaware, however, who brought other colonists and plentiful supplies; and they returned, set up a trading post at what is now Hampton and undertook to bring the hostile natives to subjection. In 1611, 650 additional colonists landed, the James and Appo- mattox rivers were explored and " plantations " were estab- lished at Henrico and New Bermuda. In 1617 Virginia fell into the hands of a rigid Puritan, Captain Samuel Argall. The colonists were compelled on pain of death to accept the doctrine of the trinity, respect the authority of the Bible and attend church. This rigid regime was superseded in 1619 by a milder system under Sir George Yeardley (d. 1627). Twelve hundred new colonists arrived in 1619. At the same time negro slaves and many " indentured " servants were imported as labourers. At the beginning Virginia colonists had held their land and improvements in common. But in 1616 the land was par- celled out and the settlers were scattered along the shores of the James and Appomattox rivers many miles inland. Twenty thousand pounds of tobacco were exported in 1619. The com- munity had now become self-supporting, and the year that witnessed these changes witnessed also the first representative assembly in North America, the Virginia House of Burgesses, a meeting of planters sent from the plantations to assist the governor in reforming and remaking the laws of the colony. In 1621 a constitution was granted whereby the London Company appointed the governor and a council, and the people were to choose annually from their counties, towns, hundreds and plantations delegates to the House of Burgesses. The popular assembly, like the English House of Commons, granted supplies and originated laws, and the governor and Council enjoyed the right of revision and veto as did the king and the House of Lords at home. The Council sat also as a supreme court to review the county courts. This system remained unchanged until the revolution of 1776. But in 1624 the king took the place and exercised the authority of the London Company. Before 1622 there was a population of more than 4000 in Virginia, and the many tribes cf Indians who were still the pro- prietors of the soil over a greater portion of the country naturally became jealous, and on the 22nd of March of that year fell upon the whites and slew 350 persons. Sickness and famine once again visited the colony, and the population was reduced by nearly one-half. These losses were repaired, however; the tobacco industry grew in importance, and the settlers built their cabins far in the interior of lowland Virginia. This rapid growth was scarcely retarded by a second Indian attack, in April 1641, which resulted in the death of about 350 settlers. By 1648 the population had increased to 15,000. Virginia was neither cavalier nor roundhead, but both. Sir William Berkeley had been the governor since 1641, and though he was loyal enough to the crown, it was without difficulty that his authority was overthrown in March 1652 and that of Cromwell proclaimed in its stead. Richard Bennett, a Puritan from Maryland, now ruled the province. Bennett and his Puritan successors, Edward Digges and Samuel Mathews, made no serious change in the administration of the colony except to extend greatly the elective franchise. But this policy was reversed in 1660, when Berkeley was restored to power. The return of Berkeley was the beginning of a reaction which concentrated authority, both in the House of Burgesses and in the Council, in the hands of the older families, and thus created a privileged class. The governor, supported by the great families, retained the same House of Burgesses for sixteen years lest a new one might not be submissive. The increasing mass of the population dwelt along the western border or on the less fertile ridges which make up the major part of the land even in tide- water Virginia. These poorer people — who were not, however, " poor whites " — developed an abiding hostility towards the oligarchy. They desired a freer land-grant system, protection against the inroads of the Indians along the border, and frequent sessions of an assembly to be chosen by all the freeholders. But a new code of laws outlawed many of these people as dissenters, and in 1676 a burdensome tax was laid by the unrepresentative assembly. The Indians had again attacked the border farmers, and the governor had refused assistance, being willing, it was generally believed, that the border pop- ulation should suffer while he and his adherents enjoyed a lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Under these circum- stances, Nathaniel Bacon (1647-1676), whose grandfather was a cousin of Francis Bacon, took up the cause of the borderers and severely punished the Indians at the battle of Bloody Run. But Berkeley meanwhile had outlawed Bacon, whose forces now marched on the capital demanding recognition as the authorized army of defence. This was refused, and civil war began, in which the governor was defeated and Jamestown was burned. But Bacon fell a victim to malaria and died in October in Gloucester county. Berkeley closed the conflict with wholesale executions and confiscations. Censured by the king, he sailed to England to make his defence, but died in London in 1677 without having seen Charles. Virginia VIRGINIA 123 remained in the hands of the reactionary party and was governed by men whose primary purpose was to " make their fortunes " at the expense of the colonials. Even the accession of William and Mary scarcely affected the fortunes of the " fifth kingdom," though Middle Plantation, a hamlet not far from Jamestown, bc-i;ime Williamsburg and the capital of the province in 1691, and the clergy received a head, though not a bishop, in the person of James Blair (1656-1743), an able Scottish churchman, who as commissary of the bishop of London became a counter- poise to the arbitrary governors, and who as founder and head of the College of William and Mary (established at Williams- burg in 169,5) did valiant service for Virginia. Under the stimulus of Blair's activity religion and education prospered as never before. The powers and duties of the vestry were denned, the position of the parish priest was fixed and his salary was regularly provided for at the public expense, and peda- gogues were brought over from Scotland. By 1700 the population of Virginia had reached 70,000, of whom 20,000 were negro slaves. The great majority of whites were small farmers whose condition was anything but desirable and who constantly encroached upon the Indian lands in the Rappahannock region or penetrated the forests south of the James, several thousand having reached North Carolina. Be- tween 1707 and 1740 many Scottish immigrants, traders, teachers and tobacco-growers settled along the upper Rappahannock, and, uniting with the borderers in general, they offered strong resistance to the older planters on the James and the York. Tobacco-growing was the one vocation of Virginia, and many of the planters were able to spend their winters in London or Glasgow and to send their sons and daughters to the finishing schools of the mother country. Negro slavery grew so rapidly during the first half of the eighteenth century that the blacks outnumbered the whites in 1740. The master of slaves set the fashion. Handsome houses were built along the banks of the sluggish rivers, and numerous slaves were employed. There was as great a social distance between the planters and their families on the one side and the masses of people in Virginia on the other as that which separated the nobles from the yeo- manry in Europe; and there was still another chasm between the small farmers and the negroes. In 1716 an expedition of Governor Alexander Spotswood over the mountains advertised to the world the rich back- country, now known as the Valley of Virginia; a migration thither from Pennsylvania and from Europe followed which revolutionized the province. The majority of blacks over whites soon gave way before the influx of white immigrants, and in 1756 there was a population of 292,000, of whom only 120,000 were negroes, and the small farmer class had grown so rapidly that the old tide-water aristocracy was in danger of being overwhelmed. The " West " had now appeared in American history. This first West, made up of the older small farmers, of the Scottish settlers, of the Germans from the Palatinate and the Scottish-Irish, far outnumbering the people of the old counties, demanded the creation of new counties and proportionate representation in the Burgesses. They did not at first succeed, but when the Seven Years' War came on they proved their worth by fighting the battles of the community against the Indians and the French. When the war was over the prestige of the up-country had been greatly enhanced, and its people soon found eastern leaders in the persons of Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry. In 1763-1765 an investigation of the finances of the colony, forced by the up-country party, showed widespread corruption, and resulted in the collapse of the tide-water oligarchy, which had been in power since 1660. In the meantime the Presby- terians, who had been officially recognized in Virginia under the Toleration Act in 1699, and had been guaranteed religious autonomy in the Valley by Governor Gooch in 1738, had sent missionaries into the border counties of eastern Virginia. The Baptists about the same time entered the colony both from the north and the south and established scores of churches. The new denominations vigorously attacked the methods and immunities of the established church, whose clergy had grown lukewarm in zeal and lax in morals. When the clergy, refusing to acknowledge the authority of the Burgesses in reducing their stipends, and, appealing to the king against the Assembly, entered the courts to recover damages from the vestries, Patrick Henry at Hanover court in 1763 easily con- vinced the jury and the people that the old church was well- nigh worthless. From this time the old order was doomed, for the up-country, the dissenters and the reformers had combined against it. But the passage of the Stamp Act hastened the catastrophe and gave the leaders of the new combination, notably Henry, an opportunity to humiliate the British ministry, whom not even the tide-water party could defend. The repeal of the Stamp Act, followed as it was by the Townshend scheme of indirect taxation, displeased Virginia quite as much as had the former more direct system of taxation. When the Burgesses undertook in May 1769 to declare in vigorous resolutions that the right and power of taxation, direct and indirect, rested with the local assembly, the governor hastily dissolved them, but only to find the same men assem- bling in the Raleigh tavern in Williamsburg and issuing forth their resolutions in defiance of executive authority. Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, with Thomas Jefferson, a new up-country leader of great ability, were the leaders. In 1774 Lord Dunmore, the governor, led an army to the Ohio river to break an Indian coalition which had been formed to check the rapid expansion of Virginia over what is now Kentucky and West Virginia. The up-country again furnished the troops and did the fighting at Point Pleasant (q.v.), where on the loth of October the power of the Indians was completely broken. But the struggle with England had reached a crisis, and Virginia supported with zeal the revolutionary movement and took the lead in the Continental Congresses which directed the succeeding war (see UNITED STATES). In 1775 Patrick Henry organized a regiment of militia and compelled the governor to seek safety on board an English man-of-war in Chesapeake Bay. The war now assumed continental proportions, and the Virginia leaders decided in May 1776 that a declaration of independence was necessary to secure foreign assistance. When the Continental Congress issued the famous Declaration Virginia had already assembled in convention to draft a new Constitution. Although Henry, Lee and Jefferson exercised great power, they were unable to secure a Constitution which embodied the demands of their party: universal suffrage, proportional representation and religious freedom. A draft for such a Constitution was submitted by Jefferson, but the Conservatives rejected it. The system which was adopted allowed the older counties, which must be conciliated, a large majority of the representatives in the new Assembly, on the theory that the preponderance of property (slavery) in that section required this as security against the rising democracy. In place of the former governor, there was to be an executive chosen annually by the Assembly; the old Council was to be followed by a similar body elected by the Assembly; and the judges were likewise to be the creatures of the legislature. The Assembly was divided into two bodies, a Senate and a House of Delegates. The legislature would be all-powerful, and yet representation was so distributed that about one-third of the voters living in the tide-water region would return nearly two-thirds of the members of the legislature. The franchise, though not universal, was generously bestowed; it was a very liberal freehold system. The recruiting ground for the American army in Virginia was the up-country among the Scottish-Irish and the Germans who had long fought the older section of the colony. In 1779 Norfolk was again attacked, and great damage was also done to the neighbouring towns. In January 1781 Benedict Arnold captured Richmond and compelled governor and legislature to flee beyond the Blue Ridge mountains, where one session of the Assembly was held. The last campaign of the war closed at Yorktown on the igth of October 1781. Virginia leaders, including Henry, were the first to urge the I24 VIRGINIA formation of a national government with adequate powers to supersede the lama confederacy. In 1787, under the pre- sidency of Washington, the National Convention sat in Phila- delphia, with the result that the present Federal Constitution was submitted to the states for ratification during 1787-1789. In Virginia the tide-water leaders urged adoption, while the up- country men, following Henry, opposed; but after a long and a bitter struggle, in the summer of 1788 the new instrument was accepted, the low-country winning by a majority of ten votes, partly through the influence of James Madison. Thus the eastern men, who had reluctantly supported the War of Inde- pendence, now became the sponsors for the national government, and Washington was compelled to rely on the party of slavery, not only in Virginia but in the whole South, in order to administer the affairs of the nation. In 1784, Virginia, after some hesitation, ceded to the Federal government the north-west territory, which it held under the charter of 1609; in 1792 another large strip of the territory of Virginia became an independent state under the name of Kentucky. But the people of these cessions, especially of Kentucky, were closely allied to the great up-country party of Virginia, and altogether they formed the basis of the Jeffersonian democracy, which from 1794 opposed the chief measures of the Washington administration, and which on the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws in 1798 precipitated the first great constitutional crisis in Federal politics by the adoption in the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures of the resolutions, known by the names of those states, strongly asserting the right and duty of the states to arrest the course of the national government whenever in their opinions that course had become unconstitutional. Jefferson was the author of the Kentucky resolutions, and his friend Madison prepared those passed by the Virginia Assembly. But these leaders restrained their followers sharply whenever the suggestion of secession was made, and the question of what was meant by arresting the course of Federal legislation was left in doubt. The election of 1800 rendered unnecessary all further agitation by putting Jefferson in the President's chair. The up-country party in Virginia, with their allies along the frontiers of the other states, was now in power, and the radical of 1776 shaped the policy of the nation during the next twenty-five years. Virginia held the position of leadership in Congress, controlled the cabinet and supplied many justices of the Supreme Court. Virginia played a leading r&le in the War of 1812, and up to 1835 her influence in the new Western and North- Western states was overwhelming. But the steady growth of slavery in the East and of a virile democracy in the West neutralized this influence and compelled the assembling of the constitutional convention of 1829, whose purpose was to revise the fundamental law in such a way as to give the more populous counties of the West their legitimate weight in the legislature. The result was failure, for the democracy of small farmers which would have taxed slavery out of existence was denied proportionate representation. The slave insurrection under Nat Turner (q.v.) in 1831 led to a second abortive effort, this time by the legislature, to do away with the fateful institution. The failure of these popular movements led to a sharp reaction in Virginia, as in the whole South, in favour of slavery. From 1835 to 1861 many leading Virginians defended slavery as a blessing and as part of a divinely established order. In 1850 a third Convention undertook to amend the -Constitu- tion, and now that the West yielded its bitter hostility to slavery, representation was so arranged that the more populous section was enabled to control the House while the East still held the Senate; the election of judges was confided to the people; and the suffrage was broadened. Although the West was not pleased, the leaders of the slave-holding counties threatened secession. In the national elections of 1860 Virginia returned a majority of unionist electors as against the secession candidates, Breckin- ridge and Lane, many of the large planters voting for the continuance of the Union, and many of the smaller slave-owners supporting the secessionists. The governor called an extra session of the legislature soon after the Federal election, and this in turn called a Convention to meet on the I3th of February 1861. The majority of this body consisted of Unionists, but the Con- vention passed the ordinance of secession when the Federal government (April 17) called upon the state to supply its quota of armed men to suppress " insurrection " in the lower Southern states. An alliance was made with the provisional government of the Confederate States, on April 25, without waiting for the vote of the people on the ordinance. The Convention called out 10,000 troops and appointed Colonel Robert E. Lee oi the United States army as commander-in-chief. On the 23rd of May the people of the eastern counties almost unanimously voted approval of the acts of the Convention, and the western counties took steps to form the state of West Virginia (q.v.). Richmond soon became the capital of the Confederacy. The Civil War was already begun, and Virginia was of neces- sity the battle-ground. Of the six great impacts made upon the Confederacy, four were upon Virginian soil: the first Man- assas campaign (1861), the Peninsular battles (1862), second Manassas (1862), Fredeiicksburg, Chancellorsville (1862-63) and the great Wilderness-Petersburg series of attacks (1864-65). About 50,000 men were killed in Virginia, and probably 100,000 died of wounds and disease. The principal battles were: the first Manassas, or Bull Run (July 21, 1861); those around Richmond (June 26-July 2, 1862); second Manassas (August 29-30); Fredericksburg (December 12, 1862); Mechanicsville (May 2 and 3, 1863); the Wilderness (May 5 and 6); Spottsylvania (May 8); North Anna and Bethesda church (May 29-30) ; Cold Harbor (June 3) ; the battles around Petersburg (June 15, July 30 and November i, 1864); and Five Forks (April i) and Appomattox (April 8-9, 1865). With the surrender of the Confederate army under General Lee to Grant at Appomattox the task of reconstruction began. President Lincoln offered a very liberal plan of re-establishing the civil authority over the counties east of the Alleghany mountains, and Governor Francis H. Pierpont set up in Rich- mond a government, based upon the Lincoln plan and supported by President Johnson, which continued till the 2nd of March 1867, when the famous reconstruction order converting the state into Military District No. i was issued. General John M. Schofield was put in charge, and under his authority a constitutional Convention was summoned which bestowed the suffrage upon the former slaves, who, led by a small group of whites, who had come into the state with the invading armies, ratified the I4th and isth amendments to the Federal Constitu- tion and govenied the community until 1869. Then the secessionists and Union men of 1861 united and regained control. Virginia was readmitted to the Union on the 26th of January 1870. The Constitution of the reconstruction years was unchanged until 1902, when the present fundamental law was adopted. In national elections the state has supported the Democratic party, except in 1860, when its vote was cast for John Bell, the candidate of the Constitutional Union party. GOVERNORS OF VIRGINIA Under the Company Edward Maria Wingfield, President of the Council ....... John Ratcliffe, President of the Council ohn Smith, „ „ „ . . George Percy, ,, ,, ,, . Thomas West, Lord Delaware, " Governor and Captain General " . George Percy, Deputy Governor . Sir Thomas Dale, '" High Marshal " and Deputy Governor ..... Sir Thomas Gates, Acting Governor Sir Thomas Dale, „ „ . George Yeardley, Lieutenant or Deputy Governor. . . ... Samuel Argall, Lieutenant or Deputy Governor Nathaniel Powell, Acting Governor Sir George Yeardley, Governor Sir Francis Wyatt, „ ... 1607 (April to Sept.) 1607-1608 1608-1609 1609-1610 1610-1618 i6n(March to May) 1611 (May to Aug.) 1611-1612 1612-1616 1616-1617 1617-1619 i6i9(April 9 to 19) 1619-1621 1621-1624 VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF Under the Crown Sir Francis Wyatt, Governor. 1624-1626 Sir George Yeardley, „ . 1626-1627 !• r.uicis West (elected by Council) 1627-1628 John Pott „ 1628-1629 Sir John Harvey, Governor 1629-1635 John West (elected by Council) 1635-1636 Sir John Harvey, Governor 1636-1639 Sir Francis Wyatt, „ 1639-1641 Sir William Berkeley, „ 1641-1644 Richard Kemp (elected by Council) 1644-1645 Sir William Berkeley, Governor . 1645-1652 Under the Commonwealth Richard Bennett(elccted by General Assembly) 1652-1655 Edward Uiggt-s (elected by House of Burgesses) 1655-1657 Samuel Mathews (elected by House of Bur- gesses) ....... 1657-1660 Under the Crown Sir William Berkeley, Governor Francis Morrison (or Moryson), Deputy Governor ...... Herbert Jeffreys, Lieutenant Governor . Sir Henry Chicheley, Deputy Governor Thomas, Lord Culpeper, Governor Nicholas Spencer, President of the Council Francis, Lord Howard of Effingham, Lieu- tenant Governor ..... Nathaniel Bacon, President of the Council Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant Governor Sir Edmund Andros, Governor Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant Governor George Hamilton Douglas, Earl of Orkney, Governor-in-Chief ..... Edward Nott, Lieutenant Governor Edmund Jenings, President of the Council Robert Hunter, Lieutenant Governor1 . Alexander Spotswood, Lieutenant Governor . Hugh Drysdale, „ „ Robert Carter, President, of the Council William Gooch, Lieutenant Governor . William Anne Keppel, Earl of Albemarle, Governor-in-Chiei * . James Blair, President of the Council . Sir William Gooch, Governor John Robinson, President of the Council Thomas Lee, „ „ „ Lewis Burwell, „ „ ,, Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant Governor John Campbell, Earl of Loudon, Governor General of the American Colonies1 John Blair, President of the Council Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor Sir Jeffrey Amherst, Governor-in-Chief1 John Blair, President of the Council Norborne Berkeley, Baron de Botetourt, Governor-in-Chief ..... William Nelson, President of the Council John Murray, Earl of Dunmore, Governor- in-Chief State Patrick Henry . Thomas Jefferson Thomas Nelson, jun. Benjamin Harrison Patrick Henry . Edmund Randolph Beverley Randolph Henry Lee Robert Brooke . ames Wood, Democratic-Republican ames Monroe, ohn Page, William H. Cabell, 'ohn Tyler, sen., .ames Monroe, George Wm. Smith (acting), Democratic Re- publican .... Peyton Randolph (acting) . James Barbour, Anti-Democrat . Wilson Gary Nicholas, Republican James Patton Preston, „ Thomas Mann Randolph, „ James Pleasants, jun., „ John Tyler, State Rights Democrat William Branch Giles, Democrat . 1660-1677 1661-1662 1677-1678 1678-1680 1680-1683 1683-1684 1684-1687 1687-1690 1690-1692 1692-1698 1698-1704 1704-1737 1705-1706 1706-1710 1707 1710-1722 1722-1726 1726-1727 1727-1740 1737-1754 1740-1741 I74I-I749 '749 (June to Sept.) 1749-1750 I750-I75I I75I-I758 1756-1763 1758 (Jan. to June) 1758-1768 1763-1768 1768 (March to Oct.) 1768-1770 1770-1771 1771-1775 1776-1779 I779-I78I 1781 1781-1784 1784-1786 1786-1788 1788-1791 l 791-1 794 1794-1796 1796-1799 1799-1802 1802-1805 1805-1808 1808-1811 1811 1811 1811-1812 1812-1814 1814-1816 1816-1819 1819-1822 1822-1825 1825-1827 1827-1830 John Floyd, Democrat Littleton Waller Tazewell, Democrat . Wyndham Robertson (acting), Democrat David Campbell, Whie Thomas W. Gilmer, Whig . ohn M. Patton (acting), „ ohn Rutherford (acting), „ ohn Munford Gregory (acting), Whig . ames McDowell, „ Yilliam Smith, Democrat . ohn Buchanan Floyd, Democrat oseph Johnson, „ ienry Alexander Wise, „ John Letcher, William Smith, 1830-1834 1834-1836 1836-1837 1837-1840 1840-1841 1841 1841-1842 1842-1843 1843-1846 1846-1849 1849-1852 1852-1856 1856-1860 1860-1864 1864-1865 Francis H. Pierpont (provisional), Republican 1865-1867 Henry Horatio Wells, Gilbert Carlton Walker, James Lawson Kemper, Conservative Frederick Wm. Mackey Holliday, Paying " VVilliam Ewan Cameron, Readjuster Fitzhugh Lee, Democrat Philip W. McKinney, Democrat . Charles Triplett O'Ferrall, Democrat James Hoge Tyler, „ Andrew Jackson Montague, ,, Claude Augustus Swanson, „ William Hodges Mann, ,, Debt 1868-1870 1870-1874 1874-1878 Never in Virginia. 1878-1882 1882-1886 1886-1890 1890-1894 1894-1898 1898-1902 1902-1906 1906-1910 1910 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For physical description see Henry Gannett, Gazetteer of Virginia (Washington, 1904), U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 232 ; W. B. Rogers, Geology of the Virginias (New York, 1884) ; N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller in Water Supply and Irriga- tion Paper No. 114 (Washington, 1905) of the U.S. Geological Sur- vey; G. T. Surface, " Physiography of Virginia," pp. 741-53, vol. 38 (1906), Bulletin, Am. Geog. Soc., and " Geography of Virginia," pp. 1-60, vol. 5 (1907), Bulletin, Philadelphia Geog. Soc.; T. L. Watson el all.. Mineral Resources of Virginia (Lynchburg, 1907). On fisheries see the Report of the Commission of Fisheries, 1908-9 (Richmond, 1909). For administration see J. G. Pollard (ed.), Code of Virginia (2 vols., St Paul, 1904); and on finance, W. L. Royall, History of the Virginia Debt Controversy (Richmond, 1897). History.— general histories are: Robert Beverley, History of Virginia in Four Parts (Richmond, 1855); R. R. Howison, History of Virginia (2 vols., ibid., 1849); S. Kercheval, History of the Valley of Virginia (Woodstock, Va., 1850); and J. E. Cook, Virginia: a History of Ike People (Boston, 1900). On the earlier period see W. A. Clayton Torrence, " A Trial Bibliography of Colonial Virginia " (Richmond, 1910), in the Report of the Virginia State Librarian; L. G. Tyler (ed.), Narratives of Early Virginia, 1606-25 (New York, 1907) ; W. Stith, History of the First Discovery and Settlement of Virginia (ibid., 1865); Susan M. Kingsbury (ed.), Records of the Virginia Company of London (2 vols., Washington. 1906) ; Alexander Brown, The First Republic in America (Boston, 1898); idem (ed.), Genesis of the United States (2 vols., ibid., 1800); I. S. Bassett, The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover (New York, 1901) ; John Fiske, Old Virginia and her Neighbors (ibid., 1897); P. A. Bruce, Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., New York, 1895); J. P. Kennedy and H. R. Mcllwaine, Journals of the House of Burgesses, 1742-76 (Richmond, 1905-7); Charles Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia (Philadelphia, 1859); E. I. Miller, Legislature of the Province of Virginia (New York, 1908); and, for religious and social conditions, Rt. Rev. W. Meade, Old Churches, Ministers and Families of Virginia (ibid., 1857); and H. I. Eckenrode, "Separation of Church and State in Virginia " (Richmond, 1909) in the fth Report of the Virginia State Librarian. For the more recent period see Chas. H. Ambler, Sectionalism in Virginia 1770-1861 (Chicago, 1910), a valuable study ; P. L. Ford, Writings of Thomas Jefferson (10 vols., New York, 1892-99); W. C. Ford, Writings of George Washington (14 vols., ibid., 1889-93); W. W. Henry, Life, Correspondence and Speeches of Patrick Henry (3 vols., ibid., 1891); J. Elliott, Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitu- tion (Philadelphia, 1861); T. R. Dew, Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature, 1831-32 (^Richmond, 1832), important for a comprehension of the slavery issue; J. C. Ballagh, A History of Slavery in Virginia (Baltimore, 1902); B. B. Munford, Virginia's Attitude toward Slavery (New York, 1909); and the Debates of the Virginia Conventions, 1776, 1829, iSjo, which are very important, especially for 1829. See also R. A. Brock (ed.), Virginia Historical Collections (n vols., Richmond, 1882-92); P. A. Bruce and W. G. Stanard, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (ibid., 1893 sqq.); W. W. Hening, The Statutes at Large (13 vols. ibid., 1819-23); and W. P. Palmer, Calendar of Virginia State Papers (n. vols., ibid., 1874). VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF, a state institution for higher education, situated at Charlottesville among the foot-hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Its buildings, arranged around 126 VIRGIN ISLANDS— VIRGO a large rectangular lawn and erected from a plan prepared by Thomas Jefferson, are noted for their architectural effect. At the head of the lawn is the Rotunda, modelled after the Roman Pantheon and now containing the university library; and at the foot of the lawn are three modern recitation and laboratory buildings. On the sides are grouped buildings for each individual professor and dormitories for students. There are also a chapel, a gymnasium, a hospital, and on the summit of Mount Jefferson Hill, a mile south-west of the campus, is the M'Cormick Observatory. The university comprises twenty- six independent schools, but the courses of instruction given in these are so co-ordinated as to form six departments: two academic — the college and the department of graduate studies; and four professional — law, medicine, engineering and agri- culture. The institution owns 522 acres of land, has productive endowment funds amounting to $1,978,000, and receives from the state an annual appropriation of $80,000. It is governed by a rector, chosen by and from nine visitors, and a board of visitors appointed by the governor and two visitors ex officio, the state superintendent of public instruction and the president of the university; and the corporate name of the university is " The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia." In 1904 Edwin Anderson Alderman (b. 1861) was elected president. In 1910 the faculty and officers numbered no, the students (men only) 803, and the number of volumes in the libraries 88,000. The university traces its beginning to an act of the legislature in January 1803 for incorporating the " Trustees of Albemarle Academy." In 1814, before the site of this proposed institu- tion had been chosen, Thomas Jefferson was elected a trustee, and under his influence the legislature, in February 1816, authorized the establishment of Central College in lieu of Albemarle Academy. The corner-stone of Central College was laid in October 1817, and Jefferson, who was rector of its board of trustees, evolved a plan for its development into the univer- sity of Virginia. The legislature, thanks to the efforts of Joseph Carrington Cabell, a close personal friend of Jefferson, adopted the plan in 1818 and 1819, and seven independent schools — ancient languages, modern languages, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, chemistry and medicine — were opened to students in March 1825; a school of law was opened in 1826. In 1837 the School of Medicine became a department of three individual schools; and in 1850 the School of Law became a department of two schools. After the gift of $500,000 by Andrew Carnegie there were established in 1909 the Andrew Carnegie School of Engineering, the James Madison School of Law, the James Monroe School of International Law, the James Wilson School of Political Economy, the Edgar Allan Poe School of English and the Walter Reed School of Pathology. Under Jefferson's plan only two degrees were granted: " Grad- uate," to any student who had completed the course of any one school; and " Doctor " to a graduate in more than one school who had shown powers of research. But in 1831 for the Doctor's degree the faculty substituted, following British custom, the degree of Master of Arts. The college now grants the degrees of " Bachelor of Arts," " Cultural Bachelor of Science " and " Voca- tional Bachelor of Science "; the Department of Graduate Studies, the degrees of " Graduate in a School," " Master of Arts," " Master of Science" and " Doctor of Philosophy"; the Department of Law, the degree of " Bachelor of Laws " ; the Department of Medicine, the degree of " Doctor of Medicine " ; the Department of Engineering, the degrees of " Civil Engineer," " Mechanical Engineer," " Electrical Engineer," " Mining Engineer " and "Chemical Engineer"; and the Department of Agriculture, the degree of " Bachelor of Science in Agriculture." See J. S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell and the University of Virginia (New York, 1906). VIRGIN ISLANDS, a group of small islands in the West Indies, about 100 in number, for the most part uninhabited. They extend E. from Puerto Rico, lying between 17° and 18° 50' N., and 64° 10' and 65° 30' W., their total area being about 465 sq. m. The islands are mostly rocky, or sandy and barren, but such portions as are under cultivation yield sugar, maize, coffee, cotton and indigo. Guinea grass grows abundantly on the hillsides, affording excellent pasturage; the forests, though few, include the mahogany and other useful trees. The coasts abound with fish. The climate is more healthy than that of the other West Indian islands, and the heat is not so great. Some of the islands belong to the United States, some to Denmark and some to Great Britain. The United States' possessions (once dependencies of Puerto Rico, but ceded by Spain in 1898) have an area of about 150 sq. m. and include Culebra or Snake Island, and Vieques or Crab Island. The chief Danish islands are St Thomas (q.v.), St Croix (q.v.) and St John (q.v.), the total area being about 240 sq. m. Of the British portion of the group the principal are Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke, Peter's Island and Salt Island, in all numbering 32, with an area of 58 sq. m. With the exception of the island of Sombrero they form one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. The inhabitants are peasant proprietors, mainly engaged in raising cattle and in burning charcoal, but some are fishermen and boatmen. The chief town is Roadtown (pop. 400) at the head of a splendid harbour on the S. of Tortola, and what trade there is is mostly with St Thomas. Sombrero is maintained as a lighthouse by the British government. Population of the presidency, mostly negroes (1891) 4639; (1901) 4908. The Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494, and named Las Virgenes, in honour of St Ursula and her companions. In 1666 the British established them- selves on Tortola, which has ever since remained in their pos- session. In the 1 7th century the Virgin Islands were favourite resorts of the buccaneers. The Danish islands of St Thomas and St John were taken by the British in 1801, but restored in the following year. In 1807 they surrendered to the British, and continued in their hands till 1815, when they were again restored. VIRGINIUS RUFUS, LUCIUS (A.D. 15-97), Roman patriot and soldier, three times consul (A.D. 63, 69, 97), was born ne Comum, the birthplace of the two Plinys. When governor of upper Germany under Nero (68), after he had put down the revolt of Julius Vindex in Gaul, he was more than once urged by his troops to assume the supreme power; but he firmly refused, and further declared that he would recognize no one as emperor who had not been chosen by the senate. Galba on his accession, aware of the feelings of the German troops and uncertain as to the intentions of Virginius, induced him to accom- pany him to Rome. But Virginius, as always, remained loya to the head of the state. After the death of Otho, the soldier again offered the throne to Virginius, but he again refused it. Considering themselves slighted, they drew their swords upon him, and he only saved himself from their hands by making his escape through the back of the tent. But the soldiers never forgave the fancied insult. Under Vitellius, during a military disturb- ance at Ticinum, one of Virginius's slaves was arrested and charged with the design of murdering the emperor. Virginius was accused of being implicated in the conspiracy, and his death was loudly demanded by the soldiers. To his credit Vitellius refused to sacrifice so valuable a servant, on who loyalty he could depend, to the vengeance of a capricious army. Virginius subsequently lived in retirement, chiefly in his villa at Alsium, on the coast of Etruria, till his death in 97, in which year he held the consulship, together with the emperor Nerva. At the public burial with which he was honoured, the historia Tacitus (then consul) delivered the funeral oration. The younger Pliny, his neighbour and ward, has recorded the lines which Virginius had ordered to be engraved upon his tomb: " Hie situs est Rufus, pulso qui Vindice quondam Imperium asseruit non sibi sed patriae." See Tacitus, Hist. i. ii. ; Dio Cassius Ixiii. 24-27, Ixiv. 4, Ixviii. 2; Pliny, Epp. ii. I, vi. 10; Juvenal viii. 221, with Mayor's note; L. Paul in Rheinisches Museum (1899), liv. pp. 602-30. VIRGO (" the Virgin "), in astronomy, the sixth sign of the zodiac (q.v.), denoted by the symbol Tfl>. It is also a constella- tion mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.) ; Ptolemy catalogued 32 stars, Tycho Brahe 33, VIRUES— VISCHER (FAMILY) Hevelius 50. The Greeks represented this constellation as a virgin, but different fables are current as to the identity of the maid. She is variously considered to be: Justitia, daughter of icus and Ancora, who lived before man sinned, and taught him his duty, and when the golden age ended she returned to heaven; according to Hesiod the virgin is the daughter of Jupiter and Themis; others make her to be Erigone, daughter of Icarius, or Parthene, daughter of Apollo. The most interesting stars of this constellation are: a Virginis, or Spica, a star of the first magnitude with a very faint companion; and y Virginis, a binary star, having components of the third magnitude. VIRUlSS, CHRIST6BAL DE (i5so?-i6is?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Valencia about the middle of the i6th century, joined the army, fought at Lepanto, and retired to his native place with the rank of captain shortly before 1586. The first-fruit of his leisure was El Monserrate (1587), a dull poem on a repulsive subject which had the honour of being praised by Cervantes, and of being reprinted in 1601. Shortly afterwards Virues returned to Italy and issued a recast of his poem entitled El Monserrate segundo (1602). His Obras tr&gicas y llricas (1609) include five tragedies: La Gran Semtramis, La Cruel Casandra, Atila furioso, La Infelice Marcela and Elisa Dido. The date of his death is unknown, but he is conjectured to have been alive as late as 1614. Virues belongs to the school of dramatists displaced by Lope de Vega, and his methods were out of fashion before his plays were printed; yet he is an interesting figure, chiefly because of the very extravagances which destroy the effect of his best scenes. VISBY, or WISBY, the capital of the Swedish island and administrative district (la'n) of Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. Pop. (1900) 8376. It is the seat of a bishop, the port of the island, and a favourite watering-place. It is picturesquely situated on the west coast, 150 m. S. by E. of Stockholm by sea. The houses cluster beneath and above a cliff (klint) too ft. high, and the town is thoroughly medieval in appearance. The remains from its period of extraordinary prosperity from the nth to the I4th century are of the highest interest. Its walls date from the end of the I3th century, replacing earlier forti- fications, and enclose a space much larger than that now covered by the town. Massive towers rise at close intervals along them, and nearly forty are in good preservation. Between them are traces of bartizans. The cathedral church of St Mary dates from 1190-1225, but has been much altered in later times: it has a great square tower at the west end and two graceful octagonal towers at the east, and contains numerous memorials of the lyth century. There are ten other churches, in part ruined, none of which is used for service. Among those of chief interest St Nicholas', of the early part of the I3th century, formerly belonged to a Dominican monastery. It retains two beautiful rose-windows in the west front. The church of the Holy Ghost (Helgeands-Kyrka) in a late Roman- esque style (c. 1250) is a remarkable structure with a nave of two storeys. The Romanesque St Clement's has an ornate south portal, and the churches of St Drotten and St Lars, of the i2th century, are notable for their huge towers. St Catherine's, of the middle of the I3th century, is Gothic, with a pentagonal apse. It belonged to a Franciscan convent, of the buildings of which there are slight ruins. Among ancient remains in the vicinity may be mentioned Galgberget, the place of execution, with tall stone pillars still standing; and the remarkable stone labyrinth of Trojeborg. Modern buildings include the Gotland museum of antiquities, and the high school, with a museum and library. The artificial harbour, somewhat exposed, lies south of the ancient Hanseatic harbour, now filled up and covered with gardens. The town is the terminus of railways to north and south. It is the headquarters of the army division of Gotland troops, and there are some modern forts. The name V'isby is derived from the old Norse ve (sanctuary) and by (town). This was no doubt a place of religious sacrifice in heathen times. At any rate it was a notable trading-place and emporium as early as the Stone Age, and continued to enjoy its importance as such through the Bronze and Iron Ages, as is 127 proved, inter alia, by the large number of Arabic, Anglo-Saxon and other coins which have been found on the island. See GOTLAND and SEA LAWS. VISCACHA, or BISCACHA, a large South American burrowing rodent mammal belonging to the family Chinchillidae and com- monly known as Lagostomus Irickodactylus, although some writers prefer the name Viscacia. With the cheek-teeth formed of a number of parallel plates in the manner characteristic of the family, the viscacha is distinguished from the other members of that group by having only three hind toes; while it is also the heaviest-built and largest member of the group, with smaller ears than the rest. It has a long tail and shaggy fur; the general colour of the latter being dark grey, with conspicuous black and white markings on the face. Viscachas inhabit the South American pampas between the Uruguay river and the Rio Negro in Patagonia, where they dwell in warrens covering from 100 to zoo sq. ft. and forming mounds penetrated by numerous burrows. The ground around the " viscachera " is cleared from vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped upon the mound. Anything the rodents may meet with on their journeys, such as thistle-stalks or bones, are collected and deposited on the viscachera. Deep down in the burrows dwell the viscachas, from which in frequented districts they seldom emerge till evening, unless to drink after a shower. Their chief food is grass and seeds, but they also consume roots. When alarmed, they rush to their burrows, and if these are disturbed utter a growling sound. A pair of prairie burrowing owls (Speotylo) are almost invariably inhabit- ants of a viscachera (see RODENTIA). (R. L.*) VISCHER, the name of a family of Nuremberg sculptors, who contributed largely to the masterpieces of German art in the isth and i6th centuries. 1. HERMANN, the elder, came to Nuremberg as a worker in brass in 1453 and there became a " master " of his gild. There is only one work that can be ascribed to him with certainty, the baptismal font in the parish church of Wittenberg (1457)- This is decorated with figures of the Apostles. 2. His son, PETER, the elder, was born about 1455 in Nurem- berg, where he died on the 7th of January 1529. He became " master " in 1489, and in 1494 was summoned by the Electoral Prince Philipp of the Palatinate to Heidelberg. He soon returned, however, to Nuremberg, where he worked with the help of his five sons, Hermann, Peter, Hans, Jakob and Paul. His works are: the tomb of Bishop Johannes IV., in the Breslau cathedral (1496); the tomb of Archbishop Ernest, in Magde- burg cathedral (1497); the shrine of Saint Sebald in the Sebal- duskirche at Nuremberg, between 1508 and 1519; a large grille ordered by the Fugger brothers in Augsburg (lost); a relief of the " Crowning of the Blessed Virgin " in the Erfurt cathedral (a second example in the Wittenberg Schlosskirche, 1521); the tombstones for Margareta Tucherin in the Regensburg cathedral (1521), and for the Eisen family in the Agidienkirche at Nuremberg (1522); the epitaph for the cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg in the collegiate church at Aschaffenburg (1525); the tomb of the electoral prince Frederick the Wise in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg (1521); the epitaph of the duchess Helene of Mecklenburg in the cathedral at Schwerin. Besides these works there are a number of others ascribed to Peter the elder with less certainty. In technique few bronze sculptors have ever equalled him, but his designs are marred by an excess of mannered realism and a too exuberant fancy. His chief early work, the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magde- burg cathedral (1495), is surrounded with fine statuettes of the Apostles under semi-Gothic canopies; it is purer in style than the magnificent shrine of St Sebald, a tall canopied bronze structure, crowded with reliefs and statuettes in the most lavish way. The general form of the shrine is Gothic,1 but the details are those of the 16th-century Italian Renaissance treated 1 This great work is really a canopied pedestal to support and enclose the shrine, not the shrine itself, which is a work of the I4th century, having the gabled form commonly used in the middle ages for metal reliquaries. 128 VISCHER, F. T.— VISCONTI (FAMILY) with much freedom and originality. Some of the statuettes of saints attached to the slender columns of the canopy are modelled with much grace and even dignity of form. A small portrait figure of Peter himself, introduced at one end of the base, is a marvel of clever realism: he has represented himself as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large leathern apron and holding some of the tools of his craft. This gorgeous shrine is a remarkable example of the uncommercial spirit which animated the artists of that time, and of the evident delight which they took in their work. Dragons, grotesques and little figures of boys, mixed with graceful scroll foliage, crowd every possible part of the canopy and its shafts, designed in the most free and unconventional way and executed with an utter disregard of the time and labour which were lavished on them. See R. Bauer, Peter Vischer und das alte Niirnberg (1886); C. Headlam, Peter Vischer (1901). VISCHER, FRIEDRICH THEODOR (1807-1887), German writer on. the philosophy of art, was born at Ludwigsburg on the 3oth of June 1807, and was the son of a clergyman. He was educated at Tubingen, and began life in his father's profession. In 1835 he became Privatdozent in aesthetics and German literature at his old university, was advanced in 1837 to extra- ordinary professor, and in 1844 to full professor. In conse- quence, however, of his outspoken inaugural address, he was suspended for two years by the Wiirttemberg government, and in his enforced leisure wrote the first two volumes of his Aesthelik, oder Wissenschaft des Schonen (1846), the fourth and last volume of which did not appear till 1857. Vischer threw himself heartily into the great German political movement of 1848-49, and shared the disappointment of patriotic democrats at its failure. In 1855 he became professor at Zurich. In 1866, his fame being now established, he was invited back to Germany with a professorship at Tubingen combined with a post at the Polytechnikum of Stuttgart. He died at Gmunden on the i4th of September 1887. His writings include literary essays collected under the titles Kritische Cdnge and Altes und Ncues, poems, an excellent critical study of Goethe's Faust (1875), and a successful novel, Auch Einer (1878; 25th ed., 1904). Vischer was not an original thinker, and his monumental Aestlietik, in spite of industry and learning, has not the higher qualities of success. He attempts the hopeless task of explain- ing art by the Hegelian dialectic. Starting with the definition of beauty as " the idea in the form of limited appearance," he goes on to develop the various elements of art (the beautiful, sublime and comic), and the various forms of art (plastic art, music and poetry) by means of the Hegelian antitheses — form and content, objective and subjective, inner conflict and recon- ciliation. The shape of the work also is repellently Hegelian, consisting of short highly technical paragraphs containing the main argument, followed by detailed explanations printed in different type. Still, Vischer had a thorough knowledge of every branch of art except music, and much valuable material is buried in his volumes. In later life Vischer moved consider- ably away from Hegelianism, and adopted the conceptions of sensuous completeness and cosmic harmony as criteria of beauty; but he never found time to rewrite his great book. His own work as a literary artist is of high quality; vigorous, im- aginative and thoughtful without academic technicality. See O. Keindl, F. T. Vischer, Erinnerungsblatter (1888); J. E. von Gunthert, F. T. Vischer, ein Charakterbild (1888); I. Frapan, Vischer-Erinnerungen (1889); T. Ziegler, F. T. Vischer (Vortrag) (1893); J. G. Oswald, F. T. Vischer als Dichter (1896). (H. ST.) VISCONTI, the name of a Celebrated Italian family which long ruled Milan; they claimed descent from King Desiderius, and in the nth century possessed estates on Lakes Como and Maggiore. A certain OTTONE, who distinguished himself in the First Crusade, is mentioned in 1078 as viscount of Milan. The real basis for the family's dominion was laid, however, by another OTTONE, a canon of Desio, appointed archbishop of Milan by Pope Urban IV. in 1262 through the influence of Cardinal Ubaldini. The Delia Torre family, who then con- trolled the city, opposed the appointment, and not until his victory at Desic in 1277 was Ottone able to take possession of his see. He imprisoned Napoleone Delia Torre and five of his relatives in iron cages, and directed his later efforts toward the advancement of his nephew Matteo. He died on the i8th of August 1295, aged eighty years. MATTEO, born at Invorio on the I5th of August 1255, succeeded his uncle as political leader of Milan, and although an uprising of the De Torre in 1302 compelled him to take refuge at Verona, steadfast loyalty to the imperial cause in Italy earned him t gratitude of Henry VII., who restored him to Milan in 131 and made him imperial vicar of Lombardy. He brought under his rule Piacenza, Tortona, Pavia, Bergamo, Vercelli, Cremona and Alessandro. An able general, he yet relied for his conquests more on diplomacy and bribery, and was esteemed as a model of the prudent Italian despot. Persevering in his Ghibelline policy, and quarrelling with Pope John XXII. over an appointment to the archbishopric of Milan, he was excommunicated by the papal legate Bertrand du Puy 1322. He at once abdicated in favour of his son Galeazzo and died at Crescenzago on the 24th of June of the same year He left besides Galeazzo several sons: Marco, Lucchino Giovanni and Stefano. GALEAZZO I. (1277-1328), who rul at Milan from 1322 to 1328, met the Holy Army which t pope had sent against the Visconti at Vaprio on the Add (1324), and defeated it with the aid of the emperor Louis th Bavarian. In 1327 he was imprisoned by the emperor a Monza because he was thought guilty of making peace wit the church, and was released only on the intercession of his friei Castruccio Castracane. By his wife Beatrice d'Este he ha< the son Azzo who succeeded him. His brother MARCO com manded a band of Germans, conquered Pisa and Lucca ani died in 1329. Azzo (1302-1339), who succeeded his fath in 1328, bought the title of imperial vicar for 25,000 flori from the same Louis who had imprisoned Galeazzo I. He con quered ten towns, murdered his uncle Marco (1329), suppresse a revolt led by his cousin Lodrisio, reorganized the admmistr; tion of his estates, built the octagonal tower of S. Gottard and was succeeded in turn by his uncles Lucchino and Gi< vanni. LUCCHINO made peace with the church in 1341, bough Parma from Obizzo d'Este and made Pisa dependent on Milan. Although he showed ability as general and governor, he wi jealous and cruel, and was poisoned in 1349 by his wife Isabel Fieschi. GIOVANNI, brother of the preceding, archbishop o: Milan and lord of the city from 1349 to 1354, was one of th most notable characters of his time. He befriended Petrare extended the Visconti sway over Bologna (135:0), defied Po Clement VI., annexed Genoa (1353), and died on the 5th October 1354 after having established the rule of his famil over the whole of northern Italy except Piedmont, Vero Mantua, Ferrara and Venice. The Visconti from the tim of Archbishop Giovanni were no longer mere rivals of tb Delia Torre or dependants on imperial caprice, but real sovi reigns with a recognized power over Milan and the surroundin territory. The state was partitioned on the death of Giova among his brother Stefano's three sons, Matteo II., Galeazzo II and Bernabo. MATTEO II., who succeeded to Bologna, Lodi Piacenza and Parma, abandoned himself to the most revolt ing immorality, and was assassinated in 1355 by direct!' of his brothers, who thenceforth governed the state jointl; and with considerable ability. GALEAZZO II., who held hi: court at Pavia, was handsome and distinguished, the patro of Petrarch, the founder of the university of Pavia and gifted diplomat. He married his daughter Violante to th duke of Clarence, son of Edward III. of England, giving dowry of 200,000 gold florins; and his son Gian Galeazzo Isabella, daughter of King John of France. He died in 137? BERNABO, who held his court at Milan, was involved in constan warfare, to defray the expenses of which he instituted ver oppressive taxes. He fought Popes Innocent VI. and Urban V., who proclaimed a crusade against him. He fought the en peror Charles IV., who declared the forfeiture of his fief. He I VISCONTI-VENOSTA 129 endeavoured to exercise sole power in the state after the death of his brother, but his young nephew Gian Galeazzo plotted against him and put him to death (1385). GIAN GALEAZZO, the most powerful of the Visconti, became joint ruler of the Milanese territories on the death of his father in 1378 and sole ruler on the death of his uncle seven years later. He founded the cathedral of Milan, built the Certosa and the bridge across the Ticino at Pavia, improved the university of Pavia and established the library there, and restored the university at Piacenza. His bureaucratic government was excellent; he was an able and economical administrator, and was reputed to be one of the wealthiest princes of his time. He was ambitious to reduce all Italy under the sway of the Visconti. He conquered Verona in 1387; and in the following year, with the aid of the Venetians, took Padua. He plotted successfully against the rulers of Mantua and Ferrara, and now that the whole of Lombardy lay prostrate before him he turned his attention to Tuscany. In 1399 he bought Pisa and seized Siena. The emperor Wenceslaus had already con- ferred on him the title of duke of Milan for 100,000 florins, reserving only Pisa, and refused to take arms against him. Gian Galeazzo took Perugia, Lucca and Bologna (1400-1), and was besieging Florence when he died of the plague (3rd of September 1402) at the age of fifty-five years. His sons, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria, were mere boys at the time of his death, and were taken under the protection of the celebrated condottiere Facino Cane de Cesale; but most of Gian Galeazzo's conquests were lost to his self-seeking generals. GIOVANNI MARIA was proclaimed duke of Milan in 1402, dis- played an insane cruelty, and was killed in 1412 by Ghibelh'ne partisans. FILIPPO MARIA, who became nominal niler of Pavia in 1402, succeeded his brother as duke of Milan. Cruel and extremely sensitive about his personal ugliness, he nevertheless was a great politician, and by employing such powerful con- dottieri as Carmagnola, Piccinino and Francesco Sforza he managed to recover the Lombard portion of his father's duchy. From his marriage with the unhappy widow of the above- mentioned Facino Cane he received a dowry of nearly half a million florins. He died in 1447, the last of the Visconti in direct male line, and was succeeded in the duchy, after the shortlived Ambrosian republic, by Francesco Sforza, who had married his daughter Bianca in 1441 (see SFORZA). VALENTINA (1366- 1408), a daughter of Gian Galeazzo and a sister of the preceding, married Louis of Orleans in 1387, and it was from her that Louis XII. of France derived his claims to the duchy of Milan. GABRIELE, an illegitimate brother, gained possession of Pisa and other towns, but was despoiled and beheaded (1407) by Charles VI. *s governor of Genoa, under whose protection he had placed himself. Among collateral branches of the Vis- conti family were the counts of Saliceto, counts of Zagnano, lords of Brignano, marquis of San Giorgio di Borgoratto, marquis of Invorio and Marquis Delia Motta. Other branches attained to some prominence in the local history of Bari and of Tarento. Tebaldo Visconti of Piacenza became Pope Gregory X. in 1271. Among the Visconti lords of Fontaneto was Gasparo, who died in 1595 archbishop of Milan. An Ignatius Visconti was sixteenth general of the Jesuits (1751-55). There is a contemporary history of the principal members of the family by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, which may be had in several editions. See J. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Re- naissance in Italy, trans, by S. G. C. Middlemore (London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, Age of the Despots (New York, 1888); C. Magenta, / Visconti « gli Sforza nel Castello di Pavia (1883); A. Medin, I Visconti nella poesia contemforanea (Milan, 1891); F. Mugnier, " Lettres des Visconti de Milan " in Memoires el documents de la societe savoisienne d'histoire et d'archeologie, vol. x. of the second series (1896). (C. H. HA.) VISCONTI-VENOSTA, EMILIO, MARQUIS (1820- ), Italian statesman, was born at Milan on the 22nd of January 1829- A disciple of Mazzini, he took part in all the anti- Austrian conspiracies until the ineffectual rising at Milan on the 6th of February 1853, of which he had foretold the failure, induced him to renounce his Mazzinian allegiance. Continuing, XXVIH. 5 nevertheless, his anti-Austrian propaganda, he rendered good service to the national cause, but being molested by the Austrian police, was obliged in 1859 to escape to Turin, and during the war with Austria of that year was appointed by Cavour royal commissioner with the Garibaldian forces. Elected deputy in 1860, he accompanied Farini on diplomatic missions to Modena and Naples, and was subsequently despatched to London and Paris to acquaint the British and French governments with the course of events in Italy. As a recompense for the tact displayed on this occasion, he was given by Cavour a permanent appointment in the Italian foreign office, and was subsequently appointed under-secretary of state by Count Pasolini. Upon the latter's death he became minister of foreign affairs (24th March 1863) in the Minghetti cabinet, in which capacity he negotiated the September Convention for the evacuation of Rome by the French troops. Resigning office with Minghetti in the autumn of 1864, he was in March 1866 sent by La Marmora as minister to Constantinople, but was almost immediately recalled and reappointed foreign minister by Ricasoli. Assum- ing office on the morrow of the second battle of Custozza, he succeeded in preventing Austria from burdening Italy with a proportion of the Austrian imperial debt, in addition to the Venetian debt proper. The fall of Ricasoli in February 1867 deprived him for a time of his office, but in December 1869 he entered the Lanza-Sella cabinet as foreign minister, and retained his portfolio in the succeeding Minghetti cabinet until the fall of the Right in 1876. During this long period he was called upon to conduct the delicate negotiations connected with the Franco-German War, the occupation of Romejby the Italians, and the consequent destruction of the temporal power of the pope, the Law of Guarantees and the visits of Victor Emmanuel II. to Vienna and Berlin. Upon the occasion of his marriage with the daughter of the marquis Alfieri di Sostegno, grand- niece of Cavour, he was created marquis by the king. For a time he remained a member of the parliamentary opposition, and in 1886 was nominated senator. In 1894, after eighteen years' absence from active political life, he was chosen to be Italian arbitrator in the Bering Sea question, and in 1896 once more accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs in the Di Rudini cabinet at a juncture when the disasters in Abyssinia and the indiscreet publication of an Abyssinian Green Book had rendered the international position of Italy exceedingly difficult. His first care was to improve Franco-Italian relations by negotiating with France a treaty with regard to Tunis. During the nego- tiations relating to the Cretan question and the Graeco-Turkish War, he secured for Italy a worthy part in the European Concert and joined Lord Salisbury in saving Greece from the loss of Thessaly. Resigning office in May 1898, on a question of internal policy, he once more retired to private life, but in May 1899 again assumed the management of foreign affairs in the second Pelloux cabinet, and continued to hold office in the succeeding Saracco cabinet until its fall in February 1901. During this period his attention was devoted chiefly to the Chinese problem and to the maintenance of the equilibrium in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. In regard to the Mediterranean he established an Italo-French agreement by which France tacitly undertook to leave Italy a free hand in Tripoli, and Italy not to interfere with French policy in the interior of Morocco; and, in regard to the Adriatic, he came to an understanding with Austria guaranteeing the status quo in Albania. Prudence and sagacity, coupled with unequalled experience of foreign policy, enabled him to assure to Italy her full portion of influence in international affairs, and secured for himself the unanimous esteem of European cabinets. In recognition of his services he was created Knight of the Annun- ziata by Victor Emmanuel III. on the occasion of the birth of Princess Yolanda Margherita of Savoy (ist of June 1001). In February 1906 he was Italian delegate to the Morocco con- ference at Algeciras. An account of Vjsconti-Venosta's early life (down to 1859) is given in an interesting volume by his brother Giovanni Visconti- Venosta, Ricordi di Gioventa (Milan, 1904). 130 VISCOUNT— VISION VISCOUNT (through O. Fr. mscomle, mod. vicomte, from Low Lat. vice-comes, cf. Portug. visconde, Ital. visconte), the title of the fourth rank of the European nobility. In the British peerage it intervenes between the dignities of earl and baron. The title is now purely one of honour, having long been dissociated from any special office or functions. In the Carolingian epoch the vice-comites, or missi comitis, were the deputies or vicars of the counts, whose official powers they exercised by delegation, and from these the viscounts of the feudal period were undoubtedly derived. Soon after the counts became hereditary the same happened in the case of their lieutenants; e.g. in Narbonne, Nimes and Alby the viscounts had, according to A. Molinier, acquired hereditary rights as early as the beginning of the loth century. Viscount- cies thus developed into actual fiefs, with their own jurisdiction, domain and seigniorial rights, and could be divided or even transmitted to females. Viscounts, however, continued for some time to have no more than the status of lieutenants, call- ing themselves either simply vice-comites, or adding to this title the name of the countship from which they derived their powers. It was not till the I2th century that the universal tendency to territorialize the feudal dominions affected the viscountcies with the rest, and that the viscounts began to take the name of the most important of their patrimonial domains. Thus the viscounts of Poitiers called themselves viscounts of Thouars, and those of Toulouse viscounts of Bruniquel and Montelar. From this time the significance of the title was extremely various. Some viscounts, notably in the duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Toulouse, of which the size made an effective centralized government impossible, were great barons, whose authority extended over whole provinces, and who disputed for power on equal terms with counts and dukes. Elsewhere, on the other hand, e.g. in the lie de France, Champagne, and a great part of Burgundy, the vicomtes continued to be half feudatories, half officials of the counts, with the same functions and rank in the feudal hierarchy as the chatelains; their powers were jealously limited and, with the organization of the system of prevots and baillis in the 1 2th century, practically disappeared. In the royal domains especially, these petty feudatories could not maintain them- selves against the growing power of the crown, and they were early assimilated to the prevots', thus there is no record of a vicomte at Paris after 1027. In Normandy, where from the first the central power had been strong, vicomtes appeared at a very early date as deputies of the counts (afterwards dukes) ot the Normans: " They are both personal companions and hereditary nobles." When local Norman counts began in the nth century, some of them had vicomtes under them, but the normal vicomte was still a deputy of the duke, and Henry I. largely replaced the hereditary holders of the vicomtes by officials. " By the time of the Conqueror the judicial functions of the viscount were fully recognized, and extended over the greater part of Normandy." Eventually almost the whole of Normandy was divided into administrative viscountcies or bailiwicks by the end of the 1 2th century. When the Normans conquered England, they applied the term viscounle or vicecomes to the sheriffs of the English system (see SHERIFF), whose office, how- ever, was quite distinct and was hardly affected by the Conquest. Nearly four centuries later " viscount " was introduced as a peerage style into England, when its king was once more lord of Normandy. John, Lord Beaumont, K.G., who had been created count of Boulogne in 1436, was made Viscount Beau- mont, February 12, 1440, and granted precedence over all barons, which was doubtless the reason for his creation. Within a year the feudal vicomte of Beaumont in Normandy was granted to him and the heirs male of his body on the ground that he traced his descent from that district. In 1446 Lord Bourchier, who held the Norman countship of Eu, was similarly made a viscount. The oldest viscountcy now on the roll is that of Hereford, created in 1550; but the Irish viscountcy of Gorman- ston is as old as 1478. The dignity was sparingly conferred in the peerage of England till recent times, when the number of viscounts was increased by bestowing the dignity on retiring speakers (e.g. Viscounts Canterbury, Hampden, Peel, Selby) and ministers who accepted peerages (e.g. Viscounts Melville, Halifax, Knutsford, Llandaff, Cross, Ridley, Goschen, St Aldwyn, Morley of Blackburn, Wolverhampton). A viscount is " Right Honourable," and is styled " My Lord." His wife, also " Right Honourable," is a " viscountess," and is styled " My Lady." All their sons and daughters are " Honourable." The coronet first granted by James I. has on the golden circlet a row of fourteen small pearls set in contact, of which number in representations nine are shown. The scarlet parliamentary robe of a viscount has two and a half doublings of ermine. See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franfaises (Paris, 1892), bibliography on p. 282; Stapletpn's Rotuli Scaccarii Normanniae; Powicke's " The Angevin Administration of Normandy " (Eng. Hist. Rev. vols. xxi., xxii.) ; Lords' Reports on the Dignity of a Peer; Courthope Nicolas's Historic Peerage. VISHNU (Sanskrit, " the worker," from root msk, "to work "), a solar deity, in later Hindu mythology a god of the first im- portance, one of the supreme trinity with Brahma and Siva, but in the Rig Veda only a minor deity. In the Vedic scriptures his only anthropomorphic characteristics are the frequently mentioned strides that he takes, and his being a youth vast in body. His essential feature is the three strides (vi-kram) with which he traverses the universe. Two of these steps are visible to men, but the third or highest is beyond mortal sight. These steps are symbolic of the rising, culminating and setting of the sun, or alternatively the course of the solar deity through the three divisions of the universe. To-day Vishnu is adored by the Vishnavite sects as the equal or even the superior of Brahma, and is styled the Preserver. He is represented with four arms, and black in colour; in one hand he holds a club and in the others a shell, a discus and a lotus respectively. He rides on the Garuda, half man and half bird, having the head, wings, beak and talons of an eagle, and human body and limbs, its face being white, its wings red and its body golden. In his character as preserver of men Vishnu has from time to time become incarnate to rid the world of some great evil (see also BRAHMANISM and HINDUISM). See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897); Sir W. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, iy. 63-298; Sir M. Monier- Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, Hi. v. vi. VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT, the function, in physiology, of the organ known as the eye (k steadily for an instant at the window and then close the eyes, a positive image of the window will appear; if we then gaze fixedly at the window for one or two minutes, close the eyes two or three times, and then look at a dark part of the room, a negative image will be seen floating before us. The positive image Qranee is due to excitation of the retina, and the negative' to fatigue. If we fatigue a small Yellow area of the retina with white light, and then allow a less intense light to fall on it, the fatigued area responds feebly, and conse- Green quently the object, such as the window pane, appears to be dark. Greenish blue 4. SENSATIONS OF COLOUR Cyanic blue i. General Statement. — Colour (q.v.) is a special sensation excited by the action on the retina of rays of light of a definite wave-length. On the most likely hypothesis as to the physical nature of light, colour depends on the rate of vibra- tion of the luminiferous aether, and white light is a compound of all the colours in definite proportion. When a surface reflects solar light into the eye without affecting this proportion, it is white, but if it absorbs all the light so as to reflect nothing, it appears to be black. If a body held between the eye and the sun transmits light unchanged, and is transparent, it is colourless, but if translucent it is white. If the medium transmits or reflects some rays and absorbs others, it is coloured. Thus, if a body absorbs all the rays of the spectrum but those which cause the sensation of green, we say the body is green in colour; but this green can only be perceived if the rays of light falling on the body contain rays having the special rate of vibration required for this special colour. For if the surface be illumin- ated by any other pure ray of the spectrum, say red, these red rays will be absorbed and the body will appear to be black. As a white surface reflects all the rays, in red light it will be seen to be red, and in a green light, green. Colour depends on the nature of the body and on the nature of the light falling on it, and a sensation of colour arises when the body reflects or transmits the special rays to the eye. If two rays of different rates of vibration, that is to say, of different colours, affect a surface of the retina at the same moment, the effects are fused together and we have the sensation of a third colour different from its cause. Thus, if red be removed from the solar spec- trum, all the other colours combined cause a sensation of green- ish yellow. Again red and violet give purple, and yellow and blue, white. Yellow and blue, however, only give white when pure spectral colours are mixed. It is well known that a mixture of yellow and blue pigments do not produce white, but green; but, as was explained by Helmholtz, this is because the blue pigment absorbs all the rays at the red end of the spectrum up to the green, while the yellow pigment absorbs all the rays at the violet end down to the green, and as the only rays reflected into the eye are the green rays, the sub- stance appears green. Finally, if colours are painted on a disk in due proportions and in a proper order, the disk will, when quickly rotated, appear white, from the rapid fusion of colour effects. When we examine a spectrum, we see a series of colours merging by insensible gradations the one into the other, thus: — red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These are termed simple colours. If two or more coloured rays of the spectrum act simultaneously on the same spot of the retina, they may give rise to sensations of mixed colours. These mixed colours are of two kinds: (i) those which do not correspond to any colour in the spectrum, such as purple and white, and (2) those which do exist in the spectrum. White may be produced by a mixture of two simple colours, which are then said to be complementary. Thus, red and greenish blue, orange and cyanic blue, yellow and indigo blue, and greenish yellow and violet all produce white. Purple is produced by a mixture of red and violet, or red and bluish violet. The following table by Helmholtz shows the compound colours produced by mixing other colours: — Violet Indigo blue Cyanic blue Greenish blue Green Yellowish green Yellow Purple Deep White White Whitish Golden Orange Deep rose White rose White Whitish yellow Yellow yellow Yellow rose rose yellow White White Whitish Whitish Yellowish rose White Green green Green green Green green Blue Water Greenish blue blue Water Water blue blue Indigo blue This table shows that if we mix two simple colours not so far separated in the spectrum as the complementary colours, the mixed colour contains more white as the interval between the colours em- ployed is greater, and that if we mix two colours farther distant in the __ spectrum than the com- plementary colours, the mixture is whiter as the FIG. 17. — Form of Double Slit for the Partial Superposition of Two Spectra. interval is smaller. By mixing more than two simple colours, no new colours are produced, but only different shades of colour. 2. Modes of Mixing Colour Sensations.— Various methods have been adopted for studying the effect of mixing colours. (a) By Superposing Two Spectra. — This may be done in a simple way by having a slit in the form of the letter V (see fig. 17), of which the two portions ab and be form a right angle; behind this slit is placed a vertical prism, and two spectra are obtained, 138 VISION as seen in fig. 18, in which bfea is the spectrum of the slit ab, and cefd that of the slit cd; the coloured spectra are containec in the triangle gef, and by arrangement, the effects of mixture of any two simple colours may be observed. (b) By Method of Re- flection.— Place a red FIG. 18.— Diagram of Double Spectrum wafer on j m fig. IO and partolly superposed. * E so angle a small glass plate a as to transmit to the eye a reflection of the blue wafer on d in the same line as the rays transmitted from the red wafer on b. The sensation will be that of purple; and by using wafers of different colours, many experiments may thus be performed. (c) By Rotating Disks which quickly superpose on the same Area of Retina the Impres- , sions of Different Wave-lengths. — Such disks may be con- structed of cardboard, on which coloured sectors are painted, as shown in fig. 20, representing diagrammatically the arrangement of Sir Isaac Newton. The angles of the sectors were thus given by him:- Red Orange Yellow 60" 45-5' 34° 10-5' 54 41 Violet Green Blue . Indigo . 6oc 45-5 60° 45-5' 54° 4i' 34° 10-5' With sectors of such a size, white will be produced on rotating the disk rapidly. This method has been carried out with great efficiency by the colour-top of J. Clerk-Maxwell. It is a flat top, on the surface of which disks of various colours may be placed. Dancer has added to it a method by which, even while the top is rotating rapidly and the sensation of a mixed colour is strongly perceived, the eye may be able to see the simple colours of which it is composed. This is done by placing on the handle of the top, a short distance above the FIG. 20. — Diagram of the Colour Disk of Sir Isaac Newton. weighted a little on one side. coloured surface, a thin black disk, perforated by holes of various size and pattern, and This disk vibrates to and fro rapidly, and breaks the continuity of the colour impression; and thus the constituent colours are readily seen. 3. The Geometric Representation of Colours. — Colours may be arranged in a linear series, as in the solar spectrum. Each point of the line corresponds to a determinate impression of colour; the line is not a straight line, as regards luminous effect, but is better represented by a curve, passing from the red to the violet. This curve might be represented as a circle in the circumference of which the various colours might be placed, in which case the complementary colours would be at the extremities of the same diameter. Sir Isaac Newton arranged the colours in the form of a triangle, as shown in fig. 21. If we place three of the spectral colours at three angles, thus— green, violet and red— the sides of the triangle include the inter- mediate colours of the spectrum, except purple. The point S corresponds to white, consequently, from the inter- section of the lines which join the complementary colours, the straight lines from green to S, RS and VS represent the amount of green, red and violet necessary to form white; the same holds good _ [COLOUR SENSATION for the complementary colours; for example, for blue and red, the line SB = the amount of blue, and the line SR = the amount of red required to form white. Again, any point, say M; on the surface of the triangle, will represent a mixed colour, the composi- tion of which may be ob- tained by mixing the three fundamental colours in the proportions represented by the length of the lines M to green, MV and MR. But tU the line VM passes on to && Purjdt Vu reolaceThJ red" ST.SS FlG' ^--Geometrical Representation of the Relations of Colours as shown by " Indigo portion of the length of the line MY, and mix it with violet in the proportion of SV. The same colour would also be formed by mixing the amount MY of yellow with MS of white, or by the amount RM of red with the amount MD of greenish blue. The following list shows characteristic complementary colours, with their wave-lengths (X) in millionths of a millimetre: — Red, X 656. Orange, X 608. Gold-yellow, X 574. Yellow, Xs67. Greenish yellow, X 564. Blue-green, X 492. Blue, X4QO. Blue, X 482. Indigo-blue, \464- Violet, X 433. By combining colours at opposite ends of the spectrum, the effect of the intermediate colours may be produced; but the lowest and the highest, red and violet, cannot thus be formed. These are therefore fundamental or primary colours, colours that cannot be produced by the fusion of other colours. If now to red and violet we add green, which has a rate! of vibration about midway between red and violet, we obtain a sensation of white. Red, green and violet are therefore the three funda- mental colours. 4. Physiological Characters of Colours. — Colour physiologically is a sensation, and it therefore does not depend only on the physical stimulus of light, but also on the part of the retina affected. The power of distinguishing colours is greatest when they fall on, or immediately around, the yellow spot, where the number of cones is greatest. In these regions more than two hundred different tints of colour may be distinguished. Out- side of this area lies a middle zone, where fewer tints are per- ceived, mostly confined to shades of yellow and blue. If intense coloured stimuli are employed, colours may be perceived even to the margin of the periphery of the retina, but with weak stimuli coloured objects may seem to be black, or dark like shadows. In passing a colour from the periphery to the centre of the yellow spot, remarkable changes in hue may be observed. Orange is first grey, then yellow, and it only appears as orange when it enters the zone sensitive to red. Purple and bluish green are blue at the periphery, and only show the true tint in the central region. Four tints have been found which do not thus change: a red obtained by adding to the red of the spectrum a little blue (a purple), a yellow of 574-5 X, a green of 495 X and a blue of 471 X. The question now arises, How can we perceive differences in colour? We might suppose a molecular vibration to be set up in the nerve-endings synchronous with the undulations of the luminiferous aether, without any change in the chemical con- stitution of the sensory surface, and we might suppose that where various series of waves in the aether corresponding to different colours act together, these may be fused together, or to interfere so as to give rise to a vibration of modified form or rate that corresponded in some way to the sensation. Or, to adopt another line of thought, we might suppose that the effect of different rays (rays differing in frequency of vibration and in physiological effect) is to promote or retard chemical changes n the sensory surface, " which again so affect the sensory nerves as to give rise to differing states in the nerves and the nerve centres, with differing concomitant sensations." The former >f these thoughts is the foundation of the Young-Helmholtz heory, while the latter is applicable to the theory of E. Hering. COLOUR SENSATION] VISION 139 r\ 5. Theories of Colour-Perception. — A theory widely accepte( by physicists was first proposed by Thomas Young anc H 0 Y G B -y afterwards revived by Helmholtz. It is basec on the assumption that three kinds of nervous ele- ments exist in the retina the excitation of which give respectively sensa- tions of red, green and violet. These may be regarded as fundamental sensations. Homogene- ous light excites all three, but with different intensities according to the length of the wave. Thus long waves will excite most strongly fibres sensitive to red, medium waves those sensitive to green, and short waves those sensi- tive to violet. Fig. 22 shows graphically the irritability of the three R O Y U B V FIG. 22. — Diagram showing the Irrita- bility of the Three Kinds of Retinal Elements. I, red; 2, green; 3, violet. R, O, Y, G, B, V, initial letters of colours. sets of fibies. Helmholtz thus applies the theory: — " i. Red excites strongly the fibres sensitive to red and feebly the other two — sensation : Red. 2. Yellow excites moderately the fibres sensitive to red and green, feebly the violet — sensation : Yellow. 3. Green excites strongly the green, feebly the other two — sensation : Green. 4. Blue excites moderately the fibres sensitive to green and violet, and feebly the red — sensation : Blue. 5. Violet excites strongly the fibres sensitive to violet, and feebly the other two — sensation : Violet. 6. When the excitation is nearly equal for the three kinds of fibres, then the sensation is White." The Young-Helmholtz theory explains the appearance of the consecutive coloured images. Suppose, for example, that we look at a red object for a considerable time ; the retinal elements sensitive to red become fatigued. Then (i) if the eye be kept in darkness, the fibres affected by red being fatigued do not act so as to give a sensation of red ; those of green and of violet have been less excited, and this excitation is sufficient to give the sensation of pale greenish blue ; (2) if the eye be fixed on a white surface, the red fibres, being fatigued, are not excited by the red rays contained in the white light ; on the contrary, the green and violet fibres are strongly excited, and the consequence is that we have an intense complementary image; (3) if we look at a bluish green surface, the complementary of red, the effect will be to excite still more strongly the green and violet fibres, and consequently to have a still more intense complementary image; (4) if we regard a red surface, the primitive colour, the red fibres are little affected in consequence of being fatigued, the green and violet fibres will be only feebly excited, and therefore only a very feeble complementary image will be seen; and (5) if we look at a surface of a different colour altogether, this colour may combine with that of the consecutive image, and produce a mixed colour; thus, on a yellow surface, we will see an image of an orange colour. Every colour has three qualities: (i) hue, or tint, such as red, green, violet; (2) degree of saturation, or purity, according to the amount of white mixed with the tint, as when we recognize a red or green as pale or deep; and (3) intensity, or luminosity, or brightness as when we designate the tint of a red rose as dark or bright. Two colours are identical when they agree as to these three qualities. Observation shows, however, that out of one hundred men ninety-six agree in identifying or in discrimin- ating colours, while the remaining four show defective apprecia- tion. These latter are called colour-blind. This defect is about ten times less frequent in women. Colour-blindness is congen- ital and incurable, and it is due to an unknown condition of the retina or nerve centres, or both, and must be distinguished from transient colour-blindness, sometimes caused by the excessive use of tobacco and by disease. When caused by tobacco, the sensation of blue is the last to disappear. Absolute inability to distinguish colour is rare, if it really exists; in some rare cases there is only one colour sensation; and in a few cases the colour-blind fails to distinguish blue from green, or there is insensibility to violet. Daltonism, or red-green blind- ness, of which there are two varieties, the red-blind and the green-blind, is the more common defect. Red appears to a red- blind person as a dark green or greenish yellow, yellow and orange as dirty green, and green is green and brighter than the green of the yellow and orange. To a green-blind person red appears as dark yellow, yellow is yellow, except a little lighter in shade than the red he calls dark yellow, and green is pale yellow. According to the Young-Helmholtz theory, there are three funda- mental colour sensations, red, green and violet, by the combination of which all other colours may be formed, and it is assumed that there exist in the retina three kinds of nerve elements, each of which is specially responsive to the stimulus of waves of a certain frequency corresponding to one colour, and much less so to waves of other frequencies and other colours. If waves corresponding to pure red alone act on the retina, only the corresponding nerve element for red would be excited, and so with green and violet. But if waves of different frequencies are mixed (corresponding to a mixture of colours), then the nerve elements will be set in action in proportion to the amount and intensity of the constituent excitant rays in the colour. Thus if all the nerve elements were simultane- ously set in action, the sensation is that of white light ; if that corre- sponding to red and green, the resultant sensation will be orange or yellow; if mainly the green and violet, the sensation will be blue and indigo. Then red-blindness may be explained by supposing that the elements corresponding to the sensation of red are absent; and green-blindness, to the absence of the elements sensitive to green. If to a red-blind person the green and violet are equal, and when to a green-blind person the red and violet are equal, they may have sensations which to them constitute white, while to the normal eye the sensation is not white, but bluish green in the one case and green in the other. In each case, to the normal eye, the sensation of green has been added to the sensations of red and blue. It will be evident, also, that whiteness to the colour-blind eye cannot be the same as whiteness to the normal eye. No doubt this theory explains certain phenomena of colour-blindness, of after-coloured images, and of contrast of colour, but it is open to various objections. It has no anatomical basis, as it has been found to be impossible to demonstrate the existence of three kinds of nerve elements, or retinal elements, corresponding to the three fundamental colour sensations. Why should red to a colour-blind person give rise to a sensation of something like green, or why should it give rise to a sensation at all ? Again, and as already stated, in cases of colour- blindness due to tobacco or to disease, only blue may be seen, while it is said that the rest of the spectrum seems to be white. It is difficult to understand how white can be the sensation if the sensa- tions of red and green are lost. On the other hand, it may be argued that such colour-blind eyes do not really see white as seen by a normal person, and that they only have a sensation which they have been accustomed to call white. According to this theory, we never actually experience the primary sensations. Thus we never see primary red, as the sensation is more or less mixed with primary green, and even with primary blue (violet). So with regard to primary green and primary violet. Helmholtz, in his last work on the subject, adopted as the three primary colours a red bluer than spectral red, (a) a green lying between 540 X and 560 X (6, like the green of vegetation), and a blue at about 470 X (c, like ultra- marine), all, however, much more highly saturated than any colours existing in the spectrum. In Handbuch der J> hysiologischen Optik (Hamburg and Leipzig, 1896) Helmholtz pointed out that luminosity or brightness plays a more important part in colour perception than has been supposed. Each spectral colour is composed of certain proportions of these fundamental colours, or, to put it in another way, a combination of two of them added to a certain amount of white. Hering's theory proceeds on the assumption of chemical changes in the retina under the influence of light. It also assumes that certain fundamental sensations are excited by light or occur during the absence of light. These fundamental sensations are white, black, red, yellow, green and blue. They are arranged in pairs, the one colour in each pair being, in a sense, complementary to the other, as white to black, red to green, and yellow to blue. Hering also supposes that when rays of a certain wave-length fall on visual substances assumed to exist in the retina, destructive or, as it is rermed, katabolic changes occur, while rays having other wave- engths cause constructive or anabolic changes. Suppose that in a red-green substance katabolic and anabolic changes occur in equal amount, there may be no sensation, but when waves of a certain wave-length or frequency cause katabolic changes in excess, there will be a sensation of red, while shorter waves and of greater fre- quency, by exciting anabolic changes, will cause a sensation of [reen. In like manner, katabolism of a yellow-blue visual sub- tance gives rise to a sensation we call yellow, while anabolism, >y shorter waves acting on the same substance, causes the sensation of blue. Again, katabolism of a white-black visual substance 140 VISION [EYE MOVEMENTS gives white, while anabolism, in the dark, gives rise to the sensation of blackness. Thus blackness is a sensation as well as whiteness, and the members of each pair are antagonistic as well as comple- mentary. In the red end of the spectrum the rays cause katabolism of the red-green substance, while they have no effect on the yellow- blue substance. Here the sensation is red. The shorter waves of the spectral yellow cause katabolism of the yellow-blue material, while katabolism and anabolism of the red-green substance are here equal. Here the sensation is yellow. Still shorter waves, corre- sponding to green, now cause anabolism of the red-green substance, while their influence on the yellow-blue substance, being equal in amount as regards katabolism and anabolism, is neutral. Here the sensation is green. Short waves of the blue of the spectrum cause anabolism of the yellow-blue material, and as their action on the red-green matter is neutral, the sensation is blue. The very short waves at the blue end of the spectrum excite katabolism of the red-green substance, and thus give violet by adding red to blue. The sensation orange is experienced when there is excess of kata- bolism, and greenish blue when there is excess of anabolism in both substances. Again, when all the rays of the spectrum fall on the retina, katabolism and anabolism in the red-green and yellow-blue matters are equal and neutralize each other, but katabolism is great in the white-black substance, and we call the sensation white. Lastly, when no light falls on the retina, anabolic changes are going on and there is the sensation of black. Hering's theory accounts satisfactorily for the formation of coloured after-images. Thus, if we suppose the retina to be stimu- lated by red light, katabolism takes place, and if the effect continues after withdrawal of the red stimulus, we have a positive after-image. Then anabolic changes occur under the influence of nutrition, and the effect is assisted by the anabolic effect of shorter wave-lengths, with the result that the negative after-image, green, is perceived. Perhaps the distinctive feature of Hering's theory is that white is an independent sensation, and not the secondary result of a mixture of primary sensations, as held by the Young-Helmholtz view. The greatest difficulty in the way of the acceptance of Hering's theory is with reference to the sensation of black. Black is held to be due to anabolic changes occurring in the white-black substance. Suppose that anabolism and katabolism of the white-black sub- stance are in equilibrium, unaccompanied by stimulation of either the red-green or the yellow-blue substances, we find that we have a sensation of darkness, but not one of intense blackness. This " darkness " has still a certain amount of luminosity, and it has been termed the " intrinsic light " of the retina. Sensations of black differing from this darkness may be readily experienced, as when we expose the retina to bright sunshine for a few moments and then close the eye. We then have a sensation of intense black- ness, which soon, however, is succeeded by the darkness of the " intrinsic light." The various degrees of blackness, if it is truly a sensation, are small compared with the degrees in the intensity of whiteness. In the consideration of both theories changes in the cerebral centres have not been taken into account, and of these we know next to nothing. 6. The Contrast of Colours. — If we look at a small white, grey or black object on a coloured ground, the object appears to have the colour complementary to the ground. Thus a circle of grey paper on a red ground appears to be of a greenish-blue colour, whilst on a blue ground it will appear pink. This effect is heightened if we place over the paper a thin sheet of tissue paper; but it disappears at once if we place a black ring or border round the grey paper. Again, if we place two comple- mentary colours side by side, both appear to be increased in intensity. Various theories have been advanced to explain these facts. Helmholtz was of opinion that the phenomena consist rather in modifications of judgment than in different sensory impressions; J. A. F. Plateau, on the other hand, attempted to explain them by the theory of consecutive images. 5. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EYE i. General Statement. — The globe of the eye has a centre of rotation, which is not exactly in the centre of the optic axis, but a little behind it. On this centre it may move round axes of rotation, of which there are three — an antero-posterior, a vertical and a transverse. In normal vision, the two eyes are always placed in such a manner as to be fixed on one point, called the fixed point or the point of regard. A line passing from the centre of rotation to the point of regard is called the line of regard. The two lines of regard form an angle at the point of regard, and the base is formed by a line passing from the one centre of rotation to, the other. A plane passing through both lines of regard is called the plane of regard. With these in*. definitions, we can now describe the movements of the eyeball, which are of three kinds: (i) First position. The head is erect, and the line of regard is directed towards the distant horizon. (2) Second position. This indicates all the movements round the transverse and horizontal axes. When the eye rotates round the first, the line of regard is displaced above or below, and makes with a line indicating its former position an angle termed by Helmholtz the angle of vertical displacement, or the ascensional angle; and when it rotates round the vertical axis, the line of regard is displaced from side to side, forming with the median plane of the eye an angle called the angle of lateral displacement. (3) Third order of positions. This includes all those which the globe may assume in performing a rotatory movement along with lateral or vertical displacements. This movement of rotation is measured by the angle which the plane of regard makes with the transverse plane, an angle termed the angle of rotation or of torsion. The two eyes move together as a system, so that we direct the two lines of regard to the same point in space. The eyeball is moved by six muscles, which are described in the article EYE (Anatomy). The relative attach- ments and the axes of rotation are shown in fig. 23. The term visual field is given to the area in- tercepted by the ex- treme visual lines which FIG. 23.— Diagram of the Attachments tv,tta thrninrh tk*. ront™ of the Musclesof the Eye and of their pass through the centre ^^ of Rotationi th^ latter bei of the pupil, the amount shown by dotted lines. (Pick.) of dilatation of which The axis of rotation of the rectus determines its size. It internus and rectus externus being follows thp rrmwmpntc vertical, that is, perpendicular to the movements ,ane of the canno(. be shown of the eye, and is dis- placed with it. Each point in the visual field has a corre- sponding point on the retina, but the portion, as already ex- plained, which secures our attention is that falling on the yellow spot. 2. Simple Vision with Two Eyes. — When we look at an object with both eyes, having the optic axes parallel, its image falls upon the two yellow spots, and it is seen as one object. If, however, we displace one eyeball by pressing it with the finger, then the image in the displaced eye does not fall on the yellow spot, and we see two objects, one of them being less dis- tinct than the other. It is not necessary, however, in order to see a single object FIG. 24. — Diagram with two eyes that the two images fall to illustrate the on the two yellow spots; an object is Physiological Re- always single if its image fall on corre- ReIt°n|e°ft spending points in the two eyes. The eye may rotate round three possible axes, a vertical, horizontal and antero-posterior. These movements are effected by four straight muscles and two oblique. The four straight muscles arise from the back of the orbit, and pass forward to be inserted into the front part of the eyeball, or its equator, if we regard the anterior and posterior ends of the globe as the poles. The two obliques (one originating at the back of the orbit) come, as it were, from the nasal side — the one goes above the eyeball, the other below, while both are inserted into the eye- ball on the temporal side, the superior oblique above and the inferior oblique below. The six muscles work in pairs. The internal and external recti turn the eye round the vertical axis, VISUAL PERCEPTIONS] VISION 141 so that the line of vision is directed to the right or left. The superior and inferior recti rotate the eye round the horizontal axis, and thus the line of vision is raised or lowered. The oblique muscles turn the eye round an axis passing through the centre of the eye to the back of the head, so that the superior oblique muscle lowers, while the inferior oblique raises, the visual line. It was also shown by Helmholtz that the oblique muscles sometimes cause a slight rotation of the eyeball round the visual axis itself. These movements are under the control of the will up to a certain point, but there are slighter move- ments that are altogether involuntary. Helmholtz studied these slighter movements by a method first suggested by F. C. Bonders. By this method the apparent position of after- images produced by exhausting the retina, say with a red or green object, was compared with that of a line or fixed point gazed at with a new position of the eyeball. The ocular spectra soon vanish, but a quick observer can determine the coincidence of lines with the spectra. After producing an after-image with the head in the erect position, the head may be placed into any inclined position, and if the attention is then fixed on a diagram having vertical lines ruled upon it, it can easily be seen whether the after-image coincides with these lines. As the after-image must remain in the same position on the retina, it will be evident that if it coincides with the vertical lines there must have been a slight rotation of the eyeball. Such a coin- cidence always takes place, and thus it is proved that there is an involuntary rotation. This minute rotation enables us to judge more accurately of the position of external objects. 3. The horopter is the locus of those points of space which are projected on retinal points. While geometrically it may be conceived as simple, as a matter of fact it is generally a line of double curvature produced by the intersection of two hyper- boloids, or, in other words, it is a twisted cubic curve formed by the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common generator. The curves pass through the nodal point of both eyes. An infinite number of lines may be drawn from any point of the horopter, so that the point may be seen as a single point, and these lines lie on a cone of the second order, whose vertex is the point. When we gaze at the horizon, the horopter is really a horizontal plane passing through our feet. The horopter in this instance is the ground on which we stand. Experiments show " that the forms and the distances of these objects which are situated in, or very nearly in, the horopter, are perceived with a greater degree of accuracy than the same forms and distances would be when not situated in the horopter " (M'Kendrick, Life of Helmholtz, 1899, p. ijietseq.). An object which is not found in the horopter, or, in other words, does not form an image on corresponding points of the retinae, is seen double. When the eyeballs are so acted upon by their muscles as to secure images on non-corresponding points, and consequently double vision, the condition is termed strabismus, or squinting, of which there are several varieties treated of in works on ophthalmic surgery. It is important to observe that in the fusion of double, images we must assume, not only the correctness of the theory of corresponding points of the retina, but also that there are corresponding points in the brain, at the central ends of the optic fibres. Such fusion of images may occur without consciousness — at all events, it is possible to imagine that the cerebral effect (except as regards consciousness) would be the same when a single object was placed before the two eyes, in the proper position, whether the individual were conscious or not. On the other hand, as we are habitually conscious of a single image, there is a psychical tendency to fuse double images when they are not too dissimilar. 4. Binocular Perception of Colour. — This may be studied as follows, Take two No. 3 eye-pieces of a Hartnack's micro- scope, or two eye-pieces of the same optical value from any microscope, place one in front of each eye, direct them to a clear window in daylight, keep them parallel, and two luminous fields will be seen, one corresponding to each eye. Then converge the two eye-pieces, until the two luminous circles cross, and the central part, like a bi-convex lens, will appear clear and bright, while the outer segments will be much less intense, and may appear even of a dim grey colour. Here, evidently, the sensation is due to a fusion of impressions in the brain. With a similar arrangement, blue light may be admitted by the one eye-piece and red by the other; and on the convergence of the two, a resultant colour, purple, will be observed. This may be termed the binocular vision of colours. It is remarkable that by a mental effort this sensation of a compound colour may be decomposed into its constituents, so that one eye will again see blue and the other red. 6. THE PSYCHICAL RELATIONS OP VISUAL PERCEPTIONS i. General Characters of Visual Perceptions. — All visual perceptions, if they last for a sufficient length of time, appear to be external to ourselves, erect, localized in a position in space and more or less continuous. (a) Visual Sensations are referred to the Exterior. — This appears to-be due, to a large extent, to habit. Those who have been born blind, on obtaining eyesight by an operation, have imagined objects to be in close proximity to the eye, and have not had the distinct sense of exteriority which most individuals possess. Slowly, and by a process of education, in which the sense of touch played an important part, they gained the knowledge of the external relations of objects. Again, phos- genes, when first produced, appear to be in the eye, but when conscious of them, by an effort of imagination, we may transport them into space, although they never appear very far off. (b) Visual Sensations are referred to Erect Objects. — Although the images of objects are inverted on the retina we see them erect. The explanation of the effect is that we are conscious not of the image on the retina, but of the luminous object from which the rays proceed, and we refer the sensation in the direction of these rays. Again, in running the eye over the object, say a tall pole, from base to apex, we are not conscious of the different images on the retina, but of the muscular move- ments necessary to bring the parts successively on the yellow spot. (c) Visual Sensations are referred to a Position in Space. — The localization of a luminous point in space can only be 'determined by observing its relations to other luminous points with a given position of the head and of the eye. For example, in a perfectly dark room, if we look at a single luminous point, we cannot fix its exact position in space, but we may get some information of a vague character by moving the head or the eye. If, however, a second luminous point appears in the dark- ness, we can tell whether it is nearer or farther distant, above or below the first. So with regard to other luminous points we observe their reciprocal relations, and thus we localize a number of visual impressions. There are three principal directions in space: the transverse (breadth), the vertical (height) and the sagittal (depth). Luminous points may be localized either in the transverse or vertical directions. Here we have to do simply with localization on a surface. A number of points may be observed simultaneously (as when the eye is fixed) or successively (as when the eye moves). If the move- ment of the eye be made rapidly, the series of impressions from different points may be fused to- • g gether, and we are conscious of • f a line, the direction of which is • e indicated chiefly by the muscular • d sensations felt in following it. A .aratively recent time the influence of this treatise has been remarkably great. Throughout the period of the classical revival VITRY-LE-FRAN(JOIS— VITTORIA Vitruvius was the chief authority studied by architects, and in every point his precepts were accepted as final. In some cases a failure to understand his meaning led to curious results; for example, the medieval custom, not uncommon in England, of placing rows of earthenware jars under the floor of the stalls in church choirs, appears to have been an attempt to follow out suggestions raised by Vitruvius as to the advantages of placing bronze vases round the auditorium of theatres. Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects were careful students of the work of Vitruvius, which through them has largely influenced the architecture of almost all European countries. Bk. i. opens with a dedication to Augustus. C. I is on the science of architecture generally, and the branches of knowledge with which the trained architect ought to be acquainted, viz. grammar, music, painting, sculpture, medicine, geometry, mathematics and optics; c. 2 is on the general principles of architectural design; c. 3 on the considerations which determine a design, such as strength, utility, beauty; c. 4 on the nature of different sorts of ground for sites; c. 5 on walls of fortification; c. 6 on aspects towards the north, south and other points; c. 7 on the proper situations of temples dedicated to the various deities. Bk. li. relates to materials (preface about Dinocrates, architect to Alexander the Great). C. I is on the earliest dwellings of man; c. 2 on systems of Thales, Heraclitus, Democritus, &c.; c. 3 on bricks, c. 4 on sand; c. 5 on lime; c. 6 on pozzolana; c. 7 on kinds of stone for building; c. 8 on methods of constructing walls in stone, brick, concrete and marble, and on the materials for stucco; c. 9 on timber, time for felling it, seasoning, &c. ; and c. 10 on the fir trees of the Apennines. Bk. iii., on styles, has a preface on ancient Greek writers. C. I is on symmetry and proportion; c. 2 on various forms of Greek temples, e.g in antis. prostyle, peripteral, dipteral, hypaethral;1 c. 3 on inter-columniation — pycnostyle, systyle, eustyle, &c. ; c._ 4 on foundations, steps and stylobates; c. 5 on the Ionic order, its form and details. Bk. iv., on styles and orders, has a preface to Augustus on the scope of the work. The subjects of its nine chapters are — (i) the Corinthian, Ionic and Doric orders; (2) the ornaments of capitals, &c.; (3) the Doric order; (4) proportions of the cella and pronaos; (5) sites of temples; (6) doorways of temples and their archi- traves; (7) the Etruscan or Tuscan order of temples; (8) circular temples; (9) altars. Bk. v., on public buildings, has a preface on the theories of Pythagoras, &c. Its twelve chapters treat— (i ) of fora and basilicae, with a description of his own basilica at Fanum; (2) of the adjuncts of a forum (aerarium, prison and curia) ; (3) of theatres, their site and construction; (4) of laws of harmonics; (s)_of the arrangement of tuned bronze vases in theatres for acoustic purposes; (6) of Roman theatres; (7) of Greek theatres; (8) of the selection of sites of theatres according to acoustic principles; (9) of porticus and covered walks; (10) of baths, their floors, hypocausts, the construc- tion and use of various parts; (li) of palaestrae, xysti and other ('.reek buildings for the exercise of athletes; (12) of harbours and quays. Bk. vi. is on sites and planning, and the preface treats of various Greek authors. C. I is on selection of sites; c. 2 on the planning of buildings to suit different sites; c. 3 on private houses, their construction and styles, the names of the different apartments; c. 4 on the aspects suited for the various rooms; c. 5 on buildings fitted for special positions; c. 6 on farms and country houses; c. 7 on Greek houses and the names of various parts; c. 8 on con- struction of nouses in wood, stone, brick or concrete. Bk. vii., mostly on methods of decoration, has a preface (as usual) on the opinions of ancient Greek writers, with lists of Greek sculptors, architects and writers on architecture, and of Roman architects. C. i has for its subject pavements and roads, their construction, mosaic floors; c. 2 is on white stucco for walls (opus albarium); c. 3 on concrete vaults, gypsum mouldings, stucco prepared for painting; c. 4 on building of hollow walls to keep out the damp, wall decoration by various processes; c. 5 on methods and styles of wall painting, the debased taste of his time; c. 6 on fine stucco made of pounded marble — three coats to receive wall paintings; c. 7 on colours used for mural decoration ; c. 8 on red lead (minium] and mercury, and how to use the latter to extract the gold from worn- out pieces of stuff or embroidery; c. 9 on the preparation of red lead and the method of encaustic painting with hot wax, finishec by friction; cc. 10-14 on artificial colours — black, blue, purple c. 10 white lead and ostrum, i.e. murex purple and imitations ol murexdye. 1 The excavations made in 1887 have shown that Vitruvius was right in describing the great temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens as being octastyle. The previously almost universal opinion that it was decastyle had led to the needless theory that the passage con- taining this statement was corrupt. Bk. viii. is on hydraulic engineering, and the preface on theories of the ancients. C. I treats of the finding of good water; c. 2 of rain- water and rivers — rivers in various countries; c. 3 of hot springs, mineral waters, with an account of the chief medicinal springs of the world ; c. 4 of selection of water by observation and experi- ment; c. 5 of instruments for levelling used by aqueduct engineers; c. 6 of construction of aqueducts, pipes of lead, clay, &c., and other matter on the subject of water-supply. Bk. ix. is on astronomy. The preface treats of Greek sciences, geometry, the discovery of specific gravity by Archimedes, and >ther discoveries of the Greeks, and of Romans of his time who lave vied with the Greeks — Lucretius in his poem De Rerum Natura, "icero in rhetoric, and Varro in philology, as shown by his De Lingua Latina* The subjects of the eight chapters are — (l ) the signs of the zodiac and the seven planets; (2) the phases of the moon; [3) the passage of the sun through the zodiac ; (4) and (5) various constellations; (6) the relation of astrological influences to nature; j) the mathematical divisions of the gnomon; (8) various kinds of sundials and their inventors. Bk. x. is on machinery, with a preface concerning a law at ancient Sphesus compelling an architect to complete any public building le had undertaken; this, he says, would be useful among the Romans of his time.1 The chapters are — (l) on various machines, such as scaling-ladders, windmills, &c. ; (2) on windlasses, axles, iulleys and cranes for moving heavy weights, such as those used jy Chersiphron in building the great temple of Diana at Ephesus, and on the discovery by a shepherd of a quarry of marble required to build the same temple; (3) on dynamics; (4) on machines for drawing water; (5) on wheels for irrigation worked by a river; (6) on raising water by a revolving spiral tube; (7) on the machine of Ctesibius for raising water to a height ; (8) on a very complicated water engine, the description of which is not intelligible, though Vitruvius remarks that he has tried to make the matter clear; (9) on machines with wheels to register the distance travelled, either by land or water; (10) on the construction of scorpiones for hurling stones, (n) and (12) on balistae and catapults; (13) °n battering- rams and other machines for the attack of a fortress; (14) on shields (testudines) to enable soldiers to fill up the enemy's ditches; (15) on other kinds of testudines ; (16) on machines for defence, and examples of their use in ancient times. (J. H. M.) The best edition is by Rose (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1899); see also Nohl, Index Vttruvianus (1876); Jolles, Vitruvs Aesthelik (1906); Sontheimer, Vitruv und seine Zeit (1908). There is a good transla- tion by Gwilt (1826; reprinted, 1874). The name of Vitruvius has been given to several works on modern architecture, such as Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus (London, 1715-71), a series of illustrations of the chief buildings of the l8th century in England, including many works of the brothers Adam ; one of these brothers, William Adam, produced a similar work illus- trating the buildings which he had designed for Scotland, under the title of Vitruvius Scoticus (Edinburgh, 1790). Thurah, Le Vitruve danois (Copenhagen, 1746-49), is a similar collection of modern buildings in Denmark. VITRY-LE-FRANCOIS, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the department of Marne, on the right bank of the Marne, 20 m. S.E. of Chalons, on the railway from Paris to Strassburg. Pop. (1906) 7985. The Marne-Rhine canal, the Haute-Mame canal, and the lateral canal of the Marne unite at Vitry. Its church of Notre-Dame is a 17th-century building with fine 18th-century monuments. A convent of the Recollets now contains the town hall, the court-house, a library and a small museum. There is a bronze statue of P. P. Royer-Collard (1763-1845), the politician and philosopher, a native of the district. The industrial establishments include important cement works and the manufacture of faience is carried on. The present town was built in 1545 on a uniform plan by Francis I. to replace the older one of Vitry-en-Perthois, 2\ m. to the north- east, burned in the previous year by Charles V. VITTEL, a watering-place of north-eastern France, in the department of Vosges, 31 m. W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1006) 1954. The waters resemble those of Contrexfiville, but are lighter in character; they are bottled and exported in large quantities. They are prescribed in cases of gravel, gout, &c. Vittel has been considerably developed in recent years, and is well supplied with hotels, a fine casino and park, &c. VITTORIA, a town of Sicily in the province of Syracuse, 95 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail (42 m. direct), founded in 1605 by Giovanni Alphonso Henriquez, who named it after his mother, the famous Vittoria Colonna. It is a prosperous town 1 Vitruvius names Cicero and Lucretius as post nostrum memoriam nascentes. ' The architect being at that time also the contractor. I52 VITTORIO— VIVES in the centre of a fertile district, with the largest wine trade in Sicily. Pop. (1901) 30,832 (town), 32,219 (commune). VITTORIO, a town and episcopal residence of the province of Treviso, Venetia, Italy, 25 m. by rail N. of Treviso, 466 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2977 (town), 19,133 (commune). It is a summer resort, with sulphur and saline springs (51-8° to 59° F.), and was formed in 1879 by the union of Ceneda (the epis- copal see) and Serravalle. The cathedral contains paintings by Pomponio Amalteo (a pupil of Pordenone) and others. At Serravalle is a church with a fine altar-piece (1547) by Titian. It is a seat of the silkworm breeding and silk-throwing industries. VITUS, ST (German, Veit; French, Guy). According to the legend, where he is associated with Modestus and Crescentia, by whom he had been brought up, St Vitus suffered martyrdom at a very early age under the emperor Diocletian. Son of a Sicilian nobleman who was a worshipper of idols, Vitus was converted to the Christian faith without the knowledge of his father, was denounced by him and scourged, but resisted all attacks on his profession. Admonished by an angel, he crossed the sea to Lucania and went to Rome, where he suffered martyr- dom. His festival is celebrated on the isth of June. The Passion of St Vitus has no historical value, but his name occurs in the Martyr ologium hieronymianum. In 836 the abbey of Corvey, in Saxony, received his relics, and became a very active centre of his cult. In the second half of the gth century the monks of Corvey, according to Helmold's Chronica Slavorum, evangelized the island of Rugen, where they built a church in honour of St Vitus. The islanders soon relapsed, but they kept up the superstitious cult of the saint (whom they honoured as a god), returning to Christianity three centuries later. At Prague, too, there are some relics of the saint, who is the patron of Bohemia and also of Saxony, and one of the fourteen " pro- tectors " (Nothhelfer) of the church in Germany. Among the diseases against which St Vitus is invoked is chorea, also known as St Vitus's Dance. See Acla sanctorum, June, iii. 1013-42 and vi. 137-40; Bibliotheca hagiographica Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 871 1-23 ;J.H. Kessel, " St Veit, seine Geschichte, Verehrung und bildlicne Dar- stellungen," in Jahrbiicher des Vereins von ALterthumsfreunden im Rheinlande (1867), pp. 152-83. (H. DE.) VIVALDO, U60LINO and SORLEONE DE (fl. 1291-1315), Genoese explorers, connected with the first known expedition in search of an ocean way from Europe to India. Ugolino, with his brother Guido or Vadino Vivaldo, was in command of this expedition of two galleys, which he had organized in con- junction with Tedisio Doria, and which left Genoa in May 1291 with the purpose of going to India " by the Ocean Sea " and bringing back useful things for trade. Planned primarily for commerce, the enterprise also aimed at proselytism. Two Franciscan friars accompanied Ugolino. The galleys were well armed and sailed down the Morocco coast to a place called Gozora (Cape Nun), in 28° 47' N., after which nothing more was heard of them. Early in the next (i4th) century, Sorleone de Vivaldo, son of Ugolino, undertook a series of distant wander- ings in search of his father, and even penetrated, it is said, to Magadoxo on the Somali coast. In 1455 another Genoese seaman, Antcniotto Uso di Mare, sailing with Cadamosto in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, claimed to have met, near the mouth of the Gambia, with the last descendant of the survivors of the Vivaldo expedition. The two galleys, he was told, had sailed to the Sea of Guinea; in that sea one was stranded, but the other passed on to a place on the coast of Ethiopia-Mena or Amenuan, near the Gihon (here probably meaning the Senegal) — where the Genoese were seized and held in close captivity. See Jacopo Doria, " Annales " (under A.D. 1291) in Pertz, Monu- menta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, xviii. 335 (1863); the " Conocimiento de todos los Reinos," ed. Marcos Jimenez de }a Espada in the Boletin of the Geographical Society of Madrid, vol. ii., No. 2, pp. ill, 113, 117-18 (Madrid, February, 1877); Canale, Degli anttcki navigatori e scopritori Genovesi (Genoa, 1846); G. H. Pertz, Der alteste Versuch zur Enldeckung des Seeweges nach Ostindien (Berlin, 1859) ; Annali di Geografia e di Statistica composti . . . da Giacomo Grdberg (Genoa, 1802); Belgrano, "... Annali . . . di Caffarq," in Archiv. Star. Ilal., 3rd series, ii. 124, &c., and in Atli della Soc. Lig. di Storia Patria, xv. 320 (1881); W. Heyd, Histoire du commerce du Levant (the improved French edition of the Geschichte des Levantehandels), ii. 140-43 (Paris, 1886); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 413-19, 551 (Oxford, 1906). VIVARINI, the surname of a family of painters of Murano (Venice), who produced a great quantity of work in Venice and its neighbourhood in the isth century, leading on to that phase of the school which is represented by Carpactio and the Bellinis. ANTONIO VIVARINI (Antonio of Murano) was probably the earliest of this family. He came from the school of Andrea da Murano, and his works show the influence of Gentile da Fabriano. The earliest known date of a picture of his, an altar-piece in the Venetian academy, is 1440; the latest, in the Lateran museum, 1464, but he appears to have been alive in 1470. He worked in company with a certain " Joannes de Alemania," who has been (with considerable doubt) regarded as a brother (Giovanni of Murano), but no trace of this painter exists of a date later than 1447. After 1447 Antonio painted either alone or in combination with his younger brother Barto- lommeo. The works of Antonio are well drawn for their epoch, with a certain noticeable degree of softness, and with good flesh and other tints. Three of his principal paintings are the " Virgin Enthroned with the Four Doctors of the Church," the " Coronation of the Virgin," and " Sts Peter and Jerome." The first two (in which Giovanni co-operated) are in the Venetian academy, the third in the National Gallery, London. This gallery contains also specimens of the two under-named painters. BARTOLOMMEO VIVARINI is known to have worked from 1450 to 1499. He learned oil-painting from Antonello da Messina, and is said to have produced, in 1473, the first oil picture done in Venice. This is in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo — a large altar-piece in nine divisions, representing Augustine and other saints. Most of his works, however, including one in the National Gallery, are in tempera. His outline is always hard, and his colour good; the figures have much dignified and devout expression. As " vivarino " means in Italian a goldfinch, he sometimes drew a goldfinch as the signature of his pictures. LUIGI or ALVISE VIVARINI, born about 1446, painted m 1475 and on to 1502, when he died. It has sometimes been supposed that, besides the Luigi who was the latest of this pictorial family, there had also been another Luigi who was the earliest, this supposition being founded on the fact that one picture is signed with the name, with the date 1414. There is good ground, however, for considering this date to be a forgery of a later time. The works of Luigi show an advance on those of his predecessors, and some of them are productions of high attainment; one of the best was executed for the Scuola di S. Girolamo in Venice, representing the saint caressing his lion, and some monks decamping in terror. The architecture and perspective in this work are superior. Other works by Luigi are in Treviso and in Milan. He painted some remarkable portraits. (W. M. R.) VIVERO, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; on the Ria de Vivero, an estuary formed by the river Landrove, which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900) 12,843. Vivero is an old-fashioned and picturesque town, connected with the opposite bank of the estuary by a bridge of twelve arches and a causeway. Its fishing fleet, its coasting trade and the agricultural products of the fertile country around are important. The only means of communication with the interior is by the road to Cabreiros, for Lugo and Ferrol. VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1492-1540), Spanish scholar, was born at Valencia on the 6th of March 1492. He studied at Paris from 1509 to 1512, and in 1519 was appointed professor of humanities at Louvain. At the instance of his friend Erasmus he prepared an elaborate commentary on Augustine's De Civitate Dei, which was published in 1522 with a dedication to Henry VIII. Soon afterwards he was invited to England, and is said to have acted as tutor to the princess Mary, for whose use he wrote De ratione studii puerilis epistolae duae VIVIAN, IST BARON— VIVISECTION 153 (1523). While in England he resided at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he was made doctor of laws and lectured on philosophy. Having declared himself against the king's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, he lost the royal favour and confined to his house for six weeks. On his release he withdrew to Bruges, where he devoted himself to the com- position of numerous works, chiefly directed against the schol- astic philosophy and the preponderant authority of Aristotle. The most important of his treatises is the De Cauiis corruptarum Arlium, which has been ranked with Bacon's Organon. He died at Bruges on the 6th of May 1540. A complete edition of his works was published by Gregorio Mayans y Siscar (Valencia, 1782). Adolfo Bonilla y San Martin's Luis Vives y lajilosofia del renacimiento (Madrid, 1903) is a valuable and interesting study which includes an exhaustive bibliography of Vives's writings and a critical estimate of previous monographs. The best of these are A. J. Nameche, " M6moire sur la vie et les dcrits de Jean Louis Vives " in Mimoires couronnes par I'Academie Royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Bruxelles (Brussels, 1841), vol. xv. ; A. Lange's article in the Encyklopadie des gesammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens (Leipzig, 1887), vol. ix. ; Berthe Vadier, Un Moraliste du X VI *" sikcle: Jean-Louis Vives et son livre de I'educa- tion de la femnte chritienne (Geneva, 1892) ; G. Hoppe, Die Psy- chologie von Juan Luis Vives (Berlin, 1901). VIVIAN, RICHARD HUSSEY VIVIAN, IST BARON (1775- 1842), British cavalry leader, came of a Cornish family. Edu- cated at Harrow and Exeter College, Oxford, Vivian entered the army in 1793. and less than a year later became a captain in the 28th foot. Under Lord Moira he served in the campaign of 1 794 in Flanders and Holland. At the end of the expedition, the 28th bore a distinguished part in Lord Cathcart's action of Gueldermalsen. In 1798 Vivian was transferred to the 7th Light Dragoons (now Hussars), and in Sir Ralph Abercromby's division was present at the battles of Bergen and Alkmaar (igth September to 6th October 1799). In 1800 he received his majority, and in 1804 he became lieut.-colonel of the 7th. In command of this regiment he sailed to join Baird at Corunna in 1808, and took part in Lord Paget's cavalry fights at Sahagun and Benavente. During the retreat of Moore's army the 7th were constantly employed with the rearguard. Vivian was present at Corunna, and returned with the remainder of the army to England. It was not until late in 1813 that the 7th returned to the Peninsula, and Vivian (now colonel and A.D.C. to the prince regent) was soon taken away to command a cavalry brigade under Hill. With this corps he served throughout the fighting on the Nive (9th-i3th December). At the begin- ning of 1814 he was transferred to a cavalry brigade of Beres- ford's corps, and took a marked part in the action of Gave de Pau and the battle of Orthes. In the advance on Toulouse Vivian fought a brilliant action at Crois 'd'Orade on the Ers (8th April), when he was very severely wounded. At the beginning of 1815 he was made K.C.B.; he had been a major- general for several months. In April Sir Hussey Vivian was appointed to command a brigade of Uxbridge's cavalry, and at Waterloo his regiments, with those of Vandeleur's brigade, made the final charge of the day between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte, sweeping everything before them. This service was rewarded by the thanks of both houses of parliament, the K.C.H. and the orders of Maria Theresa and St Vladimir from the emperors of Austria and Russia. He sat in the House of Commons as member for Truro from 1821 to 1831; he was then made commander of the forces in Ireland, and given the G.C.H. In 1835 he became master-general of the ordnance. In 1837 he received the G.C.B., and in 1841, being then M.P. for East Cornwall, was created Baron Vivian in the English peerage. A year later he died at Baden-Baden. He was twice married (first in 1804), and the title descended in the direct line. His natural son, Sir Robert John Hussey Vivian (1802-1887), was a famous soldier in India, who in 1857 was made K.C.B. and in 1871 G.C.B., having previously attained the rank of general. VIVIANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated iron phosphate Fej(PO4)2+8H2O, crystallizing in the monoclinic system. The crystals possess a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry and are usually bladed] in habit; they are soft (H = |), flexible and sectile. The specific gravity is 2-6. When unaltered and containing no ferric oxide, the mineral is colourless, but on exposure to the light it very soon becomes of a characteristic indigo-blue colour. Crystals were first found in Cornwall (at Wheal Jane, near Truro, associated with pyrrhotite) by J. G. Vivian, after whom the species was named by A. G. Werner in 1817. The mineral had, however, been earlier known as a blue powdery substance, called " blue iron- earth," met with in peat-bogs, in bog iron-ore, or with fossil bones and shells. (L. J. S.) VIVISECTION, literally the cutting (sectio) of living (vivus) animals, a word which might be applied to all surgical operations whether practised upon the lower animals or on man. As conventionally used, however, it has exclusive reference to experiments upon the lower animals undertaken for the advance- ment of medical sciences. There are a number of people who, calling themselves anti-vivisectionists, strongly object to these experiments on the lower animals; and it must be conceded that the humane reasons which they advance against it can only be set aside as " sentimental " if considerations of a wider humanity can show that the arguments of the anti- vivisectionists really run counter to human progress. The supporters of vivisection, properly considered, must not be confused with those who would make a barbarous use of this means of research. What is at stake here is the right to use it properly and at all. It would be possible for cruelty of an unnecessary kind to result if the practice of vivisection were unrestricted; and the purpose of this article is to give some account of the method of experiments on animals as sanctioned by law in the United Kingdom, and to justify that method by setting forth the chief historical discoveries that have been made by the help of vivisection. Such experiments have for their object the advancement of the sciences of physiology and pathology. From the earliest periods experimental vivi- sections have occasionally been practised, but before the days of anaesthetics it was difficult to execute them, and not less difficult to draw conclusions. The invention of anaesthetics has greatly extended the scope of the experimental method, because an animal can be kept unconscious and quiet, without even a quiver of a muscle, during prolonged operations. Further, the introduction of the antiseptic method has made it possible to subject all tissues and regions of the body to surgical inter- ference, and this has also had the effect of increasing the possi- bilities of experimental research. In 1906 a British Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the whole subject under the chairmanship of Lord Selby, on whose death Mr A. J. Ram, K.C., took the chair. The Commission sat from October 1906 to March 1908, and heard no fewer than 21,761 questions and answers. In view of attempts on the part of the anti-vivisectionists to misrepresent the nature of the evidence given before the Commission, in January 1908 the supporters of experi- ments on animals founded the Research Defence Society, under the presidency of Lord Cromer; by July 1910 this society had some 3500 members. Its official address is 21 Ladbroke Square, London, W. I. METHODS EMPLOYED. — The present act relating to experi- ments on animals was passed in 1876. At that time the majority of these experiments were physiological. There was, it may be fairly said, no such thing as bacteriology, no general following up of Pasteur's work. A few experiments were made in pathology, for instance in tubercle; and a few in surgery, in pharmacology, and in the action of poisons, especially snake venom. But the chief use of experiments on animals was for the advancement of physiology. The evidence given before the Royal Commission (1875) was almost entirely on physiological matters, on the discoveries of Harvey, Bell, Magendie and Claude Bernard, on the Handbook for the Physiological •Laboratory, and so forth. The act, therefore, was drafted with a view to physiology, without much concern for pathology, and without foreknowledge of bacteriology. At the time of writing (1910), 95% of the experiments are inoculations. Every experi- ment must be made in a registered place open to govern- ment inspection. But inoculation experiments are sometimes 154 VIVISECTION permitted in non-registered places, for the immediate study of outbreaks of disease, or in circumstances which render it im- practicable to use a registered place. Every experiment must be made under a licence; and every application for a licence must be recommended by the signatures of two out of a small body of authorities specified in the act — presidents of certain learned societies and professors of certain universities and colleges. The word " experiment " is not allowed to cover the use of more than one animal. Most experiments are made not under a licence alone, but under a licence plus one or more certificates, and the wording and working of these certificates must be clearly understood, because it is over them that the question arises as to the amount of pain inflicted by these experiments. Under the licence alone, the animal must be kept under an anaesthetic during the whole of the experiment; and " if the pain is likely to continue after the effect of the anaesthetic has ceased, or if any serious injury has been inflicted on the animal," it must be killed forthwith under the anaesthetic. Thus, under the licence alone, it is impossible to make an inoculation; for the experiment consists, not in the introduction of the needle under the skin, but in the observation of the results of the inoculation. A guinea-pig inoculated with tubercle cannot be kept under an anaesthetic till the disease appears. The disease is the experiment, and it is therefore an experiment made without an anaesthetic, and not authorized by the licence alone. Again, under the licence alone it would have been impossible to work out the thyroid treatment of myxoedema, or the facts of cerebral localization. For to remove the thyroid gland, or to remove a portion of the surface of the brain, is to inflict a serious injury on the animal. The operation is done under profound anaesthesia — it would be impracticable otherwise; the wound is treated and dressed by the antiseptic method — suppuration would invalidate the result. But a serious injury has been inflicted. Nevertheless, the animal must not be killed forthwith: the result must be watched. These and the like experiments cannot therefore be made under the licence alone. For the removal of such disabilities as these, the act empowers the home secretary to allow certain certificates, to be held with the licence. They must be recommended by two signatures, and various restrictions are put upon them by the home secretary. On July n, 1898, the home secretary was asked, in the House of Commons, what were the conditions and regulations attached by the Home Office to licences and certificates; and he answered — " The conditions are not always the same, but may vary according to the nature of the investigation. It is hardly possible, therefore, for me to state all the conditions attached to licences and certificates. The most important conditions, however (besides the limitations as to place, time and number of experiments), and the conditions most frequently imposed, are those as to reporting and the use of antiseptics. The latter condition is that the animals are to be treated with strict antiseptic precautions, and if these fail and pain results, they are to be killed immediately under anaesthetics. The reporting conditions are, in brief, that a written record, in a pre- scribed form, is to be kept of every experiment, and is to be open for examination by the inspector; that a report of all experiments is to be forwarded to the inspector; and that any published account of an experiment is to be transmitted to the secretary of state. Another condition requires the immediate destruction under anaesthetics of an animal in which severe pain has been induced, after the main result of the experiment has been attained." The home secretary attaches to licences and certificates such endorsements as he thinks fit. The bare text of the act, now thirty-four years old, is a very different thing from the administra- tion of the act ; and the present writer is in a position to say that the act is administered with great strictness, under a careful system of inquiry and reference. The certificates are distinguished as A, B, C, E, EE and F. Certificate D, which permitted the testing, by experiments, of " former discoveries alleged to have been made," has fallen into disuse. Certificate C permits experiments to be made by way of illustration of lectures. They must be made under the provisions contained in the act as to the use of anaesthetics. Certificates E and EE permit experiments on dogs or cats; certificate F permits experiments on horses, asses or mules. These certificates are linked with Certificate A or Certificate B. It is round these two certificates, A and B, that the controversy as to the pain caused by experiments on animals is maintained. Certificate A permits experiments to be made without anaesthesia. It is worded as follows: " Whereas A. B. of [here insert address and profession} has represented to us (i.e. two authorities) that he proposes, if duly authorized under the above-mentioned act, to perform on living animals certain experiments described below: We hereby certify that, in our opinion, insensibility in the animal on which any such experiment may be performed cannot be pro- duced by anaesthetics without necessarily frustrating the object of such experiment." All inoculations under the skin, all feeding experiments and the like, are scheduled under this certificate. They must be scheduled somehow: they cannot legally be made under a licence alone. Though the only instrument used is a hypodermic needle, yet every inoculation is officially returned as an experiment, calculated to give pain, performed without an anaesthetic. It is for inoculations and the like experiments, and for them alone, and for nothing else, that Certificate A is allowed (or A linked with E or F). This want of a special certificate for inoculations, and this wresting of Certificate A for the purpose, have led to an erroneous belief that " cutting operations are permitted by the act without an anaesthetic. But, as the home secretary said in parliament, in March 1897, " Certificate A is never allowed except for inoculations and similar trivial operations, and in every case a condition is attached to prevent unnecessary pain." And again he wrote in 1898, " Such special certificates (dispensing with anaesthetics) are granted only for inoculations, feeding and similar procedures involving no cutting. The animal has to be killed under anaesthetics if it be in pain, so soon as the result of the experiment is ascertained." Certificate B permits the keeping alive of the animal after the initial operation of an experiment. It is worded as follows: " Whereas A. B. of [here insert address and profession} has repre- sented to us (i.e. two authorities) that he proposes, if duly authorized under the above-mentioned act, to perform on living animals certain experiments described below, such animals being, during the whoie of the initial operation of such experiments, under the influence of some anaesthetic of sufficient power to prevent their feeling pain: We hereby certify that, in our opinion, the killing of the animal on which any such experiment is performed before it recovers from the influence of the anaesthetic administered to it would necessarily frustrate the object of such experiment." Certificate B (or B linked with EE or F) is used for those experiments which consist in an operation plus subsequent observation of the animal. The section of a nerve, the removal of a secretory organ, the establishment of a fistula, the plastic surgery of the intestine, the sub-dural method of inoculation — these and the like experiments are made under this certificate. We may take, to illustrate the use of Certificate B, Horsley's observations on the thyroid gland. The removal of the gland was the initial operation; and this was performed under an anaesthetic, and with the antiseptic method. Then the animal was kept under observation. The experiment is neither the opera- tion alone nor the observation alone, but the two together. The purpose of this certificate is set forth in the inspector's report for 1909. " In the experiments performed under Certificate B, or B linked with EE, 1704 in number, the initial operations are performed under anaesthetics from the influence of which the animals are allowed to recover. The operations are required to be performed antiseptically, so that the healing of the wounds shall, as far as possible, take place without pain. If the antiseptic precautions fail, and suppuration occurs, the animal is required to be killed. It is generally essential for the success of these experi- ments that the wounds should heal cleanly, and the surrounding parts remain in a healthy condition. After the healing of the wounds the animals are not necessarily, or even generally, in pain, since experiments involving the removal of important organs, including portions of the brain, may be performed without giving rise to pain after the recovery from the operation; and after the section of a part of the nervous system, the resulting degenerative changes are painless. In the event of a subsequent operation being necessary in an experiment performed under Certificate B, or E linked with EE, a condition is attached to the licence requiring all operative procedures to be carried out under anaesthetics of sufficient power to prevent the animal feeling pain; and no observations or stimulations of a character to cause pain are allowed to be made without the animals being anaesthetized. In no case has a cutting operation more severe than a superficial venesection (the opening of a vein just under the skin) been allowed to be performed without anaesthetics." From this brief account of the chief provisions of the act, we come to consider the general method of experiments on animals in the United Kingdom, and the question of the infliction of pain on them. The figures for a representative year may be given. The total number of licensees in 1909, in England and Scotland, was 483: of whom 135 performed no experiments during the VIVISECTION 155 year. The total number of experiments was 86,277, being 2357 less than in 1908. They v/ere made as follows : — Under Licence alone 1,980 Certificate C 196 Certificate A 81,566 Certificates A + E . . . . 595 Certificates A+F . . . . 228 Certificate B 1,385 Certificates B + EE ... 319 Certificate F 8 The experiments performed under Certificate A (or A+E, or A+F) were mostly inoculations; but a few were feeding experiments, or the administration of various substances by the mouth or by inhalation, or the abstraction of blood by puncture or by simple venesection. Inoculations into deep parts, involving a preliminary incision, are required to be per- formed under anaesthetics (Certificate B). " It will be seen," says the report for 1909, " that the operative procedures in experiments performed under Certificate A, without anaesthetics, are only such as are attended by no considerable, if appreciable, pain. The certificate is, in fact, not required to cover these proceedings, but to allow of the subsequent course of the experiment. ' The animals most used for inoculations are mice, rats, guinea- pigs and rabbits. It is not once in a thousand times that a dog or a cat is used for inoculation. The act of inoculation is not in itself painful. A small area of the skin is carefully shaved and cleansed, that it may be aseptic, the hypodermic needle is sterilized and the method of hypodermic injection or of vaccina- tion is the same as it is in medical practice. " A guinea-pig that will rest quietly in your hands before you commence to inject it, will remain perfectly quiet during the introduction of the needle under the skin; and the moment it is returned to the cage it resumes its interrupted feeding. Arteries, veins and most of the parts of the viscera are without the sense of touch. We have actual proof of this in what takes place when a horse is bled for the purpose of obtaining curative serum. With a sharp lance a cut may be made in the skin so quickly and easily that the animal does nothing more than twitch the skin-muscle of the neck, or give his head a shake, while of the further pro- ceeding of introducing a hollow needle into the vein, the animal takes not the slightest notice. Some horses, indeed, will stand perfectly quiet during the whole operation, munching a carrot, nibbling at a wisp of hay, or playing with a button on the vest of the groom standing at its head." These sentences, written in the Medical Magazine (June 1898) by Dr Sims Woodhead, Professor of Pathology at Cambridge, are sufficient evidence that inoculations and the like experiments are not painful at the time. In a few instances cultures of micro-organisms have been made in the anterior chamber of the eye, by the introduction of a needle behind the cornea. This might be thought painful, but cocaine renders the surface of the eye wholly insensitive. Many operations of ophthalmic surgery are done under cocaine alone, and the anterior chamber of the eye is so far insensitive that a man may have blood or pus (hypopyon) in it, and hardly be conscious of the fact. The results of inoculation are in some cases negative, in others positive; the positive results are, in the great majority of cases, not a local change, but a general infection which may end in recovery, or in death. The diseases thus induced may, in many cases, fairly be called painless — such are septicaemia in a mouse, snake-venom in a rat, and malaria in a sparrow. Rabbits affected with rabies do not suffer in the same way as dogs and some other animals, but become subject to a painless kind of paralysis. It is probable that animals kept for inoculation have, on the whole, less pain than falls to the lot of a like number of animals in a state of nature or in subjection to work: they are well fed and sheltered, and escape the rapacity of larger animals, the inevitable cruelties of sport, and the drudgery and sexual mutilation that man inflicts on the higher domestic animals. The present writer has, of course, seen the mice that are used for the study of cancer (Imperial Cancer Research Fund), and the guinea-pigs that are used at the Lister Institute for the testing of the London milk-supply, lest the milk should convey tubercle. He did not see, among all the many animals, one that appeared to be suffering: save that a very few of the mice were incommoded, or, if the word be applicable to mice, distressed, by large tumours. Of the guinea-pigs that had been inoculated, not one seemed to be in any pain. A nodule of tubercle, or a tuberculous gland, is painless in us, and therefore cannot be painful in a guinea-pig. It is not denied that the study of some diseases (plague, tetanus) causes some pain to rats and rabbits; but this pain is hardly to be compared with the pain and horror of these diseases in man. We come now to Certificate B. If it were lawful, under Certificate B, to make an incision under an anaesthetic, to call this the " initial operation," and then, without an anaesthetic, to make painful experiments, through the incision, on the deeper structures, doubtless much pain might be inflicted under this certificate. But experiments of this kind can be, and are, made under the licence alone, the animal being kept under an anaesthetic all the time, and killed under it. " No experiments requiring anything of the nature of a surgical operation, or that would cause the infliction of an appreciable amount of pain, are allowed to be performed without an anaesthetic" (Inspector's Report for 1899). " These certificates (B) are granted on con- dition that antiseptic precautions are used; and if these fail, and pain continues after the anaesthetics have ceased to operate, the animal is immediately killed painlessly " (Letter from the Home Secretary, 1898). Of experiments made under this certificate (which must be linked with Certificate EE for any experiment on a dog or a cat) , three instances may be given here: an operation on the brain, a removal of part or the whole of a secreting gland, and the establishment of a fistula. It is to be noted that, for these and the like operations, profound anaesthesia and the strict observ- ance of the antiseptic method are matters of absolute necessity for the success of the experiment: the operation could not be performed without anaesthesia; and the experiment would come to nothing if the wound suppurated. It is to be noted, also, that these operations are such as are performed in surgery for the saving of life or for the relief of pain. As to operations on the brain, it must be remembered that the surface of the brain is not sensitive. Therefore the removal or destruction of a portion of the surface of the brain, or the division of some tract of central nervous tissue, though it might entail some loss of power or of control, does not cause pain: a wound of the brain is painless. Tension within the cranial cavity, as in cases of cerebral tumour or cerebral abscess, may indeed cause great pain; and, if the aseptic method failed in an experiment, inflammation and tension would ensue: in that case the animal must be killed. The removal of part or the whole of a secreting gland (e.g. the thyroid, the spleen, the kidney) is performed by the same methods, and with the same precautions, as in human surgery. Profound anaesthesia, and the use of a strict antiseptic pro- cedure, are of absolute necessity. The skin over the part to be removed must be shaved and carefully cleansed for the opera- tion; the instruments, sponges and ligatures must be sterile, not capable of infecting the wound; and when the operation is over, the wound must be carefully closed with sutures, and left to heal under a proper surgical dressing. The establishment of a fistula, again, is an operation practised, as a matter of course, in large numbers of surgical cases. The stomach, the gall-bladder, the large intestine, are opened for the relief of obstruction, and kept open, either for a time or per- manently, according to the nature of the case. Under anaes- thesia, the organ that is to be opened is exposed through an incision made through the structures overlying it, and is secured in the wound by means of fine sutures. Then, when it has become adherent there, it is opened by an incision made into it; no anaesthetic is needed for this purpose, because these internal organs are so unlike the skin in sensitiveness that an incision is hardly felt: the patient may say that he " felt a prick," or he may be wholly unconscious that anything has been done. A i56 VIVISECTION fistula thus established is not afterward painful, though there may be some discomfort now and again. The classical instance is the case of Alexis St Martin, who was shot in the stomach in 1822, and recovered, but with a fistula. He let Dr Beaumont make experiments on him for nine years: " During the whole of these periods, from the spring of 1824 to the present time (1833), he has enjoyed general good health . . . active, athletic and vigorous; exercising, eating and drinking like other healthy and active people. For the last four months he has been unusually plethoric and robust, though constantly subjected to a continuous series of experiments on the interior of the stomach; allowing to be introduced or taken out at the aperture different kinds o? food, drinks, elastic catheters, thermometer tubes, gastric juice, chyme, &c., almost daily, and sometimes hourly. Such have been this man's condition and circumstances for several years past; and he now enjoys the most perfect health and constitutional soundness, with every function of the system in full force and vigour " (Beaumont, Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, 1838). We come now to the question, What anaesthetics are used in these experiments, and are they properly administered ? The anaesthetics used are — (i) chloroform, ether, or a mixture containing chloroform and ether; (2) morphia, chloral, ure- thane. It is sometimes said that morphia is not an anaesthetic. That depends on the quantity given. Not a month passes in this country without somebody killing himself or herself with morphia or chloral. They die profoundly anaesthetized: they cannot be roused; even the pain of a strong electric shock is not enough to rouse them. So it is with animals. The doses given to them are enormous and produce complete insensibility. On this point the evidence given before the Royal Commission of 1906-8 by Mr Thane, Professor Schafer, Sir Lauder Brunton, Sir Henry Morris, Professor Dixon, Dr Dudley Buxton and Professor Starling is absolutely conclusive. " As to the statements," says Sir Lauder Brunton, " that chloral and opium or morphia are not narcotics, and do not remove pain, there is no other word for it, it is simply a lie; you may as well say that chloroform does not remove pain. If you give any animal a sufficiently large dose of chloral or opium, you so completely abolish sensi- bility that there is nothing you can do that will awaken its sensibility. The animal is as senseless as a piece of board." With regard to chloroform, ether and the A.C.E. mix- ture (alcohol, chloroform and ether) it is absolutely certain that animals can be kept, with these anaesthetics, profoundly unconscious for three or four or more hours. Nothing on this point is more worthy of consideration than the evidence in veterinary surgery, given before the Royal Commission by Mr Hobday, one of the very foremost veterinary surgeons in this country (Reports of Evidence, vol. iv. Q. 16284-16523). The opponents of all experiments on animals are apt to believe that dogs and cats must be bound and fastened on boards, and then have the anaesthetic given to them. That is not the case. They can take the anaesthetic first, and then be put in position; just as we1, for many of the operations of surgery, are bound in position. And, of course, dogs and cats cannot lie on their backs as we can. " The usual thing we do," said Professor Starling, in his evidence before the Royal Commission, " is to give the animal, half an hour before the experiment, a hypodermic injection of morphia, of about a quarter of a grain — from a quarter to a third. The effect of that is, that the dog becomes sleepy and stupid, and then sometimes it will lie down quietly, and if it is very sleepy you can put a mask over its nose con- taining the chloroform, alcohol and ether mixture, which it takes quite quietly. If, at the time one wants to begin the operation, the animal is not fully under the influence of morphia — if it still seems restless — it is put in a box, and there it has some wool saturated with the A.C.E. mixture put in the box. The air gradually gets saturated, the dog gets more and more sleepy, and finally subsides at the bottom of the box." A few words must be said here about curare. It was said, some years ago, by an opponent of experiments on animals, that " curare is used daily throughout England," whereas, it is seldom used at all, and is never used alone in any sort or kind of operation on any animal in this country: in every such case a recognized anaesthetic must be given, and is given. In large doses curare not only abolishes the movement of the voluntary muscles, but also acts as an anaesthetic: in small doses it acts only on the voluntary muscles, i.e. on the endings of the motor nerves going to these muscles. For example, suppose that the object of the experi- ment is to observe and record the action of a nerve on the contraction of certain blood vessels. The nerve gives off some branches to muscles, and other branches to blood vessels. If the animal be anaesthetized, and the nerve stimulated, muscles and vessels will x>th contract; but, if curare be given, as well as an anaesthetic, the vessels alone will contract, without the muscles: for curare does not act on the endings of motor nerves going to blood vessels. But, as a practical matter, curare is very hard to obtain, and is often impure, and is very seldom used. One of the inspectors said to the Royal Commission that he had once seen it used, fifteen years ago. Professor Gotch said that he had not used it, in his own work, Tor twenty years. Professor Schafer said that he had not used it for years. And Sir Lauder Brunton said that he did not think he had used it at all since the passing of the act of 1876. The fear that, in a case where curare was being used, the effect of the anaesthetic might " pass off," and the animal be left under curare alone, is not reasonable. The dosage and administration of anaesthetics is not left to chance. If, for example, an animal is receiving a definite percentage of chloroform vapour, it is of necessity under the influenc of the chloroform: and the anaesthesia will gradually become no less but more profound. (See the evidence given before the Roya Commission by Professor Langley and Professor Waller.) It may be interesting to compare the pain, or death, or dis- comfort among 86,277 animals used for experiments in Grea Britain in 1909, with the pain, or death, or discomfort of an equal number of the same kinds of animals, either in a state of nature, or kept for sport, or used for the service of human profit or amusement. But it would be outside the purpose of this article to describe the cruelties which are inseparable from sport, and from the killing of animals for food, and fron fashion; neither is this the place to describe the millions of mutilations which are practised on domestic animals by farmer and breeders. As one of the Royal Commissioners recently said, the farmyards, at certain times of the year, simply " seeth with vivisection." The number of animals wounded in sport, or in traps, cannot be guessed. Against this vast amount suffering we have to put an estimate of the condition of 86,277 animals used for medical science. Ninety-five per cent, of then were used for inoculation. In many of these inoculations result was negative: the animal did not take any disease, and thus did not suffer any pain. In many more, e.g. cance in mice, tubercle in guinea-pigs, the pain or discomfort, if any, may fairly be called trivial or inconsiderable. It could hardly be said that these small animals suffer much more than an equal number of the same kind of animals kept in little cage to amuse children. There remain 3888 animals which we submitted to operation under an anaesthetic . In the great number of these cases the animal was killed then and ther under the anaesthetic, without recovering consciousness, the remaining cases the animal was allowed to recover, and to be kept for observation; but no further observation of an) kind, which could cause pain, was allowed to be made on it unless it were again placed under an anaesthetic. Many these cases, thus allowed to recover after an operation, may fairly be compared to an equal number of domestic anima" after one of the formal operations of veterinary surgery. Thes observations made under Certificate B form but a very sma proportion of the total number of experiments on animals the United Kingdom; and they have led, in recent years, discoveries of the very utmost importance for human life and health. II. SCIENTIFIC RESULTS. — We come now to consider th results of experiments on animals, but we must remember tha not we alone, but animals also, owe a great debt to them. Gr epizootic diseases like anthrax, swine-fever, chicken choler . silkworm disease, pleuro-pneumonia, glanders, Texas catt fever, blackleg, tuberculosis in cattle, have killed yearly million of animals, and have been brought under better control by these experiments. The advantages that have been obtaine' for man may be arranged under two heads — (A) Physiology, (B) Pathology, Bacteriology and Therapeutics. A. PHYSIOLOGY I. The Blood. — Galen (A.D. 131) confuted the doctrine of tratus, that the arteries contained TTWUMO, the breath of life, proviti VIVISECTION 157 by experiment that they contain blood. " Ourselves, having tied the exposed arteries above and below, opened them, and showed that they were indeed full of blood." Realdus Columbus (i5S9). though he did not discover the general or " systematic " circulation of the blood, yet seems to have discovered, by experi- ment, the pulmonary circulation. ' The blood is carried through the pulmonary artery .to the lung, and there is attenuated ; thence, mixed with air, it is carried through the pulmonary vein to the left side of the heart. Which thing no man hitherto has noted or left on record, though it is most worthy of the observance of all men. . . . And this is as true as truth itself; for if you will look not only in the dead body but also in the living animal, you will always find this pulmonary vein full of blood, which assuredly it would not be if it were designed only for air and vapours. . . . Verily I pray you, O candid reader, studious of authority, but more studious of truth, to make experiment on animals. You will find the pulmonary vein full of blood, not air orfuligo, as these men call it, God help them." Harvey's treatise De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus was published at Frankfort in 1621. It begins thus: " When by many dissections of living animals, as they came to hand, — Cum multis vivorum disseclionibus, uti ad manum dabantur, — I first gave myself to observing how I might discover, with my own eyes, and not from books and the writings of other men, the use and purpose of the movement of the heart in animals, forthwith I found the matter hard indeed and full of difficulty; so that I began to think, with Frascatorius, that the movement of the heart was known to God alone. ... At last, having daily used greater disquisition and diligence, by frequent examination of many and various living amma\s-r-multa frequenter et varia animalia viva introspiciendo — I came to believe that I had succeeded, and had escaped and got out of this labyrinth, and therewith had dis- covered what I desired, the movement and use of the heart and the arteries. And from that time, not only to my friends but also in public in my anatomical lectures, after the manner of the Academy, I did not fear to set forth my opinion in this matter." Here, and again at the end of the Preface, and again in the eighth chapter of the De Motu, he puts his experiments in the very foreground of the argument. Take the headings of his first four chapters: I. Causae, quibus ad scribendum auctor permotus fuerit. 2. Ex vivorum dissectione, qualis fit cordis ntotus. 3. Arteriarum motus qualis, ex vivorum dissectione. 4. Motus cordis et auricularum qualis, ex vivorum dissectione. He had, of course, help from. other sources — from anatomy and from physics; but it is certain, from his own words, that he attributed his discovery, in a very great measure, to experiments on animals. Malpighi (1661), professor of medicine at Bologna, by examining with a microscope the lung and the mesentery of the live frog, made out the capillary vessels. He writes to Borelli, professor of mathematics at Pisa, that he has failed in every attempt to discover them by injecting fluids into the larger vessels, but has succeeded by examining the tissues with the microscope: " Such is the divarication of these little vessels coming off from the vein and the artery, that the order in which a vessel ramifies is no longer preserved, but it looks like a network woven from the offshoots of both vessels " (De Pulmonibus, 1661). Stephen Hales (1733), rector of Farringdon and minister of Tedding- ton, and a Fellow of the Royal Society, made the first exact esti- mates of the blood pressure, the real force of the blood, by inserting one end of a vertical glass tube into the crural artery of a mare, and noting the rise of the blood in the tube (Statical Essays, con- taining Haemostatic ks, &fc., 1733). John Hunter, born 1738, made many observations on the nature and processes of the blood; and, above all, he discovered the facts of collateral circulation. These facts were fresh in his mind when he first ventured, in December 1785, to tie the femoral artery in " Hunter's canal " for the cure of aneurism in the popliteal space. The experiment that gave him his knowledge of the collateral circulation was made on one of the deer in Richmond Park: he tied its externaj carotid artery, to see what effect would be produced on the shedding of the antler. Some days later he found that the circulation had returned in the antler. He had the buck killed, and found that the artery had been completely closed by the ligature, but the small branches coming from it, between the heart and the ligature, were enlarged and were in communication with others of its branches beyond the ligature; and by this collateral circulation the flow of blood to the antler had been restored. Among later observations on the circulation must be mentioned the use of the mercurial mano- meter by Poiseuille (1828) and Ludwig (1849), the study of the blood pressure within the heart by Hering (1849) and the per- manent tracing of the pressure curves by Chauveau and Marey (1863). Finally came the study of those more abstruse problems of the circulation that the older physiologists had left alone — the influences of the central nervous system, the relations between blood pressure and secretion, the automatism of the heart-beat, and the influence of gravitation. Professor Starling, in 1906, writes as follows of this part of physiology: "Among the researches of the last thirty years, those bearing on the circulation of the blood must take an important place, both for their physiological interest and for the weighty influence they have exerted on our knowledge and treatment of disorders of the vascular system, such as heart disease. We have learned to measure accurately the work done by the great heart-pump; and by studying the manner in which this work is affected by different conditions, we are enabled to in- crease or diminish it, according to the needs of the organ. Ex- periments in what is often regarded as the most transcendental department of physiology — i.e. that which treats of muscle and nerve-^have thrown light on the wonderful process of ' com- pensation ' by which a diseased heart is able to Keep up a normal circulation." And Dr James Mackenzie, writing in 1910 of certain irregularities of the circulation during pregnancy (venous pulse in the neck and irregular beat of the heart), says, very emphatically, that these conditions in patients have been interpreted by ex- periments on animals. " The outcome ot these researches [Wencke- bach's clinical studies], as well as those of a great number of other observers, has been to elucidate the nature and meaning of a great number of abnormal conditions of the heart. It might be said with truth that, whereas a few years ago irregular action of the heart was one of the most obscure symptoms in clinical medicine, it is now one of the best understood. It is needless to repeat that this advance would have been absolutely impossible without the knowledge gained by experiment " (Research Defence Society, May 1910). 2. The Lacteals. — Asellius (1622) by a single experiment demon- strated the flow of chyle along the lacteals. The existence pt these minute vessels had been known even to Galen and Erastis- tratus, but they had made nothing of their knowledge. Aselliu- says: "I observed that the nerves of the intestines were quite distinct from these white threads, and ran a different course. Struck with this new fact, I was silent for a time, thinking of the bitter warfare of words among anatomists as to the mesenteric veins and their purposes. When I came to myself, to satisfy my- self by an experiment, I pierced one of the largest cords with a scalpel. I hit the right point, and at once observed a white liquid like milk flowing from the divided vessel." Jehan Pecquet (1647), in the course of an experiment on the heart, observed the now of chyle into the subclavian vein, and its identity with the chyle in the lacteals; and by further experiment found the thoracic duct, and the chyle flowing up it: "I perceived a white sub- stance, like milk, flowing from the vena cava ascendens into the pericardium, at the place where the right auricle had been I found these vessels (the thoracic duct) all along the dorsal ver- tebrae, lying on the spine, beneath the aorta. They swelled below a ligature; and when I relaxed it, I saw the milk carried to the orifices that I had observed in the subclavian vein-." The existence of this duct, which is empty and collapsed after death, had been overlooked by Vesalius and all the great anatomists of his time. 3. The Gastric Juice. — Our knowledge about digestion dates back to the end of the I7th century, when Valisnieri _first ob- served that the stomach of a dead animal contained a fluid which acted on certain bodies immersed in it — " a kind of aqua forlis." In 1752 Reaumur began his observations on this fluid, making birds swallow fine fenestrated tubes containing grain or meat, or sponges with threads attached; and observed that digestion con- sists in the dissolution of food, not in any sort of mechanical action or trituration. His observations were extended and perfected by Spallanzani (1777). Then came a period of uncertainty, with- out further advance; until in 1823 the_ French Academy offered a prize for the best work on the subject, and Tiedemann and Gmelin submitted their observations to them : " The work of Tiedemann and Gmelin is of especial interest to us on account of the great number of their experiments, from which came not only the absolute proof of the existence of the gastric juice, but also the study of the transformation of starch into glucose. Thus the theory of digestion entered a new phase : it was finally recog- nized, at least for certain substances, that digestion is not simplv dissolution, but a true chemical transformation " (Claude Bernard, Physiologic opfratoire, 1879). Beaumont's experiments on Alexis St Martin (vide supra) were published in 1838. They were, of course, based on the work of the physiologists: " I make no claim to originality in my opinions as respects the existence and opera- tion of the gastric juice. My experiments confirm the doctrine? (with some modifications) taught by Spallanzani and many of the most enlightened physiological writers " (Beaumont's preface to his book). Eberle, in 1834, showed how this knowledge of the gastric juice might be turned to a practical use, by extracting it from the mucous membrane of the stomachs of animals after death : hence came the invention of the various preparations of pepsin. Later, Blondlot of Nancy, in 1842, studied the gastric juice by the method of a fistula, like that of St Martin. More recent observa- tions have been made on the movements of the stomach during digestion, and on the influences of the nervous system on the process. The stomach is, of course not the only organ of digestion: the liver, the pancreas and the intestinal glands, all are concerned. The recent work of Pawlow and of Starling has greatly advanced our knowledge of the actions of the secretions from these organs. The whole chain of processes, nervous and chemical, psychical and physical, from the taking of food into the mouth to the expulsion of the waste residue, is now viewed in its entirety; and especial study has been given to the influences, nervous or chemical, which iS8 VIVISECTION are exercised, as it were, on a particular tract of the digestive system, at the bidding of another tract. Pawlow, recognizing the importance of keeping the animals under the most normal condi- tions that were possible, and of studying the different tracts of the digestive system in animals not anaesthetized, yet free from pain or distress, made use of fistulae established at different points of the digestive canal, and was able to study the digestive juices at different stages during digestion, without causing pain to the animals. The work of Pawlow has been further developed by Professor Starling's recent work on the chemical substances produced in the body, during the act of digestion, to promote digestion. 4. Glycogen.— Claude Bernard's work on the assimilation and destruction of sugar in the body was begun in 1843. His discovery of the glycogenic action of the liver was made by keeping two dogs on different diets, one with sugar, the other without it, then killing them during digestion, and testing the blood in the veins coming from the liver: " What was my surprise when I found a considerable quantity of sugar in the hepatic veins of the dog that had been fed on meat only, and had been kept for eight days without sugar ! . . . Finally, after many attempts — apres beaucoup d'essais el plusieurs illusions que je fus oblige de rectifier par des t&tonnements — I succeeded in showing, that in dogs fed on meat the blood passing through the portal vein (from the stomach) does not contain sugar before it reaches the liver; but when it leaves the liver and comes by the hepatic veins into the inferior vena cava, this same blood contains a considerable quantity of a sugary substance (glucose) " (Nouvdle fonction dufoie, Paris, 1853). 5. The Pancreas. — The I7th century was a time of very fanci- ful theories about the pancreas (Lindanus, Wharton, Bartholini), which need not be recalled here. But Sylvius (Francois de Bois) had the wisdom to see that the pancreas must be estimated, not according to its position, but according to its structure, as of the nature of the salivary glands. He urged his pupil, Regnier de Graaf, to study it by experiment, and de Graaf says: " I put my hand to the work; and though many times I despaired of success, yet at last, by the blessing of God on my work and prayers, in the year 1662 I discovered a way of collecting the pancreatic juice." By the method of a fistula he collected and studied the secretion of the pancreas; and by further experiment he refuted Bartholini's theory that the pancreas was a sort of appanage or " biliary vesicle " of the spleen. But he got no help from the chemistry of his time ; he could no more discover the amylolytic action of the pancreatic secretion than Galvani could discover wireless telegraphy. Still, he did good work; and Claude Bernard, 180 years later, went back to de Graaf's method of the fistula. His observations, begun in 1846, received a prize from the French Academy in 1850. Sir Michael Foster says of them: " Valentin, it is true, had in 1844 not only inferred that the pancreatic juice had an action on starch, but confirmed his view by actual experiment with the juice expressed from the gland; and Eberle had suggested that the juice had some action on fat; but Bernard at one stroke made clear its threefold action. He showed that it on the one hand emulsified, and on the other hand split up into fatty acids and glycerine, the neutral fats; he clearly proved that it had a powerful action on starch, converting it into sugar; and lastly, he laid bare its remarkable action on proteid matters." At a later date it was discovered that the •pancreas, beside its work in digestion, has an " internal secretion ": that it, like the thyroid gland and the suprarenal capsules, helps to keep the balance of the general chemistry of the whole body. Professor Schafer, writing in 1894, says on this subject: " It was discovered a few years ago by von Mering and Minkowski that if, instead of merely diverting its secretion, the pancreas is bodily removed, the metabolic processes of the organism, and especially the metabolism of carbo-hydrates, are entirely deranged, the result being the production of permanent diabetes. But if even a very small part of the gland is left within the body, the carbo-hydrate metabolism remains unaltered, and there is no diabetes. The small portion of the organ which has been allowed to remain (and which need not even be left in its proper place, but may be trans- planted under the skin or elsewhere) is sufficient, by the exchanges which go on between it and the blood generally, to prevent those serious consequences to the composition of the blood, and the general constitution of the body, which result from the complete removal of this organ." This fact, that complete removal of the pancreas, in a cat or a dog, may cause fatal diabetes, is of import- ance, because the pancreas in some cases of diabetes in man is diseased : but, at present, experiments on animals have not led to any certain or specific cure of diabetes in man. 6. The Growth of Bone. — The experiments made by du Hamel (i739-'843) on the growth of bone by deposit from the periosteum (the thin membrane ensheathing each bone) rose out of Belchier's observation (1735) that the bones take up the stain of madder mixed with the food. Du Hamel studied the whole subject very carefully, and discovered this bone-producing power of the peri- osteum, which is an important fact in all operations on the bones. As he puts it, in the title of one of his own memoirs, Les os croissent en grosscur par I'addition de couches osseuses qui tirent leur origine du perioste, commc le corps ligneux des Arbres augmente en grosseur par I'addition de couches ligneuses qui se forment dans I'ecorce. By feeding pigs at one time with dyed food, at another with und> food, he obtained their bones in concentric layers alternately stain, and unstained. His facts were confirmed by Bazan '.1746) an Boehmer (1751); but his conclusions, unfortunately, v,ere oppos by Haller. Still, he brought men to study the whole subject of •: growth of bones, in length as well as in thickness, and the wh___ modelling of the bones, in adult life, by deposit and absorption. Bichat, John Hunter, Troja and Cruveilhier took up his work in physiology and in surgery. Later, from the point of view of surge Syme (1837) and Stanley (1849) made experiments on the grow of bone, and on the exfoliation of dead bone; and, after the_ Oilier, whose influence on this part of surgical practice has been the very highest value. 7. The Nervous System. — A. The Nerve-Roots. — Through all th centuries between Galen, who lived in the time of Commodus, an Sir Charles Bell, who lived in the time of George III., no grez advance was made in our knowledge of the nervous system. Th way of experiment, which had led Galen far ahead of his age, neglected, and everything was overwhelmed by theories. Bell London and Magendie in Paris took up the experimental study the nervous system about where Galen had left it. The questio of priority of discovery does not concern us here: we may take Sii Michael Foster's judgment, that Magendie brought exact and full proof of the truth which Bell had divined rather than demonstrated, that the anterior and posterior roots of spinal nerves have essentially different functions — " a truth which is the very foundation of the physiology of the nervous system." The date of Bell's work is 1811, An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain, submitted for the Observativ of the Author's Friends. In it he says: " Considering that the spins nerves have a double root, and being of opinion that the propertie of the nerves are derived from their connexions with the parts e the brain, I thought that I had an opportunity of putting my opinio to the test of experiment, and of proving at the same time tha nerves of different endowments were in the same cord (the sam nerve-trunk) and held together by the same sheath. On layin bare the roots of the spinal nerves I found that I could cut acres the posterior fasciculus of nerves, which took its origin from th spinal marrow, without convulsing the muscles of the back; bu that on touching the anterior fasciculus with the point of the knife the muscles of the back were immediately convulsed. Such we my reasons for concluding that the cerebrum and cerebellum parts distinct in function, and that every nerve possessing a doubl< function obtained that by having a double root. I now saw tl meaning of the double connexion of the nerves with the spin marrow, and also the cause of that seeming intricacy in the con nexions of nerves throughout their course, which were not doubli at their origins." His other work, on the cranial nerves, which ar " not double at their origins," bore fruit at once in surgery. John Erichsen says of it : " Up to the time that Sir Charles made his experiments on the nerves of the face, it was the comn custom of surgeons to divide the facial nerve for the relief neuralgia, tic douleureux; whereas it exercises, and was prove by Sir Charles Bell to exercise, no influence over sensation, and it division consequently for the relief of pain was a useless operation." B. Reflex Action. — The observations made by Sir Robert Boyli Redi, Le Gallois and others on the reflex movements of decapitate vipers, frogs, eels and butterflies were of no great use from tli point of view of physiology; but they led toward the discover that nerve-power is stored in the spinal cord, and is liberated thenc in action independent of the higher cerebral centres. Marshall Ha (1832-1837) discovered, by his experiments, that reflex actions i the work of definite groups of cells, set at certain points or levels in the cord; he proved the segmental structure of the cord, the ex' ence of nerve-centres in it, and thus foreshadowed the discov of the like centres in the brain. In his earlier writings (1832—3 he extended the principles of the doctrines of reflex action to t larynx, the pharynx and the sphincter muscles; later, in 1837, demonstrated the course of nerve-impulses within the cord, fri one level to another, and the effects of direct stimulation of the co Also he noted the effects of opium and of strychnine on refle action; and the reflex character of the convulsions that occur certain diseases. C. The Medulla Oblongata and the Cerebellum. — Flourens, wh was among the earliest students of the use of chloroform, is known for his experiments on the respiratory centre and the c bellum. He localized the cells in the medulla that govern the refle movement of respiration. Afterward came the discovery of cardia and other centres in the neighbourhood of the respiratory centif He showed also that the cerebellum is concerned with the equilibra- tion and co-ordination of the muscles ; that an animal, a few days ol<" deprived of sensation and consciousness by removal of the cerebn hemispheres, was yet able to stand and to move forward, but whe the cerebellum also was removed, lost all power of co-ordinatio (Recherches experimental , Paris, 1842). And from the observation made by him and by others, it was found that the semicircular can of the internal ears are the terminal organs of the sense of equilibr tion. D. The Vaso-Motor Nerves. — Claude Bernard, studying the sym- pathetic nervous system, discovered the vaso-motor nerves that VIVISECTION '59 control the calibre of the arteries. The question of priority between him and Brown Sequard need not be considered here. His first account of his work was communicated to the Societe de Biologie in December 1851. The following account of it is from his Lemons de physiologie operatoire (1879): — " Let me remind you how I was led to discover the vaso-motor •ervcs. Starting from the clinical observation, made long ago, that in paralysed limbs you find at one time an increase of cold and at another an increase of heat, I thought that this contradiction might be explained by supposing that, side by side with the general action of the nervous system, the sympathetic nerve might have the function of presiding over the production of heat ; that is to say, that in the case where the paralysed limb was chilled, I supposed the sympathetic nerve to be paralysed, as well as the motor nerves; while in the paralysed limbs that were not chilled the sympathetic nerve had retained its function, the systematic nerves alone having been attacked. This was a theory, that is to say, an idea, leading me to make experiments; and for these experiments I must find a sympathetic nerve-trunk of sufficient size, going to some organ that was easy to observe; and must divide the trunk to see what would happen to the heat-supply of the organ. You know that the rabbit's car, and the cervical sympathetic of this animal, offered us the required conditions. So I divided this nerve; and, at once, the ex|H:riment gave the lie direct to my theory — Je coupai done ce filet el aussitoi I 'experience donna 4 gob SI § <5 ^ u. w e •" i 2^> H S 3 * § 31 D •— Q° £ > 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 270,040 268,505 316,553 342,040 313,288 293,572 269,574 239,974 223,611 218,629 259,696 281,333 112 103 109 144 88 107 50 43 69 65 70 30 243,199 193,119 231,693 280,107 202,064 187,811 101,834 88,483 69,865 53.640 63,125 73,939 756 436 770 884 652 718 149 238 331 181 319 234 847 272 444 735 303 737 181 1 02 183 56 1037 784 1033 990 5'4 968 300 244 77 126 224 2,640 1,492 2,247 2,609 1,469 2,423 630 1,024 836 360 628 514 i -08 o-77 o-97 o-93 0-72 1-29 0-62 1-16 1-20 0-67 0-99 0-69 10% M Total: 3,296,815 990 1,788,879 5668 4406 6798 16,872 0-94 ,f Cattle. 1882 1883 35,654 26,453 127 130 22,916 20,501 22 17 12 I 48 46 82 64 o-35 0-31 5% 1884 33,900 139 22,616 20 13 S2 85 0-37 1885 34,ooo 192 21,073 32 8 67 107 0-50 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 39,154 48,484 34,464 32,251 33,965 40,736 135 148 61 68 71 68 22,113 28,083 10,920 11,610 11-057 10,476 18 23 8 14 5 6 18 4 7 4 4 39 68 35 3" 14 4 64 109 47 52 23 14 0-29 o-39 o-43 o-45 0-21 0-13 '• 1892 41,609 71 9-757 8 15 26 0-26 1893 38,154 45 9,840 4 i 13 18 0-18 , Total : 438,824 1255 200,962 '77 82 432 69! 0-34 ,, VACCINATION AGAINST ROUGET (FRANCE) •ri «i •ga Mortality. g i_ t 53. e • 05 If | I* CJ •f . •°§ 6 ca CJ rt 4ri . Years. "o >•*->.— ^0 el 11 QJ o&e. circumstance the popular idea has arisen that the race itself represents the descendants of the Romanized population of Trajan's Dacia, which was assumed to have maintained an unbroken existence in Walachia, Transylvania and the neighbour provinces, beneath the dominion of a succession of invaders. The Vlachs of Pindus, and the southern region generally, were, on this hypothesis, to be regarded as later immigrants from the lands north of the Danube. In 1871, E. R. Roesler published at Leipzig, in a collective form, a series of essays entitled Romanische Studien, in which he absolutely denied the claim of the Rumanian and Transylvanian Vlachs to be regarded as' autochthonous Dacians. He laid stress on the statements of Vopiscus and others as implying the total withdrawal of the Roman provincials from Trajan's Dacia by Aurelian, in A.D. 272, and on the non-mention by historians of a Latin population in the lands on the left bank of the lower Danube, during their successive occupation by Goths, Huns, Gepidae, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and other barbarian races. He found the first trace of a Ruman settlement north of the Danube in a Transylvanian diploma of 1222. Roesler's thesis has been generally regarded as an entirely new departure in critical ethnography. As a matter of fact, his conclusions had to a great extent been already anticipated by F. J. Sulzer in his Gexhichte des Transalpinischen Daciens, published at Vienna in 1781, and at a still earlier date by the Dalmatian historian G. Lucio (Lucius of Trail) in his work De Regno Dalmaliae et Croatiae, Amsterdam, 1666. The theory of the later immigration of the Rumans into their present abodes north of the Danube, as stated in its most extreme form by Roesler, commanded wide acceptance, and in Hungary it was politically utilized as a plea for refusing parity of treatment to a race of comparatively recent intruders. In Rumania itself Roesler's views were resented as an attack on Ruman nationality. Outside Rumania they found a determined opponent in Dr J. Jung, of Innsbruck, who upheld the continuity of the Roman provincial stock in Trajan's Dacia, disputing from historic analogies the total withdrawal of the provincials by Aurelian; and the reaction against Roesler was carried still farther by J. L. Pid, Professor A. D. Xenopol of Jassy, B. P. Hasdeu, D. Onciul and many other Rumanian writers, who maintain that, while their own race north of the Danube repre- sents the original Daco-Roman population of this region, the Vlachs of Turkey and Greece are similarly descended from the Moeso-Roman and Illyro-Roman inhabitants of the pro- vinces lying south of the river. On this theory the entire Vlach race occupies almost precisely the same territories to-day as in the 3rd century. VLACHS 167 P1 I On the whole it may be said that the truth lies between the two extremes. Roesler is no doubt so far right that after 272, and throughout the early middle ages, the bulk of the Ruman people lay south of the Danube. Pit's view that the population of the Roman provinces of Moesia and Illyria were "ellenized rather than Romanized, and that it is to Trajan's 'acia alone that we must look for the Roman source of the ,'lach race, conflicts with what we know of the Latinizing of the Balkan lands from inscriptions, martyrologies, Pro- copius's list of Justinian's Illyrian fortresses and other sources. This Roman element south of the Danube had further received a great increase at the expense of Trajan's colonial foundation to the north when Aurelian established his New Dacia on the Moesian side of the river. On the other hand, the analogy supplied by the withdrawal of the Roman provincials from Riparian Noricum tells against the assumption that the official withdrawal of the Roman colonists of Trajan's Dacia by Aurelian entailed the entire evacuation of the Carpathian regions by their Latin-speaking inhabitants. As on the upper Danube the continuity of the Roman population is attested by the Vici Romanisci of early medieval diplomas and by other traces of a Romanic race still represented by the Ladines of the Tirol, so it is reasonable to suppose a Latin-speaking population continued to exist in the formerly thickly colonized area embracing the present Transylvania and Little Walachia, with adjoining Carpathian regions. Even as late as Justinian's time (483-565), the official connexion with the old Dacian province was not wholly lost, as is shown by the erection or restoration of certain fortified posts on the left bank of the lower Danube. We may therefore assume that the Latin race of eastern Europe never wholly lost touch of its former trans-Danubian Burly strongholds. It was, however, on any showing greatly migra- diminished there. The open country, the broad plains of what is now the Rumanian kingdom, and the Banat of Hungary were in barbarian occupation. The centre of gravity of the Roman or Romance element of Illyricum had now shifted south of the Danube. By the 6th century a large part of Thrace, Macedonia and even of Epirus had become Latin-speaking. What had occurred in Trajan's Dacia in the 3rd century was consummated in the 6th and ?th throughout the greater part of the South-Illyrian provinces, and the Slavonic and Avar conquests severed the official connexion with eastern Rome. The Roman element was uprooted from its fixed seats, and swept hither and thither by the barbarian flood. Nomadism became an essential of independent existence, while large masses of homeless provincials were dragged as captives in the train of their conquerors, to be distributed in servile colonies. They were thus in many cases transported by barbarian chiefs — Slav, Avar and Bulgarian — to trans-Danubian and Pannonian regions. In the Acts of St Demetrius of Thessalonica (d. A.D. 306) we find an account of such a Roman colony, which, having been carried away from South-Illyrian cities by the Avar khagan (prince) , and settled by him in the Sirmian district beyond the Save, revolted after seventy years of captivity, made their way once more across the Balkan passes, and finally settled as an independent community in the country inland from Salonica. Others, no doubt, thus transported northwards never returned. The earliest Hungarian historians who describe the Magyar invasion of the Qth century speak of the old in- habitants of the country as Romans, and of the country they occupied as Pascua Romanorum; and the Russian Nestor, writing about noo, makes the same invaders fight against Slavs and Vlachs in the Carpathian Mountains. So far from the first mention of the Vlachs north of the Danube occurring only in 1222, as Roesler asserts, it appears from a passage of Nicetas of Chonae that they were to be found already in 1164 as far afield as the borders of Galicia; and the date of a passage in the Nibelungenlied, which mentions the Vlachs, under their leader Ramunc, in association with the Poles, cannot well be later than 1200. Nevertheless, throughout the early middle ages the bulk of the Ruman population lay south of the Danube. It was in the Balkan lands that the Ruman race and language took their characteristic mould. It is here that this new Illyrian Romance first rises into historic prominence. Already in the 6th century, as we learn from the place-names, such as Sceptecasas, Bur- gualtu, Clisura, &c., given by Procopius, the Ruman language was assuming, so far as its Latin elements were concerned, its typical form. In the somewhat later campaigns of Com- mentiolus (587) and Priscus, against the Avars and Slavs, we find the Latin-speaking soldiery of the Eastern emperor making use of such Romance expressions as torna fralet (turn, brother!), or sculca (out of bed) applied to a watch (cf. Ruman a se cidca = Italian coricarsi+ex-(s-) privative). Next we find this warlike Ruman population largely incorporated in the Bulgarian kingdom, and, if we are to judge from the names Paganus and Sabinus, already supplying it with rulers in the 8th century. The blending and close contact during this period of the surviving Latin population with the Slavonic settlers of the peninsula impregnated the language with its large Slavonic ingredient. The presence of an important Latin element in Albanian, the frequent occurrence of Albanian words in Rumanian, and the remarkable retention by both languages of a suffix article, may perhaps imply that both alike took their characteristic shapes in the same region. The fact that these peculiarities are common to the Rumans north of the Danube, whose language differs dialectically from that of their southern brothers, shows that it was this southern branch that throughout the early periods of Ruman history was exer- cising a dominating influence. Migrations, violent trans- plantation, the intercourse which was kept up between the most outlying members of the race, in its very origin nomadic, at a later period actual colonization and the political influence of the Bulgaro-Vlachian empire, no doubt contributed to propa- gate these southern linguistic acquisitions throughout that northern area to which the Ruman race was destined almost imperceptibly to shift its centre of gravity. Byzantium, which had ceased to be Roman, and had become Romanic, renewed its acquaintance with the descendants of the Latin provincials of Illyiicum through a Slavonic medium, and applied to them the name of Vlach, which the Slav himself had borrowed from the Goth. The first mention of Vlachs in a Byzantine source is about the year 976, when Cedrenus (ii. 439) relates the murder of the Bulgarian tsar Samuel's brother " by certain Vlach wayfarers," at a spot called the Fair Oaks, between Castoria and Prespa. From this period onwards the Ruman inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula are constantly mentioned by this name, and we find a series of political organiza- tions and territorial divisions connected with the name of Vlachia. A short synopsis may be given of the most important of these, outside the limits of Rumania itself. 1. The Btdgaro-Vlach Empire. — After the overthrow of the older Bulgarian tsardom by Basil Bulgaroktonos (976-1025), the Vlach population of Thrace, Haemus and the Moesian lands paiH^-mi passed once more under Byzantine dominion; and in 1185 a heavy tax, levied in kind on the cattle of these f!!JWoril| warlike mountain shepherds, stirred the Vlachs to revolt ( against the emperor Isaac Angelus, and under the leader- snip of two brothers. Peter and Asen, to found a new Bulgaro- Vlachian empire, which ended with Kaliman II. in 1257. The dominions of these half-Slavonic half-Ruman emperors extended north of the Danube over a great deal of what is now Rumania, and it was during this period that the Vlach population north of the river seems to have been most largely reinforced. The 13th- century French traveller Rubruquis speaks of all the country between Don and Danube as Asen s land or Blakia. 2. Great Walachia (Me-yiXij BXax'a). — It is from Anna Comnena, in the second half of the nth century, that we first hear of a Vlach settlement, the nucleus of which was the mountainous region of Thessaly. Benjamin of Tudela, in the succeeding century, gives an interesting account of this Great Walachia, then completely independent. It embraced the southern and central ranges of Pindus, and extended over part of Macedonia, thus including the region in which the Roman settlers mentioned in the Acts of St Demetrius had fixed their abode. After the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204, Great Walachia was included in the enlarged despot, ue of Epirus, but it soon reappears as an independent principality under its old name, which, after passing under the yoke i68 VLADIKAVKAZ— VLADIMIR of the Serb emperor Dushan, was finally conquered by the Turks in 1393. Many of their old privileges were accorded to the in- "habitants, and their taxes were limited to an annual tribute. Since this period the Megalovlachites have been largely Hellenized, but they are still represented by the flourishing Tzintzar settlements of Pindus and its neighbourhood (see MACEDONIA). 3. Little Walachia($AiKpA. BXaxMwas a name applied by Byzantine writers to the Ruman settlements of Aetolia and Acarnania, and with it may be included " Upper Walachia," or Avw/SXoxa. Its inha- bitants are still represented by the Tzintzars of the Aspropotamo and the Karaguni (Black Capes) of Acarnania. 4. The Morlachs (Mavrovlachi) of the West. — These are already mentioned as Nigri Latini by the presbyter of Dioclea (c. 1150) in the old Dalmatian littoral and the mountains of what is now Montenegro, Herzegovina and North Albania. Other colonies ex- tended through a great part of the old Servian interior, where is a region still called Stara Vlaska or " Old Walachia." The great commercial staple of the east Adriatic shores, the republic of Ragusa, seems in its origin to have been a Ruman settlement, and many Vlach traces survived in its later dialect. Philippus de Diversis, who described the city as it existed in 1440, says that " the various officers of the republic do not make use either of Slav or Italian, with which they converse with strangers, but a certain other dialect only partially intelligible to us Latins," and cites words with strong Ruman affinities. In the mountains above Ragusa a number of Vlach tribes are mentioned in the archives of that city, and the original relationship of the Ragusans and the nomadic Alpine repre- sentatives of the Roman provincials, who preserved a traditional knowledge of the old lines of communication throughout the penin- sula, explains the extraordinary development of the Ragusan com- merce. In the I4th century the Mavrovlachi or Morlachs extended themselves towards the Croatian borders, and a large part of mari- time Croatia and northern Dalmatia began to be known as Morlacchia. A Major Vlachia was formed about the triple frontier of Bosnia, Croatia and Dalmatia, and a " Little Walachia " as. far north as Pozega. The Morlachs have now become Slavonized (see DALMATIA) . 5. Cici of Istria. — The extreme Ruman offshoot to the north-west is still represented by the Cici of the Val d'Arsa and adjoining Istrian districts. They represent a 15th-century Morlach colony from the Isles of Veglia, and had formerly a wider extension to Trieste and the counties of Gradisca and Gorz. The Cici have almost entirely abandoned their native tongue, which is the last remaining representative of the old Morlach, and forms a connecting link between the Daco-Roman (or Rumanian) and the Illyro- or Macedo-Roman dialects. 6. Rumans of Transylvania and Hungary. — As already stated, a large part of the Hungarian plains were, at the coming of the Magyars in the oth century, known as Pascua Romanorum. At a later period privileged Ruman communities existed at Fogaras, where was a Silva Vlachorum, at Marmaros, Deva, Hatzeg, Hunyad and Lugos, and in the Banat were seven Ruman districts. Two of the greatest figures in Hungarian history, the 15th-century rulers John Corvinus of Hunyad and his son King Matthias, were due to this element. For its later history see TRANSYLVANIA. See, in addition to the books already mentioned, J. L. Pic, ffber die Abstammung der Rumanen (Leipzig, 1880); A. D. Xenopol, Les Roumains au moyen Age (Jassy, 1886); B. P. Hasdeu, " Stratu si Substratu: Genealogia poporeloru balcanice," inAnnalele Academiei, ser. II, vol. 14 (Bucharest, 1893); D. Onciul, " Romanil in Dacia Traiana," &c., in Enciclopedia Romdna, vol. iii. (Bucharest, 1902). VLADIKAVKAZ, a town and fortress of Russia in northern Caucasia, the capital of the province of Terek. Pop. (1900) 49,924. It stands on a plateau, at an altitude of 2345 ft., on both banks of the Terek, where that river issues from the Darial gorge. It is 434 m. by rail S.E. from Rostov-on-the-Don, and has regular communication with Tiflis (133 m.) by coach through the Darial Pass (Georgian military road) of the Caucasus. Moreover, a line of railway, running eastwards to the Caspian ports of Petrovsk and Baku, connects Vladikavkaz, or rather the station Beslan, 14 m. N. of it, with the Transcaucasian railway, i.e. with Tiflis, Poti and Batum. Russians, Armenians and Jews constitute the bulk of the population, which also con- tains Ossetes, Chechens, Ingushes and others. There are dis- tilleries and a number of smaller factories. The fort, around which the town has grown up, was built in 1784. The town is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. VLADIMIR, ST (c. 956-1015), grand duke of Kiev and of all Russia, was the youngest son of Svyatoslav I. and his mistress Malushka. In 970 he received Great Novgorod as his apanage. On the death of Svyatoslav in 972, a long civil war took place between his sons Yaropolk and Oleg, in which Vladimir was involved. From 977 to 984 he was in Scandinavia, collect- ing as many of the viking warriors as he could to assist him to recover Novgorod, and on his return marched against Yaro- polk. On his way to Kiev he sent ambassadors to Ragvald, prince of Polotsk, to sue for the hand of his daughter Ragnilda. The haughty princess refused to affiance herself to " the son of a bondswoman," but Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Ragvald, and took Ragnilda by force. Subsequently (980) he captured Kiev also, slew Yaropolk by treachery, and was proclaimed prince of all Russia. In 981 he conquered the Chervensk cities, the modern Galicia; in 983 he subdued the heathen Yatvyags, whose territories lay between Lithuania and Poland; in 985 he led a fleet along the central rivers of Russia to conquer the Bulgarians of the Kama, planting numerous fortresses and colonies on his way. At this time Vladimir was a thoroughgoing pagan. He increased the number of the trebishcha, or heathen temples; offered up Christians (Theodore and Ivan, the proto- martyrs of the Russian Church) on his altars; had eight hundred concubines, besides numerous wives; and spent his whole leisure in feasting and hunting. He also formed a great council out of his boyars, and set his twelve sons over his subject principalities. In the year 987, as the result of a consultation with his boyars, Vladimir sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighbouring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. The result is amusingly described by the chronicler Nestor. Of the Mussul- man Bulgarians of the Volga the envoys reported " there is no gladness among them; only sorrow and a great stench; their religion is not a good one." In the temples of the Germans they saw "no beauty"; but at Constantinople, where the full festival ritual of the Orthodox Church was set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal. " We no longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth, nor such beauty, and we know not how to tell of it." If Vladimir was impressed by this account of his envoys, he was yet more so by the offer of the emperor Basil II. to give him his sister Anna in marriage. In 988 he was baptized at Kherson in the Crimea, taking the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-in-law; the sacrament was followed by his marriage with the Roman princess. Returning to Kiev in triumph, he converted his people to the new. faith with no apparent diffi- culty. Crypto-Christians had been numerous in Kiev for some time before the public recognition of the Orthodox faith. The remainder of the reign of Vladimir was devoted to good works. He founded numerous churches, including the splendid Desya- tinnuy Sobor or " Cathedral of the Tithes " (989), established schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts. With his neighbours he lived at peace, the incursions of the savage Petchenegs alone disturbing his tranquillity. His nephew Svyatpolk, son of his brother and victim Yaropolk, he married to the daughter of Boleslaus of Poland. He died at Berestova, near Kiev, while on his way to chastise the insolence of his son, Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod. The various parts of his dis- membered body were distributed among his numerous sacred foundations and were venerated as relics. The university of Kiev has rightly been named after the man who both civilized and Christianized ancient Russia. His memory was also kept alive by innumerable folk ballads and legends. With him the Varangian period of Russian history ceases and the Christian period begins. See Memorials (Rus.) published by the Commission for the ex- amination of ancient documents (Kiev, 1881, &c.) ; I. Komanin and M. Istomin, Collection of Historical Materials (Rus.) (Kiev, 1890, &c.) ; O. Partitsky, Scandinavianism in Ancient Russia (Rus.) (Lemberg, 1897); A. Lappo-Danilevsky, Scythian Antiquities (Rus.) (Petersburg, 1887); J. Macquart, Osteuropaische u. ostasia- tische Streifziige (Leipzig, 1903); L. C. Goetz, Das Kiever Hohlen- kloster als Kulturzentrum des vormongolischen Russlands (Passau, 1904)- (R- N. B.) VLADIMIR, a government of middle Russia, bounded W. by the governments of Moscow and Tver, N. by Yaroslav and Kostroma, E. by Nizhniy-Novgorod, S. by Tambov and Ryazan, with an area of 18,815 sq. m. It belongs to the eastern part of the central plateau of middle Russia, which has an average elevation of 800 to 950 ft., and is grooved by river valleys to a depth of VLADIMIR— VLADIVOSTOK 169 300 ft. to 450 ft. below the general level, so that the country has a hilly appearance. The lacustrine depression of the middle Volga and Oka extends into the east of the government. The Upper Carboniferous lime- stones, of which it is mostly built up, are overlain by Permian sandstones towards the east, and patches of Jurassic clays — denuded remnants of formerly extensive deposits — are scattered over its surface. The whole is covered with a thick sheet of boulder clay, considered to be the bottom moraine of the North-European ice- sheet, and overlaid, in its turn, in the depressions, by extensive l.ii ustrine clays and sands. The geology, especially of the western parts, has been investigated by Professor Nikitin, who has ascer- tained that under the Glacial and post-Glacial deposits — the lower sirata of which contain remains of the mammoth and rhinoceros and the upper fossils of extensive prehistoric forests — occur Lower Mceous deposits and deposits intermediate between the Cre- taceous and the Jurassic (" Volga " deposits). Upper Jurassic (Kellaway and Oxford) and Upper Carboniferous deposits are also found, and at Gorbatov Permian marls. The soil is for the most part unfertile, save in the district of Yuriev, where are patches of black earth, which have occasioned a good deal of discussion among Russian geologist's. Iron ore is widely diffused, and china clay and gypsum are met with in several places. Peat is of common occurrence. Forests cover extensive tracts in the south-east. The climate resembles that of Moscow, but is a little colder, and still more continental : the average yearly temperature at the city of Vladimir is 38° F. (January, 16°; July, The Oka flows through the government for 85 m., and is navigable throughout. Of its tributaries, the Klyazma is navigable to Kovrov, and even to Vladimir in summer; and timber is floated on the Teza. Small lakes are numerous; that of Pleshcheyevo or Pereyaslavl (5 m. in length) has historical associations, Peter the Great having there acquired in his boyhood his first experiences in navigation. The marshes extend to more than half a million acres. The population was estimated in 1906 as 1,730,400. It is thoroughly Great Russian. The Finnish tribes, Muroma and Merya, which formerly inhabited the region, have been absorbed by the Slavs, as also have the Karelians, who are supposed to have formerly inhabited the territory. The descendants of the few hundred Kare- lian families, which were settled by Peter the Great on the shores : Lake Pereyaslavl, still, however, preserve their own language. The government is divided into thirteen districts, the chief towns of which are Vladimir, Alexandrov, Gorokhovets, Kovrov, Melenki, Murom, Pereyaslavl Zalyeskiy, Pokrov, Shuya, Sudogda, Suzdal, Vyazniki and Yuriev Pojskiy. Ivanovo- Voznesensk, Gusevsk and Kholui are important industrial towns. The zemsivos (district councils) make considerable efforts to foster education and improve the sanitary arrangements. The soil is not very fertile, and the standard of agriculture is low, the inhabitants being largely engaged in manufactures. In 1900 1,008^200 acres (15.8% of the entire area) were under cereals. Cherries and apples are exported in considerable quantities. The cultivation of flax, both for local manufactures and for export — especially about Melenki — is important; so also is that of hemp. Natural pastures are numerous, and support large herds )f cattle. The principal crops are rye, oats, wheat, barley and potatoes. The peasants hold 5,591,000 acres in communal owner- ship: of this 60% is arable land, 3,802,800 acres belong to private owners, 552,300 acres to the crown and 370,000 acres to the imperial family. The only important mineral is alabaster. Vladimir ranks third among the governments of European Russia for manufactures. It has some 500 large factories, which employ over 100,000 persons (one-third women); the principal establish- ments are cotton, linen and silk mills, dye-works, and rope, paper, cardboard, oil, chemical, machinery, glass and iron works, tanneries and distilleries. Wood, coal, petroleum and peat are all used as fuel. A distinctive feature of Vladimir is the great varietv of petty trades carried on by peasants who still continue to cultivate their allotments. While in some villages almost all the male population leave their homes and travel all over Russia as carpenters, masons, iron-roof makers, or as oedlars or travelling merchants, other villages nave their specialties in some branch of manufactured produce. Nearly 30,000 carpenters leave Vladimir every year. Whole illages are engaged in painting sacred pictures or ikons; and ilthough the ikons are sold at a shilling the hundred, the aggregate trade is valued at £150,000 a year; and the Vladimir (or rather buzdal) pictures are sold all over Russia and the Balkan peninsula In other villages some 1200 men are employed in making sickles, lives and locks. Wooden vessels, boxes and baskets, lapti (shoes made of lime-tree bark, which are worn in Great Russia and are xiuced by the million), wheels and sledges, sieves, combs, woollen ungs and gloves, sheep-skins and sheep-skin gloves, felt, toys, earthenware, and all kinds of woven fabrics, are specialties of other v! ages In these petty trades Vladimir occupies the first rank in ssia, the annual production being one-third of the total output for the whole country. • ' The movement of shipping on the Volga and its tributaries and sub-tnbutanes, the Oka, Klyazma and Teza, is considerable. The principal ports are Murom on the Volga and Kovrov and Vyazniki on the Klyazma. Timber, wood for fuel and manufactured goods are the chief exports. Numbers of Palaeolithic stone implements, intermingled with bones of the mammoth and the rhinoceros, and still greater numbers of Neolithic stone implements, have been discovered. There are a great number of burial-mounds belonging to the Bronze and Iron periods, and containing decorations in amber and gold; nearly 2000 such burial-mounds are scattered round Lake Pleshcheyevo, some of them belonging to the pagan period and some to the early Christian. Coins from Arabia, Bokhara, Germany and Anglo-Saxon lands are found in great quantities. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.) VLADIMIR, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name known in history as Vladimir-on-the-Klyazma, to distinguish it from Vladimir in Volhynia. It is picturesquely situated on the Klyazma and Lybed, 118 m. by rail E.N.E. of Moscow. Pop. (1884) 18,420; (1900) 32,029. The city is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek church. The Lybed divides it into two parts. Extensive cherry orchards occupy the surrounding slopes, and in each is a small watch-tower, with cords drawn in all directions to be shaken by the watcher when birds alight. The kreml stands on a hill and contains two very old cathedrals — the Uspenskiy (1150; restored in 1891), where all the princes of Vladimir have been buried, and the Dmitri- evskiy (1197; restored in 1834-1835). Several churches date from the 1 2th century, including one dedicated to the Birth of Christ, in which St Alexander Nevski was buried. The " Golden Gate " — a triumphal gate surmounted by a church — was built by the grand duke Andrei Bogolyubskiy in 1158. Vladimir was founded in the izth century. It first comes into notice in 1151, when Andrei Bogolyubskiy secretly left Vyshgorod — the domain of his father in the principality of Kiev —and migrated to the newly settled land of Suzdal, where he became (1157) grand prince of the principalities of Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov. In 1242 the principality was overrun by the Mongols under Batu Khan, and he and his successors asserted their suzerainty over it until 1328. During this period Vladimir became the chief town of the Russian settlements in the basin of the Oka, and it disputed the superiority with the new principality of Moscow, to which it finally succumbed in 1328. In the I4th century it began to decay. VLADIMIR-VOLHYNSKIY, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Volhynia, 19 m. N.N.E. of the spot where the frontiers of Russia, Poland and Galicia meet and 300 m. W.N.W. of Kiev. Pop. (1885) 8752; (1897) 9695, three-fourths Jews. Though not mentioned in the annals before 988, Vladimir was probably in existence in the 9th century under the name of Ladomir. In the icth century it was the capital of the princi- pality of Volhynia. The Tatars and the Lithuanians destroyed it several times, but it always recovered, and only fell into decay in the 1 7th century. It was finally annexed to Russia after the irst division of Poland (1772). The ruins in and near the town nclude remains of a church supposed to have been built by Vladimir, grand duke of Kiev, in the loth-nth centuries, and of another built in 1160 by his descendant Mstislav. This atter was apparently very well built, and its length exceeded that of the temple of St Sophia at Kiev. The town contains a good archaeological museum. VLADIVOSTOK, the chief Russian seaport and naval station on the Pacific Ocean, situated at the southern extremity '43° ?' N. and 131° 55' E.) of the Maritime Province, not far from :he point where that government touches both Manchuria and fCorea (Cho-sen). It is connected by rail with Khabarovsk [479 m. N.N.E.), the capital of the Amur region, and with Chita n Transbaikalia (1362 m.) via Ninguta, Kharbin, Tsitsikar and Khailar. Pep. (1000) 38,000. The town stands on Peter the Great Gulf, occupying the northern shore of one of its horn-like expansions, which the Russians have called the Golden Horn. The depth of the Eastern Bosporus ranges from 13 to 20 'athoms, and that of the Golden Horn from 5 to 13, the latter affording a spacious harbour. The hills are covered with forests of oak, lime, birch, maple, cork, walnut, acacia, ash, aspen, poplar, elm, apple, pear and wild cherry, with a rich undergrowth of the most varied shrubs. Excellent timber is supplied by 170 oak and cedar forests not far off. The climate, however, is severe, as compared with that of corresponding latitudes in Europe. Though standing in almost the same parallel as Marseilles, Vladivostok has an average annual temperature of only 40° F., and, although the gulf itself never freezes, a thin ice-crust forms along the shores in December and remains until April. The town has several handsome buildings, a monument to Admiral Nevelskiy (1897), a cathedral, a museum, an observa- tory, an Oriental institute (opened in 1890), professional schools, a naval hospital, mechanical and naval works, steam saw-mills and flour-mills. The drawback of Vladivostok is that it has not, and cannot have, a well-developed hinterland, despite the great efforts which have been made by the Russian government to supply the Usuri region (to the north of Vladivostok) with Russian settlers. The town of Vladivostok was founded in 1860-1861, and from 1865 to 1900 was a free port. VODENA (Turk, and Bulg. Voden, anc. Edessa, q.v.), a city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica, western Macedonia; at the source of the small river Bistritza, which flows east and south into Lake Yenije, and on the railway from Salonica to Monastir. Pop. (1905) about 25,000, con- sisting of Turks, Slavs and Greeks. The town stands on a rocky height commanding views of Pindus and Olympus; the approaching slopes are richly wooded, and traversed by picturesque waterfalls, from which the name of Vodena (Slav. voda, water) is probably derived. Vodena is the see of a Greek archbishop, and possesses numerous churches and mosques, besides unimportant remains of Roman and Byzantine build- ings. It has manufactures of cotton, tobacco and leather, and a large trade in wine, silk cocoons and red pepper. VODEYSHANKAR, GOWRISHANKAR (1805-1892), native minister of the state of Bhaunagar in Kathiawar, Bombay, was born on the 2ist of August 1805, of a family of Nagar Brahmins. He rose from being a revenue officer to be state minister in 1847. His success in this capacity was such that on the death of the reigning chief, in 1870, he was appointed joint administrator in concert with a British official. The experiment was in every respect successful. Under the simple and economical forms used in native states, improvements suggested by British experience were introduced. The land revenue was based on a cash system, the fiscal and customs systems were remodelled and tree planting was encouraged. The town of Bhaunagar received the great boon of the Gowri- shankar Waterworks, on which six lakhs of rupees were spent. The Bhaunagar state also warmly pressed for railway com- munication with the continent of India, and thus began a movement which has spread a network of railway lines over the peninsula of Kathiawar. The British government re- warded these many services of Gowrishankar with the distinc- tion of C.S.I, in 1877. He helped to establish the Rajkumar College at Rajkot, for the education of native princes, and also the Rajasthanik Court, which, after settling innumerable dis- putes between the land-owning classes and the chiefs, has since been abolished. In 1879 Gowrishankar resigned office, and devoted himself to the study of the higher literature of that Vedanta philosophy which through his whole life had been to him a solace and a guide. In 1884 he wrote a work called Svarupanu- sandhan, on the union of the soul with Deity, which led to a letter of warm congratulation from Max Miiller, who also published a short biography of him. In 1887 he put on the robe of the Sanyasi or ascetic, the fourth stage, according to the Hindu Shastras, in the life of the twice-born man, and in this manner passed the remainder of his life, giving above ten hours each day to Vedantic studies and holy contemplation. He died, revered by all classes, in December 1892. See Javerital U. Yajnik, Gowrishankar Udayashankar (Bombay, 1889). VODKA, VODKI or WODKY, the Russian national spirituous beverage. Originally vodka was made almost entirely from rye, barley malt to the extent of 15 to 20% being used to effect saccharification (see SPIRITS), but at the present day potatoes and maize are the staple raw materials from which VODENA— VOGEL, SIR J. this spirit is manufactured, and, as a rule, green rye malt is now used instead of barley. The distillation is conducted by means of live steam in a double still of the " patent " type. Vodka as manufactured contains from 90 to 96% of alcohol, but it is diluted, previous to retailing, to a strength of 60 to 40%. It is illegal to sell it with less than 40% of alcohol. VOETIUS (VOET), GYSBERTUS (1588-1676), Dutch theo- logian, was born at Heusden, Holland. He studied at Leiden, and in 1611 became pastor of Blymen, whence in 1617 he returned to Heusden. In 1619 he played an influential part in the Synod of Dort, and in 1634 was made professor of theology and Oriental science at Utrecht. Three years later he became pastor of the Utrecht congregation. He was an advocate of the extremest form of Calvinism against the Arminians; but his personal influence was good, and the city of Utrecht perpetuated his memory by giving his name to the street in which he had lived. VOGEL, EDUARD (1820-1856), German traveller in Central Africa, was born at Krefeld on the 7th of March 1829. He studied mathematics and astronomy at Leipzig and Berlin, and in 1851 engaged in astronomical work in London. In 1853 he was chosen by the British government to take supplies to Heinrich Earth, then in the western Sudan; and Vogel met Earth at Kuka in Bornu (1854). During 1854 and 1855 he explored the countries round Lake Chad and the upper course of the Benue. On the ist of December 1855 he left Kuka for the Nile Valley, and nothing further was heard of him. Several search expeditions were organized to ascertain his fate and to recover his papers; it was not until 1873 that Gustav Nachtigal on reaching Wadai learnt that Vogel had been murdered in that country in February 1856. See Erinnerungen an einen Verschollenen (Leipzig, 1863), by Vogel's sister, E. Polko, and Der Afrikaforschcr Eduard Vogel (Hamburg, 1889). VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899), British colonial statesman, son of Albert Leopold Vogel, was born in London on the 24th of February 1835, was educated at University College school, London, and emigrated to Victoria during the exciting years which followed the discovery of goldfields there. He became editor of a newspaper at Maryborough, stood for the Legislative Assembly and was defeated, and in 1861 left Victoria, carried in the mining rush to Otago, New Zealand, where much gold had just been found. Settling in Dunedin, he bought a half-share in the Olago Daily Times, and was soon its editor and a member of the Otago Provincial Council. He made his paper the most influential in the colony, and was returned to the House of Representatives. In 1866 he was head of the Otago Provincial Executive; by 1869 he had made his mark in the New Zealand parliament, and was treasurer in the ministry of Sir William Fox. Without delay he brought forward a scheme for the construction of trunk railways and other public works, the purchase of land from the Maori tribes, and the introduction of immigrants, all to be done with money borrowed in London. At that time New Zealand hardly contained a quarter of a million of white settlers, was exhausted by the ten years' struggle with the Maori, not then ended, and was depressed by the low price of her staple product, wool, and the abatement of a gold-fever. Yet Vogel's sanguine, energetic appeals and remarkable gift of persuasion induced the House of Assembly to adopt a modified version of his scheme. For the next six years he was the most powerful man in the colony. Millions were borrowed, railways were pushed on, immigrants — state and voluntary — streamed in. Lasting peace was made with the Maori, a telegraph line laid to Australia, a steam mail service secured across the Pacific to San Francisco; a government life insurance office, and a public trust office, were established, both of which proved useful and were well-managed. During a visit to London on the colony's financial business, Vogel succeeded in arranging for the in- scription.of colonial loans at the Bank of England, an arrange- ment afterwards confirmed by the imperial parliament. In 1875 he was knighted. VOGHERA— VOGLER 171 In 1874 Vogel, until that time a supporter of the Provincial system, decided to abolish it. In this, with the aid of Sir E. W. :.>r.l and Sir H. A. Atkinson, he succeeded. In the struggle, however, he broke with many of his old allies, and in 1876 sud- denly quitted New Zealand to take the post of agent-general in London. This he held until 1880, and while holding it nego- tiated a loan for five millions. Having become connected with certain public companies, and the New Zealand government objecting thereto, he had to resign his position. An attempt, tot), which he made in 1880 to enter the House of Commons as orvative member for Penryn was unsuccessful. In 1884 he returned to New Zealand, was at once elected to parliament, and formed a coalition ministry with the Radical leader, Sir R. Stout. They held office for three years, but though Vogel showed some of his old financial skill, they were not years of prosperity for the colony, or triumph for the government. A deficit, a rejected scheme of taxation and a crushing defeat at the polls ended Vogel's career as a minister. After a few months of failure as leader of an outnumbered Opposition he gave up the contest, left New Zealand for the last time, and for the last eleven years of his life lived quietly near London. Throughout his life he had from time to time to struggle with deafness, lameness and acute bodily pain, while an impul- sive, speculative nature led him once and again into financial difficulties. The persistency with which he faced trouble and embarrassment, the hopefulness he showed under stress of ill fortune, the sympathy and pleasantness of manner which won him friends at all times, were elements in his curious and interesting character no less remarkable than the fertility and imaginative power of his busy brain. Vogel was among the pioneers of Imperial Federation; he would have extended Great Britain's influence in the Pacific Ocean had he been allowed. He was the first minister to secure the second reading of a Women's Franchise Bill in New Zealand. As long ago as 1874 he endeavoured to save the New Zealand forests from the reckless destruction by axe and ure which has since gone on. In 1889 a novel from his pen, Anno Domini 2000, was published, and reached a second edition. He died at East Molesey on the I3th of March 1899. His wife, who was the daughter of William Clayton, government architect, New Zealand, two sons and a daughter survived him. Another son had been killed in the Matabele War in South Africa. Vogel was a Jew of the Ashkenazi rite. (W. P. R.) VOGHERA (anc. Iria), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Pavia, and 19 m. by rail S.S.W. of that city, 305 ft. above sea-level, on the Staffora (a tributary of the Po). Pop. (1901) 14,453 (town); 20,442 (commune). The fortifications erected by the Visconti in the middle ages have given place to shady promenades. The large church of San Lorenzo dates from the nth century, but was remodelled in the baroque style about the beginning of the i7th. The suppressed church of S. Ilario (Chiesa Rossa), so called from the red colour of the brick of which it is built, dates from the loth century. The neighbourhood produces much silk, in which, as well as in corn and wine, an active trade is carried on. The ancient Iria took its name from the river on which it was situated. It was on the road from Placentia to Dertona, and was made a colony by Augustus (colonia Forum lulium Iriensium). VOGLER, GEORG JOSEPH (1740-1814), usually known as Abbe or Abt (Abbot) Vogler, German organist and composer, was born at Pleichach in Wiirzburg on the isth of June 1749. His father, a violin maker, while educating him in the Jesuit college, encouraged his musical talent, which was so marked that at ten years old he could not only play the organ well, but had also acquired a fair command of the violin and some other instruments. In 1771 he went to Mannheim, where he com- posed a ballet for the elector Karl Theodor, who sent him to Bologna in 1774 to study under the Padre Martini. Dis- satisfied with the method of that learned theorist, he studied for five months under Valotti at Padua, and afterwards pro- ceeded to Rome, where, having been oidained priest, he was admitted to the famous academy of Arcadia, made a knight of the Golden Spur, and appointed protonotary and chamberlain to the pope. On his return to Mannheim in 1755 Vogler was appointed court chaplain and second " maestro di cappella." He now established bis first great music school. His pupils were devoted to him, but he made innumerable enemies, for the principles upon which he taught were opposed to those of all other teachers. He had invented a new system of fingering for the harpsichord, a new form of construction for the organ, and a new system of musical theory founded upon that of Valotti. Mozart condemned the fingering as " miserable," and many rumours to his discredit have survived to this day owing to Mozart's share in the prejudice felt against him. The proposed change in the construction of the organ consisted in simplifying the mechanism, introducing free-reeds in place of ordinary reed-stops, and substituting unisonous stops for the great " mixtures " then in vogue. The theoretical system, though professedly based upon Valotti's principles, was to a great extent empirical. Nevertheless, in virtue of a certain substratum of truth which seems to have underlain his new theories, Vogler undoubtedly exercised a powerful influence over the progress of musical science, and numbered among his disciples some of the greatest geniuses of the period. In 1778 the elector removed his court to Munich. Vogler followed him thither in 1780, but, dissatisfied with the reception accorded to his dramatic compositions, soon quitted his post. He went to Paris, where after much hostility his new system was recognized as a continuation of that started by Rameau. His organ concerts in the church of St Sulpice attracted con- siderable attention. At the request of the queen, he composed the opera Le Patriolisme, which was produced before the court at Versailles. His travels were wide, and extended over Spain, Greece, Armenia, remote districts of Asia and Africa, and even Greenland, in search of uncorrupted forms of national melody. In 1786 he was appointed " kapellmeister " to the king of Sweden, founded his second music school at Stockholm, and attained extraordinary celebrity by his performances on an instrument called the " orchestrion " — a species of organ in- vented by himself.1 In 1700 he brought this instrument to London, and performed upon it with great effect at the Pantheon, for the concert-room of which he also constructed an organ upon his own principles. The abbe's pedal-playing excited great attention. His most popular pieces were a fugue on themes from the " Hallelujah Chorus," composed after a visit to the Handel festival at Westminster Abbey, and A Musical Picture for the Organ, by Knecht, containing the imitation of a storm. From London Vogler proceeded to Rotterdam and the chief towns on the Rhine. At Esslingen he was presented with the " wine of honour," reserved for the use of sovereigns. At Frankfort he attended the coronation of the emperor Leopold II. He then visited Stockholm, and after a long residence there, interrupted by endless wanderings, once more established himself in Germany, where his compositions, both sacred and dramatic, received at last full credit. We hear of him at Berlin in 1800, at Vienna in 1804 and at Munich in 1806. While at Frankfort in 1807 he received an invitation from Louis I., grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, offering him the appointment of " kapellmeister," with the order of merit, the title of privy councillor, a salary of 3000 florins, a house, a table supplied from the duke's own kitchen, and other privileges,which deter- mined him to bring his wanderings at last to a close. At Darmstadt he opened his third and most famous music school, the chief ornaments of which were Gansbacher, Weber and Meyerbeer, whose affection for their old master was un- bounded. One of Vogler's latest exploits was a journey to Frankfort in 1810, to witness the production of Weber's Syltana. He continued to work hard to the last, and died suddenly of apoplexy at Darmstadt on the 6th of May 1814. He was a 1 Robert Browning's poem on " Abt Vogler extemporizing on an instrument of his own invention " has made his name familiar to the literary public. 172 VOGT— VOICE briDiant and accomplished performer, and an excellent if an eccentric teacher; but his own compositions have not survived. VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817-1895), German naturalist and geologist, was born at Giessen on the sth of July 1817. In 1847 he became professor of zoology at Giessen, and in 1852 professor of geology and afterwards also of zoology at Geneva, where he died on the sth of May 1895. His earlier publications were on zoology; he dealt with the Amphibia (1839), Reptiles (1840), with Mollusca and Crustacea (1845) and more generally with the invertebrate fauna of the Mediterranean (1854). His separate works include Im Gebirg und auf den Gletschern (1843); Physiologische Brief e (1845-46); Grundriss der Geologic (1860); and Lehrbuch der Geologic und Petrefactenkunde (2 vols., 1846-47; ed. 4, 1879). An English version of his Lectures on Man: his Place in Creation and in the History of the Earth was published by the Anthropological Society of London in 1864. VOGTLAND, or VOIGTLAND, a district of Germany, forming the S.W. corner of the kingdom of Saxony, and also embracing parts of the principality of Reuss and of the duchies of Saxe- Altenburg and Saxe-Weimar. It is bounded on the N. by the principalities of Reuss, in the S.E. by Bohemia, and on the S.W. and W. by Bavaria. Its character is generally mountain- ous, and geologically it belongs to the Erzgebirge range. It is extremely rich in mineral ores — silver, copper, lead and bismuth. The name denoted the country governed for the emperor by a Vogt (bailiff or steward), and was, in the middle ages, known as terra advocatorum. The Vogte are first met with in the country in the zoth century, and the office shortly afterwards appears to have become hereditary in the princely line of Reuss. But this house was not in undivided possession, rival claims being raised from time to time; and after being during the middle ages a bone of contention between Bohemia, the burgraves of Nuremberg and the Saxon house of Wettin, it passed gradually to the Wettins, falling by the division of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the family. The elector Augustus I. made it one of the circles of his dominions. See Limmer, Geschichte des Vogtlandes (Gera, 1825-28, 4 vols.) ; Simon, Das Vogtland (Meissen, 1904) ; C. F. Collmann, Das Vogtland im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892) ; and Metzner, Vogtldndische Wanderungen (Anriaberg, 1902). VOGU6, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- ), French author, was born at Nice on the 25th of February 1848. He served in the campaign of 1870, and on the conclusion of the war entered the diplomatic service, being appointed suc- cessively attache to the legations at Constantinople and Cairo and secretary at St Petersburg. He resigned in 1882, and from 1893 to 1898 was deputy for Ardeche. His connexion with the Revue des deux mondes began in 1873 with his Voyage en Syrie et en Palestine, and subsequently he was a frequent contributor. He did much to awaken French interest in the intellectual life of other countries, especially of Russia, his sympathy with which was strengthened by his marriage in 1878 with a Russian lady, the sister of General Annenkov. De Vogue was practically the first to draw French attention to Dostoievski and his successors. He became a member of the French Academy in 1888. His works include: Histoires orientales (1879); Portraits du siecle (1883) ; Le Fils de Pierre le Grand (1884) ; Histoires d'hiver (1885); Le Roman russe (1886); Regards historiques et litteraires (1892); C&urs russes (1894); Devant le siecle (1896); Jean d'Agreve (1898); Le Rappel des ombres (1900); Le Maitre de la mer (1903); Maxime Gorky (1905). VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox), the sound produced by the vibrations of the vocal cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous elastic tissue situated in the larynx. It is to be distinguished from speech, which is the production of articulate sounds intended to express ideas. Many of the lower animals have voice, but none has the power of speech in the sense in which man possesses that faculty. There may be speech without voice, as in whispering, whilst in singing a scale of musical tones we have voice without speech. (See SONG; and for speech see PHONETICS; also the articles on the various letters of the alphabet.) i. Physiological Anatomy. — The organ of voice, the larynx, is situated in man in the upper and fore part of the neck, where it forms a well-known prominence in the middle line (see details under RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). It opens below into the trachea or windpipe, and above into the cavity of the pharynx, and it consists of a framework of cartilages, connected by elastic membranes or ligaments, two of which constitute the true vocal cords. These cartilages are movable on each other by the action of various muscles, which thus regulate the position and the tension of the vocal cords. The trachea conveys the blast of air from the lungs during expiration, and the whole apparatus may be compared to an acoustical contrivance in which the lungs represent the wind chest and the trachea the tube passing from the wind chest to the sounding body con- tained in the larynx. Suppose two tight bands of any elastic membrane, such as thin sheet india-rubber, stretched over the end of a wide glass tube so that the margins of the bands touched each other, and that a powerful blast of air is driven through the tube by a bellows. The pressure would so distend the margins of the membrane as to open the aperture and allow the air to escape; this would cause a fall of pressure, and the edges of the membrane would spring back by their elasticity to their former position; again the pressure would increase, and again the edges of the membrane would be dis- tended, and those actions would be so quickly repeated as to cause the edges of the membrane to vibrate with sufficient rapidity to produce a musical tone, the pitch of which would depend on the number of vibrations executed in a second of time. In other words, there would be a rapid succession of puffs of air. The condensation and rarefaction of the air thus produced are the chief cause of the tone, as H. von Helmholtz has pointed out, and in this way the larynx resembles the siren in its mode of producing tone. It is evident also that the intensity or loudness of the tone would be determined by the amplitude of the vibrations of the margins of the membrane, and that its pitch would be affected by any arrangements effecting an increase or decrease of the tension of the margins of the membrane. The pitch might also be raised by the strength of the current of air, because the great amplitude of the vibrations would increase the mean tension of the elastic membrane. With tones of medium pitch, the pressure of the air in the trachea is equal to that of a column of mercury of FIG. i. FIG. 2. FIG. i. — Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx, seen from the front; half natural size, i, epiglottis; 2, hyoid bone; 3, small cornu of hyoid bone; 4, middle thyro-hyoid ligament; 5, great cornu of hyoid bone; 6, small nodules of cartilage (cartilago triticea) ; 7, the lateral thyro-hyoid ligament ; 8, left lamina or wing of thyroid cartilage; 9, cricoid cartilage; 10, lower cornu of thyroid cartilage; n, part of cricoid united to the thyroid by the middle cricc-thyroid ligament; 12, second ring of trachea. (From Krause.) FIG. 2. — Cartilages and Ligament of Larynx, seen from behind; half natural size. I, epiglottis; 2, lesser cornu of hyoid bone> 3, greater cornu of hyoid ; 4, lateral thyro-hyoid ligament ; 5, car- tilago triticea; 6, upper cornu of thyroid; 7, thyro-epiglottic liga- ment; 8, cartilages of Santorini; 9, arytenoid cartilages; 10, left lamina of thyroid; n, muscular process of arytenoid cartilage; 12, inferior cornu of thyroid ; 13, first ring of trachea ; 14, posterior membranous wall of trachea; 15, lamina of cricoid cartilage. (From Krause.) 160 mm.; with high pitch, 020 mm.; and with notes of very high pitch, 945 mm.; whilst in whispering it may fall as low VOICE 173 14 as that represented by 30 mm. of water. Such is a general conception of the mechanism of voice. The cartilages form the framework of the larynx. They consist of three single pieces (the thyroid, the cricoid and the cartilage of the epiglottis) and of three pairs (two arytenoids, two cornicula laryngis or cartilages of Santorini, and two cunei- form cartilages or cartilages of Wris- berg), see figs. I and 2. The epiglottis, the cornicula laryngis, the cuneiform cartilages and the apices of the aryten- oids are composed of yellow or elastic fibro-cartilage, whilst the cartilage of all the others is of the hyaline variety, resembling that of the costal or rib cartilages. These cartilages are bound together by ligaments, some of which are seen in figs. I and 2, whilst the re- mainder are represented in fig. 3. The ligaments specially concerned in the pro- duction of voice are the inferior thyro- arytenoid ligaments, or true vocal cords. These are composed of fine elastic fibres attached behind to the anterior pro- jection of the base of the arytenoid D- u» «-,if ~f »u^ cartilages, processus vocalis, 3 in fig. 3, FIG. 3.-Right Half of the d .*{^r the mid(jle Of the ,e Larynx from a vertical n the wings or laminae of the age, 5. capsuar ^tween the edges of the true vocal • SSSJ cords, the rima glottidis. Immediately latera crico-thyroid above the true £vocal cords> ^^ fh -I' ,P°s1sn^ these and the false vocal cords, there crico-thyroid ligament; . h ;d recesg of h ! inferior thyro-aryten- termed the venMe Q{ UoTS^and 1 ligament, or true ; from e&ch ventricle there is a voca cord; 9, thyroid K ^ „ h l ^ pouch SUP' t»n A ' r, thvr« II, thyro-ary- epiglottideus Mch passes for the space of half an inch between the superior vocal cords in- side and the tb^oid cartilage outside, * the * border of " reac as muscle; h * ., * Y ' g^ttis. The ventricles no doubt permit P" a free vibration of the true vocal cords. yofbone; e u?Per a.perture of the glottis is f, ?! triangular, wide in front and narrow smaller cornu of hyoid behilfd a'nd, when seen from above by bone. (From Krause.) means of {he laryngoscope| it presents the view represented in fig. 4. The aperture is bounded in front by the epiglottis, e, behind by the summits of the arytenoid carti- lages, or, and on the sides by two folds of mucous membrane, the aryteno-epiglottic folds, ae. The rounded elevations corresponding to the cornicula laryngis and cunei- form cartilages, c, and also the cushion of the epiglottis, e, are readily seen in the laryngoscopic picture. The glottis, o, is seen in the form of a long narrow fissure, bounded by the true vocal cords, ti, whilst above them we have the false vocal cords, ts, and between the true and false cords the opening of the ventricle, v. FIG. 4.— Laryngoscopic View The rima glottidis, between the true of the Glottis. /, tongue; vocal cords, in the adult male mea- e, epiglottis ; *e, pharyngo- sures about 23 mm., or nearly an epiglottic fold; g, pha- inch from before backwards, and ryngo-laryngeal groove; from 6 to 12 mm. across its widest o«, aryteno-epiglottic fold; part, according to the degree of c, cuneiform cartilage, or dilatation. In females and in males cartilage of Wrisberg; before puberty the antero-posterior or, arytenoid cartilage; diameter is about 17 mm. and its r, inter-arytenoid fold; transverse diameter about 4 mm. o, glottis; v, ventricle ; The vocal cords of the adult male ti, inferior or true vocal are in length about 15 mm., and cord; ts, superior or false Of the adult female about u mm. vocal cord. (FromMandl.) The larynx is lined with a layer of epithelium, which is closely adherent to underlying structures, more especially over the true vocal cords. The cells of the epithelium, in the greater portion of the larynx, are of the columnar ciliated variety, and by the vibratory action of the cilia mucus is driven upwards, but over the true vocal cords the epithelium is squamous. Patches of squamous epithelium are also found in the ciliated tract above the glottis, on the under surface of the epiglottis, on the inner surface of the arytenoid cartilages, and on the free border of the upper or false cords. Numerous mucous glands exist in the lining membrane of the larynx, more especially in the epiglottis. In each laryngeal pouch there are sixty to seventy such glands, surrounded by fat. We are now in a position to understand the action of the muscles of the larynx by which the vocal cords, forming the rima glottidis, can be tightened or relaxed, and by which they can be approximated or separated. Besides certain extrinsic muscles — sterno-hyoid, omohyoid, sterno-thyroid and thyro-hyoid — which move the larynx as a whole, there are intrinsic muscles which move the cartilages on each other. Some of these are seen in fig. 5. These muscles are (a) the crico-thyroid, (6) the pos-jj ; terior crico-arytenoid, (c) the lateral I crico-arytenoid, (d) the thyro-arytenoid, M V (e) the arytenoid, and (f) the aryteno- epiglottidean. Their actions will be' readily understood with the aid of thejj ^ diagrams in fig. 6. (i) The crico-thyroid is a short thick triangular muscle, its 11- fibres passing from the cricoid cartilage obliquely upwards and outwards to be inserted into the lower border of the \ thyroid cartilage and to the outer ... . f , . , border of its lower horn. When the FIG. S.-Musclesof the left muscle contracts, the cricoid and thy- ?lde of.t.he larynx, seen roid cartilages are approximated. In this action, however, it is not the thy- roid that is depressed on the cricoid, as is generally stated, but, the thyroid being fixed in position by the action of the extrinsic muscles, the anterior border of the cricoid is drawn upwards, whilst its posterior border, in conse- quence of a revolution around the axis uniting the articulations between the lower cornua of the cricoid and the thyroid, is depressed, carrying the ary- tenoid cartilages along with it. Thus the vocal cords are stretched. (2) The thyro-arytenoid has been divided by anatomists into two parts — one, the internal, lying close to the true vocal cord, and the other, external, imme- diately within the ala of the thyroid cartilage. Many of the fibres of the anterior portion pass from the thyroid cartilage with a slight curve (concavity inwards) to the processus vocalis at the base of the arytenoid cartilage. They are thus parallel with the true vocal cord, and when they contract the ary- tenoids are drawn forwards, carrying with them the posterior part of the cncoid and relaxing the vocal cords. Thus the thyro-arytenoids are the antagonists of the crico- thyroids. K. F. W. Ludwig has pointed out that certain fibres (portio- ary-vocalis) arise from the side of the cord itself and pass obliquely back to the processus vocalis. These will tighten the parts of the cord in front and relax the parts behind their points of attachment. Some of the fibres of the outer portion run obliquely upwards from the side of the crico-thyroid membrane, pass through the antero-posterior fibres of the inner portion of the muscle, and finally end in the tissue of the false cord. These fibres have been supposed to render the edge of the cord more prominent. Other fibres inserted into the processus vocalis will rotate slightly the arytenoid outwards, whilst a few passing up into the aryteno-epiglottidean folds may assist in depressing the epiglottis (Quain).1 (3) The posterior and lateral crico-arytenotd muscles have antagonistic actions, and may be con- sidered together. The posterior arise from the posterior surface of the cricoid cartilage, and passing upwards and outwards are attached to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid. On the other hand, the lateral arise from the upper border of the cricoid as far back as the articular surface for the arytenoid, pass backwards and upwards, and are also inserted into the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid before the attachment of the posterior crico-arytenoid. Imagine the pyramidal form of the arytenoid cartilages. To the inner angle of the triangular base are attached, as already described, the true vocal cords; and to the outer angle the two muscles in question. The posterior crico-arytenoids draw the outer angles backwards and inwards, thus rotating the inner angles, or processus _ vocalis, out- wards, and, when the two muscles act, widening the rima glottidis. This action is opposed by the lateral crico-thyroids, which draw the outer angle forwards and outwards, rotate the inner angles inwards, from within ; two-thirds natural size. i,hyo-epi- glottic Hgament, seen _in profile; 2, epiglottis; 3, aryteno - epiglottic muscle; 4, Santorini 's cartilage; 5, oblique ary- tenoid muscle; 6, trans- verse arytenoid muscle, seen in profile; 7, pos- terior crico - arytenoid ; 8, lateral crico-arytenoid ; 9, lower cornu of thyroid cartilage cut through ; 10, insertion of posterior portion of crico-thyroid muscle; II, left lamina of thyroid cartilage cut through; iz.longthyro- epiglottic muscle (a var- iety) ; 13, inferior thyro- arytenoid ; 14, thyro- epiglottic ; I5,su perior thyrp - arytenoid; 1 6, median thyro-hyoid liga- ment. (From Krause.) VOICE and thus approximate the cords. (4) The arytenoids pass from the one arytenoid cartilage to the other, and in action these cartilages will be approximated and slightly depressed. (5) The aryteno-epi- elottidean muscles arise near the outer angles of the arytenoid ; their fibres pass obliquely upwards, decussate and are inserted partly into FIG. 6. — Diagrams explaining the action of the muscles of the larynx. The dotted lines show the positions taken by the cartilages and the true vocal cords by the action of the muscle, and the arrows show the general direction in which the muscular fibres act. A, Action of crico-thyroid : I, cricoid cartilage; 2, arytenoid cartilage; 3, thyroid cartilage; 4, true vocal cord; 5, thyroid cartilage, new position ; 6, true vocal cord, new position. B, Action of arytenoid : 1, section of thyroid; 2, arytenoid; 3, posterior border of epi- glottis; 4, true vocal cord; 5, direction of muscular fibres; 6, arytenoid, new position; 7, true vocal cord, new position. C, Action of lateral crico-arytenoid; same description as for A and B ; 8, posterior border of epiglottis, new position ; 9, arytenoid in new position. D, Action of posterior crico-arytenoid; same description. (From Beaunis and Bouchard.) the outer and upper border of the opposite cartilage, partly into the aryteno-epiglottic fold, and partly join the fibres of the thyro- arytenoids. In action they assist in bringing the arytenoids together, whilst they also draw down the epiglottis, and constrict the upper aperture of the larynx. The vocal cords will be also relaxed by the elasticity of the parts. 2. Physiology of Voice Production. — The vocal cords are tightened by the action of the crico-thyroid, or, as it might Muscular be more appropriately termed, the thyro-cricoid mechau- muscle. It stretches the thyro-arytenoid ligaments, Isms. tne free e(jges Of which, covered by mucous membrane, form the vocal cords. The adductors of the cords are the lateral crico-arytenoids, while the posterior crico-arytenoids are the abductors. The arytenoid muscle brings the cords together. Many of the fibres of the thyro-arytenoid are inserted obliquely into the sides of the cord, and in contraction they tighten the cord by pulling on the edge and making it curved instead of straight. Some such action is indicated by the elliptical shape of the rima glottidis in passing from the chest register to the middle register. Other fibres, however, running parallel with the cord may tend to relax it in certain circum- stances. All the muscles except the thyro-cricoid (which is innervated by the superior laryngeal) receive nerve filaments from the inferior laryngeal branch of the vagus, the fibres being derived from the accessory roots. Both the abductor and adductor nerves come therefore from the inferior laryngeal. When an animal is deeply anaesthetized stimulation of the inferior laryngeal nerve causes abduction of the cord, but if the anaesthesia is slight, then we have adduction. The tonic contraction of the abductors is stronger than that of the adductors, so in a state of rest the glottis is slightly open. The centre of innervation is in the medulla oblongata, and this is dominated by a centre in' the Rolandic region of the cerebral cortex. The intensity or loudness of voice depends on the amplitude General physio- logical char- acters. of the movement of the vocal cords. Pitch depends on the number of vibrations per second; and the length, size and degree of tension of the cords will determine the number of vibrations. The more tense the cords the higher the pitch, and the greater the length of the cords the lower will be the pitch. The range of the human voice is about three octaves— that is, from fai (87 vibrations per second) to soU (768 vibra- tions). In men, by the development of the larynx, the cords become more elongated than in women, in the ratio of 3 to 2, so that the male voice is of lower pitch and is usually stronger. At the age of puberty the larynx grows rapidly, and the voice of a boy " breaks " in consequence of the lengthening of the cords, generally falling an octave in pitch. A similar change, but very much less in amount, occurs at the same period in the female. At puberty in the female there is an increase of about one-third in the size of the glottis, but it is nearly doubled in the male, and the adult male larynx is about one-third greater than that of the female. In advanced life the upper notes of the register are gradually weakened and ultimately disappear, whilst the character of the voice also changes, owing to loss of elasticity caused by ossification, which first begins about middle life in the thyroid cartilage, then appears in the cricoid, and much later in the arytenoid. Eunuchs retain the voices of childhood; and by careful train- ing it is possible in normal persons to arrest the development of the larynx so that an adult male can still sing the soprano parts sometimes used in cathedral choirs. The ranges of the different varieties of voice are shown in the following diagram, where the dotted lines give the range of certain remarkable voices, and the figures represent vibrations per second, taking the middle C of the piano as 256 vibrations per second. 2048. Upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari. do, sit lat soU fat 1365. Upper note of Nilsson in // Flauto Ifagico. mit ret sii la, sob fa. mil ri'i dot sii la> sob fa, mil rej dot sb la, so It fa. mii rei doi sii lai soli fai mil rei doi si— i la-i sol— i fa-i mi— i re-i do— i 1152. Ajugari trilled on this note. 1024. 768. 640. 512. 435- 341- 288. piano. 256. Mid C in 240. 192. 128. 106. 87. Tenor. Baritone. Contralto. Sessi, 3! octaves. _ Soprano. Mezzo-soprano. Ajugari. Farinelli, 3! octaves. 64. 4-'- Gaspard Forster, 3 octaves. 32. Beginning of musical tone. A basso named Gaspard Forster passed from fa_i to las; the younger of the sisters Sessi had a contralto voice from do2 to fas; the voice of Catalan! ranged three and a half octaves; a eunuch singer, Farinelli, passed from lai to res; Nilsson, in 11 Flauto Magico, could take fa5; and Mozart states that he heard in Parma in 1770 a singer, Lucrezia Ajugari, range from soh to doe, which she gave purely, whilst she could execute trills on res. The latter is the most highly pitched voice referred to in musical literature, an octave and a half above the highest ordinary soprano. It will be observed that the lowest note of Gaspard Forster's voice is not much above the pitch at which VOICE the perception of musical tone begins, and that from this note to the upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari there is a range of nearly six octaves, whilst the extreme range of ordinary voices, from the lowest bass to the highest soprano, is a little over three octaves. It is also interesting to observe that the range of the human ear for the perception of musical tone is from do_i to do10, or from about 32 to 33,768 vibrations per second- eleven octaves. 3. The Voice Registers. — The voice has been divided by writers into three registers — the lower or chest, the middle and the small or head register. In singing, the voice changes in volume and in quality in passing from one register into another. There is remarkable diversity of opinion as to what happens in the larynx in passing through the various registers. There has also been much discussion as to the production of falsetto tones. Lehfeldt and Johannes Miiller held that a weak blast of air caused only a portion of the cords, as regarls length, to vibrate; M. J. Ortel noticed that when a falsetto tone is produced nodal lines are formed in the cords parallel to their edges, an observation supporting the first contention; M. Garcia was of opinion that as the voice rose in pitch into falsetto only the ligamentous edges of the cords vibrated; and W. R. E. Hodgkinson showed, by dusting finely powdered indigo into the larynx and observing the blue specks with the laryngoscope, that " in the deeper note of the lower register the vibrating margin extended from the thyroid carti- lage in front to a point behind the junction of the ligamentous and cartilaginous portions of the cord." In singing falsetto tones these additional parts are not thrown into action. Some remarkable and instructive photographs obtained by French show that in proceeding from the lowest to the highest notes of the lower register the cords became lengthened by one-eighth of an inch in a contralto singer's larynx; the same singer, in passing into the middle register, showed a shortening of the cords by one-sixteenth of an inch, and another increase in length when the upper part of the middle register was reached. 4. Condition of the Larynx in the Various Registers. — In singing, one can readily observe that the tone may appear to come chiefly from the chest, from the throat or from the head, or it may show the peculiar quality of tone termed falsetto. Authorities differ much in the nomenclature applied to these varieties of the voice. Thus the old Italian music masters spoke of the voce di petto, voce di gola and voce di testa. Madame Seiler describes five conditions, viz. the first series of tones of the chest register, the second series of tones of the chest register, the first series of tones of the falsetto register, the second series of tones of the falsetto register, and the head register. French writers usually refer to two registers only, the chest and the head; whilst Behnke gives three registers for male voices (lower thick, upper thick and upper thin) and five for the voices of women and children (lower thick, upper thick, lower thin, upper thin and small). These distinctions are of more import- ance practically than as implying any marked physiological differences in the mechanism of the larynx during the pro- duction of the tones in the different registers. By means of the laryngoscope it is possible to see the condition of the rima glottidis and the cords in passing through all the range of the voice. In 1807 Bozzini first showed that it was possible to see into the dark cavities of the body by illumining them with a mirror, and in 1829 W. Babington first saw the glottis in this way. In 1854 Garcia investigated his own larynx and that of other singers, and three years later Tiirck, and especially J. N. Czermak, perfected the construction of the laryngoscope. In 1883 Lennox Browne and Emil Behnke obtained photographs of the glottis in the living man. The laryngoscope is a small mirror, about the diameter of a shilling, fixed to the end of a long handle at an angle of 125° to 130°. This mirror is gently pushed towards the back of the throat, and if sufficient light be thrown into the mouth from a lamp, and if the eye of the observer be in the proper position, by angling the small mirror it is not difficult to get a view of the glottis. The light from the lamp is reflected by the mirror down on the glottis; from this it is reflected back to the mirror, and then by the mirror it is finally reflected to the eye of the observer. Usually the observer has in front of his eye a mirror by which a powerful beam of light can be thrown from a lamp into the mouth and throat. In the centre of the mirror there is a small hole through which the eye of the observer sees the image in the small mirror at the back of the throat. By placing a second plane mirror in front of the face, an observer can easily study the mechanism of his own larynx. Suppose the picture of the larynx to be examined in the small mirror at the back of the throat, an image will be seen as in fig. 4. During calm breathing, the glottis is lance-shaped, between the yellowish white cords. A deep inspiration causes the glottis to open widely, and in favourable circumstances one may look into the trachea. When a sound is to be made, the vocal cords are brought close together, either along their whole length, as in fig. 7, or only along the ligamentous portion, the space between the arytenoids being still open, as in fig. 8. Then when the sound begins the rap ',. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 7. — Arrangement of Glottis previous to Emission of a Sound. b, epiglottis; rs, false cord; n, true vocal cord; or, arytenoid cartilages. (From Mandl.) FIG. 8.— Closure of the Ligamentous Portion of Glottis. b, epiglottis : rs, false cord; ri, true vocal cord; or, space between arytenoids: ar, arytenoid cartilages; c, cuneiform cartilages; rap, ary-epiglottic fold ; «>, inter-arytenoid fold. (From Mandl.) glottis opens (fig. 4), the form of the opening influencing the kind of voice, whilst the degree of tension of the cords will determine the pitch. During inspiration the edges of the true vocal cords may occa- sionally be close together, as in sobbing, and during inspiration the false cords are easily separated, even when they touch, and during expiration, owing to dilatation of the ventricles, they come together and may readily close. Thus, from the plane of the cords, the true cords are most easily closed during inspiration and the false cords during expiration. J. Wyllie clearly showed in 1865 that thi- false vocal cords play the chief part in closure of the glottis during expiration. Lauder Brunton and Cash have confirmed J. Wyllie's results, and have shown further that the function of the false cords is to close the glottis and thus fix the thorax for muscular effort. During the production of the chest voice, the space between the arytenoid cartilages is open, and between the vocal cords there is an ellipsoidal opening which gradually closes as the pitch of the sound rises (see figs. 9, 10, n). During head voice, the opening between FIG. 9. FIG. 10. FIG. 9. — Chest yoice, Deep Tone, b, epiglottis; or, glottis; rs, false vocal cord; ri, true vocal ccrd; rap, ary-epiglottidean fold; ar, arytenoid cartilages. (From Mandl.) FIG. 10.— Chest Voice, Medium Tone. orJ, ligamentous portion of glottis; ore, portion of glottis between arytenoids; remaining description as in fig. 7. (From Mandl.) the arytenoids is completely closed ; the portion between the vocal cords is open, but in place of being almost a narrow straight slit as in chest voice, it is wide open so as to allow an escape of more air (see fig. 12). Paralysis of the motor fibres causes aphonia, or loss of voice. If one cord is paralysed the voice may be lost or become falsetto in tone. Sometimes the cords may move in breathing or during coughing, but be motionless during an attempt at the pro- duction of voice. Rarely, incomplete unilateral paralysis of the recurrent nerve, or the existence of a tumour on each cord, thus making them unequal in length, may cause a double tone, or diphthongta. Hoarseness is caused by roughness or swelling of the cords. 5. The quality of the human voice depends on the same laws that determine the quality, clang-tint or timbre of the tones produced by any musical instrument. Musical tones are formed by the vibrations of the true vocal cords. These tones may be either pure or mixed, and in both cases they are iy6 VOICE strengthened by the resonance of the air in the air-passages and in the pharyngeal and oral cavities. If mixed — that is, FIG. n. FIG. 12. FIG. II. — Chest Voice, High Tone. Description same as for figs. 7 and 8. (From Mandl.) FIG. 12. — Head Voice, Deep Tones. /, tongue; e, epiglottis; pe, pharyngo-epiglottidean folds; ae, ary-epiglottic folds; rs, false cords; ri, true vocal cords; g, pharyngo-laryngeal groove; or, arytenoid cartilages; c, cuneiform cartilages; o, glottis; r, inter-arytenoid folds. (From Mandl.) if the tone is compounded of a number of partials — one or more of these will be strengthened by the cavities above the cords acting as a resonator; and so strongly may these partials be thus reinforced that the fundamental one may be obscured, and a certain quality or timbre will be communicated to the ear. Further, Helmholtz has shown that special forms of the oral cavity reinforce in particular certain partials, and thus give a character to vowel tones,— indeed to such an extent that each vowel tone may be said to have a fixed pitch. This may be proved by putting the mouth in a certain form, keep- ing the lips open, and bringing various tuning forks sounding feebly in front of the opening. When a fork is found to which the resonant cavity of the mouth corresponds, then the tone of the fork is intensified, and by thus altering the form and capacity of the oral cavity its pitch in various conditions may be determined. Thus, according to Helmholtz, the pitch corresponding to the vowels may be expressed: — Vowels . . . OU O A AI E I EU Tone . . . faj sibj sij>« soli situ ree do» or or or or re< fas fa» las No. of vibrations . 170 470 U solt or fa, 940 1536 1920 2304 1024 1536 or or or or or 576 341 170 341 170 R. Koenig has fixed the pitch of the vowels differently, thus: Vowels . . OU O A El Tone . . sibj sibi sit>< sibs sib« No. of vibrations . 235 470 940 1880 3760 F. C. Bonders has given a third result, differing from each of the above; and there is little doubt that much will depend on the quality of tone peculiar to different nationalities. By means of Koenig's manometric flames with revolving mirror the varying quality of tone may be illustrated: with a pure tone, the teeth in the flame-picture are equal, like the serrations of a saw, whilst usually the tone is mixed with partials which show themselves by the unequal serrations. Thus quality of voice depends, not merely on the size, degree of elasticity and general mobility of the vocal cords, but also on the form of the resonating cavities above, and very slight differences in these may produce striking results. 6. Vowel Tones. — A vowel is a musical tone produced by the vibrations of the vocal cords. The tone produced by the vocal cords is a mixed one, composed of a fundamental and partials, and certain of the partials are strengthened by the resonance of the air in the air-passages and in the pharyngeal and oral cavities. In this respect the quality of the human voice depends on the same laws as those determining the quality or timbre of the tones produced by any musical instru- ment. The pitch of the note of a musical instrument, however, depends on the pitch of the first or fundamental tone, while the partials are added with greater or less intensity so as to give a special character to the sound; and in the case of a vowel tone the pitch does not appear to depend on that of the fundamental tone but on the pitch of the resonance cavity, as adjusted for the sounding of any particular vowel. When we wish to pronounce or sing a vowel the oral cavity must be adjusted to a certain form, and it is only when it has that form that the vowel can be sounded. The nature of vowel tones has been investigated by means of the phono- graph by Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, L. Hermann, Pipping, Boeke, Lloyd, McKendrick and others. E. W. Scripture has worked with the gramophone. These observers may be ranged in two divisions — those who uphold the theory of relative as opposed to those who contend for the theory of fixed pitch. Assuming that a vowel is always a compound tone, composed of a fundamental and partials, those who uphold the relative pitch theory state that if the pitch of the funda- mental is changed the pitch of the partials must undergo a relative change, while their opponents contend that whatever may be the pitch of the tone produced by the larynx, the pitch of the partials that gives quality or character to a vowel is always the same, or, in other words, vowel tones have a fixed pitch. Helmholtz held that all the partials in a vowel tone were harmonic to the fundamental tone, that is that their periods were simple multiples of the period of the fundamental tone. Hermann, however, has conclusively shown that many of the partials are inharmonic to the fundamental. This practically upsets the theory of Helmholtz. The methods by which this problem can be investigated are mainly two. The pitch of the oral cavity for a given vowel may be experimentally determined, or an analysis may be made of the curve-forms of vowels on the wax cylinder of the phonograph or the disk of the gramo- phone. By such an analysis, according to Fourier's theorem, the curve may be resolved into the partials that take part in its formation, and the intensity of those partials may be thus determined. The observations of Bonders, Helmholtz, Konig and others as to the pitch of the resonating cavities gave different results. Greater success has followed the attempts made by Hermann, Boeke, McKendrick, Lloyd and Marichelle to analyse the curves imprinted on the phonograph. (Examples of such phonograms are given by McKendrick in the article on "Vocal Sounds" in Schafer's Physiology, ii. 1228; see also PHONOGRAPH.) The following is an instructive analysis by Boeke of the curves representing the tones of a cornet, and it illustrates the laws that govern the production of quality in such an instrument: — Note . / =i7ovibs. c' = 256 „ «' =384 „ £" = 512 .. I-O5 1-22 I -IS I-OI O-8O O'53 O-28 O-I3 O-IO 0-92 0-81 0-53 0-39 0-20 0-07 0-04 0-06 0-04 0-76 0-46 0-14 O-O9 O-O6 O-O7 OO2 O-OI O'OI o-Q2 030 0-14 0:5 0-09 0-07 0-06 0-03 0-02 10 Partials. These figures represent the relative intensities of the partials enter- ing into the formation of the note, and it will be observed that the intensity gradually diminishes. This analysis may be contrasted with that of the vowel da sung by Boeke (aet. 50) on the notes /and c', and the same vowel sung on the notes g' and e* by his son (aet. 12). Man, aet. 50, singing da. Pitch . .12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Partials. / =170-6 vibs. I 0-86 0-46 1-74 1-90 1-55 0-51 0-54 0-43 0-44 ,, «' — 256 „ i 0-49 1-96 1-25 0-60 0-56 0-23 0-05 0-06 o-io „ Boy, aet. 12, singing da. Pitch j'^384 t =640 .12 3 4 56 Partials. . i 1-22 2-67 0-45 0-17 0-06 „ . x 8-09 1-45 0-53 .. .. „ It will be observed that in both these cases the intensity of the partials does not fade away gradually as we proceed from the lower to the higher partials, as with the cornet, but that certain partials are intensified more than others, namely, those printed in black. In other words, the form of the resonating cavity develops particular partials, and these modify the quality of the tone. If we multiply the vibrational number of the fundamental tone by the number of the partial we obtain the pitch of the resonance cavity; or if we take the mean of the VOI RON— VOIT U RE 177 partials reinforced we obtain the pitch of the mean resonance. Lloyd applies this method to the foregoing figures as follows: — Partials. Reinforced. Mean Partial. Pitch in Complete Vibration. Man's ad. f =170-6 vibs. £'=256 Boy's ad. ^=384 vibs. £' = 640 „ ... 4-6 3-4 2-4 '-3 4.96 3-39 2-82 2-04 846 868 1084 1307 This analysis shows: (i) that the man's resonance rises slightly (half-semitone) in ascending seven semitones in the middle of his register; (2) that the boy's resonance rises three semitones in ascending nine semitones in the upper half of his register; and (3) in the mid-register the boy's resonance is to the man's as 5:4. Thus, as we sing a vowel in an ascending scale the pitch of the oral cavity slightly changes, or, in other words, the pitch of the resonating cavity for a given vowel may be slightly altered. It would appear that both theories are partially true; they are not mutually exclusive. The view of Bonders that each vowel has an oral cavity of unchangeable and fixed pitch is too exclusive, and, on the other hand, it cannot be denied that each vowel has a predominant partial or predominant partials which give it a definite character, and which must be produced by the oral cavity as a whole, or by the double resonance of portions of the cavity, as suggested by Lloyd. As we sing a vowel in an ascending scale the form of the resonance cavity may slightly change, but not sufficiently to alter the quality of the vowel. Thus we still detect the vowel tone. A singer almost instinctively chooses such vowels as best suit the re- sonating arrangements of his or her voice, and avoids vowels or words containing vowels that would lead to the production of notes of inferior quality. AUTHORITIES. — Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, trans, by Ellis ('875), p. 165. Konig, Complex Rendus (1870), t. Ixx. p. 931; also Quelques experiences d'acoustigue (1882), p. 47. Donders, De physwlogie der spraakklanken (1870), s. 9; also " Ueber de Vokell," Archiv f. d. Holland Beitr. 3. Nat. v. Heti. (Utrecht, 1857), Bd. i. s. 354. Donkin, Fourier's theorem, Acoustics, p. 65; Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. vol. xxviii. p. 750; Lloyd, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. (1898); Phonetische Stud. (1890-92); Jl. of Anal, and Phys. (London), vol. xxxi. p. 23; ibid. vol. xxxi. p. 240. Hermann, Phonophotographische Unlersuch., Bd. L-v. ; Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Bonn), Bd. xlv. s. 582; Bd. xlvii. s. 44; Bd. xlvii. s. 347 ; Bd. liii. s. i ; Bd. Iviii. s. 255. Pipping, Zeitschr. f. Biol. (Munich), Bd. xxyii. s. i ; also Acta Societatts Scienliarum Fennicae, Bd. xx. part ii. Boeke, " Mikroskopische Phonogram- studien," Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Bonn), Bd. i. s. 297; also Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. (1896). McKendrick, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. vol. xxxviii. part ii.; Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. (1896-97); Sound and Speech Waves as revealed by the Phonograph (London, 1897); Schafer's Text-book of Physiology, vol. ii. art. Vowel Sounds ; and Nature (Dec. 26, 1901). (In the latter there is an account of the important researches of Dr Marage.) Marichelle, La Parole d'apres la tract du Phonographe (Paris, 1897). Marage, FMorie de la formation des voyelles. E. W. Scripture, Speech Curves (1906). See also Nature (February 1907). (J. G. M.) VOIRON, a town of France in the department of the Isere. Pop. (1901) 12,625. It stands at a height of 950 ft., on the Morge (a tributary of the Isere). It is a manufacturing town, and contains numerous factories which produce a sort of cloth named after the town, and also silk-weaving factories (2000 looms, with an annual output of eight to nine million yards). There are also paper-making factories in the town. The fine church of St Bruno was built 1864-73 at the expense of the monks of the Grande Chartreuse. Voiron is the starting-point of the steam tramways to St Laurent du Pont, 12 m. (for the Grande Chartreuse), and to Charavines, io§ m. (for the Lac de Paladru). Voiron long formed part of Savoy, but in 1355 was exchanged (with the rest of the region between the Rhone and the Isere, watered by the Guiers Mort) by the count with France for Faucigny and Gex. VOISENON, CLAUDE HENRI DE FUZfe, ABBE DE (1708-75), French dramatist and man of letters, was born at the chateaju of Voisenon near Melun, on the 8th of July 1708. At the age of ten he addressed an epistle in verse to Voltaire, who asked the boy to visit him. From this introduction dated a friendship that lasted for fifty years. Voisenon made his dfibut as a dramatist with L'Heureuse ressemblance in 1728, followed in 1739 by a three-act comedy L'Ecole du monde at the Theatre francais. This was preceded by a verse prologue, L'Ombre de Moliere, and a month later Voisenon produced a criticism on his own piece in Le Retour de I'ombre de Moliere. A duel in which he was the aggressor inspired him with remorse, and he entered the priesthood, becoming vicar-general to the bishop of Boulogne. He received the abbey of Jard, which made no demands on him. He became closely attached to Madame du Chatelet, the mistress of Voltaire (?.».), and was intimate with the comte de Caylus and Mademoiselle Quinault Dufresne. He made witty but by no means edifying contributions to the Elrennes de Saint- Jean, the Bals de Bois, &c. In 1 744 he pro- duced the Mariages assortis and in 1746 his masterpiece, the Coquette fixie. He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with Charles Simon Favart and his wife. His pen was always at the service of any of his friends, and it was .generally supposed, though on insufficient grounds, that he had a considerable share in Favart's most successful operas. Voisenon had, strange to say, scruples all his life about the incongruity between his way of living and his profession, but he continued to write indecent stories for private circulation, and wrote verses in honour of Madame du Barry, as he had done for Madame de Pompadour. He was elected to the Academy in 1762. On the disgrace of his patron, the due de Choiseul, he lost his pensions and honours, but soon recovered his position. He was intimate with the chancellor Maupeou, and was suspected of writing on his behalf in defence of the abolition of the parlement. This and some other incidents brought him into general disgrace. Early in 1775 he retired to the chateau de Voisenon, where he died on the 22nd of November of the same year. His (Euvres completes were published by his executrix, Madame de Turpin, in 1781. VOIT URE, VINCENT (1598-1648), French poet, was the son of a rich merchant of Amiens. He was introduced by a school- fellow, the comte d'Avaux, to Gaston d'Orleans, and accom- panied him to Brussels and Lorraine on diplomatic missions. Although a follower of Gaston, he won the favour of Richelieu, and was one of the earliest academicians. He also received appointments and pensions from Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria. He published nothing in book form, but his verses and his prose letters were the delight of the coteries, and were copied, handed about and admired more perhaps than the work of any contemporary. He had been early introduced to the H6tel de Rambouillet, where he was the especial friend of Julie d'Angennes, who called him her " dwarf king." His ingenuity in providing amusement for the younger members of the circle ensured his popularity, which was never seriously threatened except by Antoine Godeau, and this rivalry ceased when Richelieu appointed Godeau bishop of Grasse. When at the desire of the due de Montausier nineteen poets contributed to the Guirlande de Julie, which was to decide the much-feted Julie in favour of his suit, Voiture refused to take part. The quarrel between the Uranistes and the Jobelins arose over the respective merits of a sonnet of Voiture addressed to a certain Uranie, and of another composed by Isaac de Benserade, till then unknown, on the subject of Job. Another famous piece of his of the same kind, La Belle Matineuse, is less exquisite, but still very admirable, and Voiture stands in the highest rank of writers of vers de socittt. His prose letters are full of lively wit, and, in some cases, as in the letter on Richelieu's policy (Letter LXXIV.), show considerable political penetration. He ranks with Jean de Balzac as the chief director of the reform in French prose which accompanied that of Malherbe in French verse. Voiture died at the outbreak of the Fronde, which killed the society to which he was accustomed, on the 26th of May 1648. 1 See A. Roux, (Euvres de M. de Voiture (Paris, 1856); and C. A. Saint e-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xii. VOIVODE— VOLCANO VOIVODE (also Vaivode, Vayvode, Wayvode, &c., Med. Gr. 00€/365os) , a title in use among certain Slavonic peoples, meaning literally " leader of an army " (SI. voi, host, army; voidUi, to lead), and so applied at various periods and in various eastern European countries to rulers, governors or officials of varying degree. It is best known as the title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia. In these states the title remained in use from the earliest times until 1658 in the case of the first state, and until 1716 in that of the second, when it gave way to Hospodar (g.v.). During the period of Hungarian domination of Transylvania (1004-1526) it was governed by a voivode as an Hungarian province, the last voivode raising himself to the position of an independent prince. In Poland the title was used of certain administrative officials; Polish historians latinized it by palatinus. At the present day voivode is used, in its original sense of a high military officer, in the Monte- negrin army, where it corresponds to the general officer in other European armies. VOKES, the name of a family of English actors. FREDERICK MORTIMER YOKES (1846-1888), the son of a costumier, made his first appearance on the stage in 1854. In 1861 he, his sisters Jessie (1851-1884), Victoria (1853-1894) and Rosina (1858- 1894), and Walter Fawdon (Yokes), first as the " Yokes Children " and then as the " Yokes Family," began to perform at music halls and at the pantomimes, and by their agility and humour made the name well known to English and American theatre-goers. Fred Yokes was a man of real inventiveness as well as rare acrobatic skill. VOLAPUK, the first artificial language (see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES) to attain any measure of practical success. First published in 1880, it was the work of J. M. Schleyer (b. 1839), a south-German priest. Volapiik is not, like the earliest attempts of the kind, an a priori language, but is based mainly on English, the rest of the vocabulary being made up from Latin and the Romance languages. The borrowed words are reduced to a monosyllabic form and are often altered in a very arbitrary manner. Thus the name Volapuk itself is made up of the two English words, world and speak, the first in the genitive, the three vowels, a, e, i, being used to express the three cases, genitive, dative and accusative respectively; the nomina- tive is expressed by the bare root, and s is added to form the plural. The grammar of Volapuk is therefore partly borrowed, like the vocabulary, partly original. Adjectives end in -ik. The persons of the verb are indicated by adding the pronouns ob " I," ol " thou," om " he," &c., plural 065 " we," &c.; the tenses and the passive are indicated by prefixes, the moods by suffixes following the person-endings, many other inflections being used as well, so that the Volapuk verb boasts of no less than 505,440 different forms. Although founded on English, Volapuk is mainly German in structure. It gets rid of the German word-order and the irregularities of German grammar, but it is often impossible to understand a Volapuk text without thinking in German. The following is a specimen of the language: — Lofob kemenis valik vola lolik, patiko etis pekulivol, kels kon- fidoms Volapuke, as bale medas gletikun netasfetana. " I love all my fellow-c'reatures of the whole world, especially those cultivated (ones) who believe in Volapuk as (being) one of the greatest means of nation-binding." Here konfid governs the dative just as its German equivalent does, and " cultivated " is used in the sense of the German gebildeler. The history of Volapuk has an interest greater than that of the language itself. It has proved (i) that people in general are ready to adopt an artificial language, and (2) that an artificial language is easier to learn than any national language, and supplies an efficient means of communication between those who have no other language in common. Volapuk had no special philological merits to recommend it; yet, after a few years' incubation in south Germany, it spread, first to France (about 1885) and then in a few years over the whole civilized world, so that in 1889, when the third Volapuk congress met at Paris, there were 283 Volapuk societies all over the world and the total number of Volapuk students was estimated over a million. At this congress every one — even the waiters — spoke Volapuk, and the permanent triumph of the language seemed certain. But the year of its zenith was the beginning of a decline even more rapid than its rise. It fell to pieces through dissensions in its own camp, the first cause of which was the opposition of the inventor to those of his disciples who aimed at making the language mainly an instrument of com- mercial correspondence, and advocated the greatest possible simplification of grammar and vocabulary. The divergence of views between the inventor and his colleagues became more and more marked; and after the third congress the breach between M. Schleyer and the Volapuk Academy (founded at the second congress in 1887) became a definite one: the director of the Academy proposed a totally new scheme of grammar, and other members proposed others, although one of the objects of the foundation of the Academy was the pre- servation of the integrity of the language. A new director, M. Rosenberger of St Petersburg, was elected in 1893; and from this moment the Academy dissociated itself from Volapuk and began to construct a new international language, Idiom Neutral (see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES). (H. Sw.) VOLCAE, a Celtic people in the province of Gallia Nar- bonensis, who occupied the district between the Garumna (Garonne), Cerbenna mons (Cevennes), and the Rhodanus (or even farther to the east in earlier times), corresponding roughly to the old province of Languedoc. They were divided into two tribes, the Arecomici on the east and the Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west, separated by the river Arauris (Herault) or a line between the Arauris and Orbis (Orbe). The Volcae were free and indepen- dent, had their own laws, and possessed the jus Latii. The chief town of the Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse); of the Arecomici, Nemausus (Mimes); the capital of the province and residence of the governor was Narbo Martius (Narbonne). It was said that there was an early settlement of Volcae Tectosages near the Hercynia Silva in Germany; Tectosages was also the name of one of the three great communities of Gauls who invaded and settled in Asia Minor in the country called after them Galatia. See A. Holder, Altcetiischer Sprachschatz, i. ii. (1896, 1904), s.w. "Arecomici" and "Tectosagi"; T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899) p. 513; A. Desjardins, Geographic de la Gaule romaine, i. (1876). VOLCANO, an opening in the earth's crust, through which heated matter is brought, permanently or temporarily, from the interior of the earth to the surface, where it usually forms a hill, more or less conical in shape, and generally with a hollow or crater at the top. This hill, though not an essential part of the volcanic mechanism, is what is commonly called the volcano. The name seems to 'have been applied originally to Etna and some of the Lipari Islands, which were regarded as the seats of Hephaestus, a Greek divinity identified with Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. All the pheno- mena connected directly or indirectly with volcanic activity are comprised under the general designation of vulcanism or vulcanicity — words which are also written less familiarly as volcanism and volcanicity; whilst the study of the phenomena forms a department of natural knowledge known as vulcanology. Vulcanicity is the chief superficial expression of the earth's internal igneous activity. It may happen that a volcano will remain for a long period in a state of moderate though variable activity, as illustrated by the normal condition of Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands; but in most volcanoes the activity is more decidedly inter- mittent, paroxysms of greater or less violence occurring after intervals of comparative, or even complete, repose. If the period of quiescence has been very protracted, the renewed activity is apt to be exceptionally violent. Thus, Krakatoa before the great eruption of 1883 had been dormant for some- i thing like two centuries, and it is believed that the Japanese VOLCANO 179 volcano Bandaisan previously to the gigantic outburst of 1888 had been silent for more than a thousand years. A volcano may indeed remain so long dormant as to be mistaken for one completely extinct. The volcanoes of central France are regarded as extinct, inasmuch as no authentic historical record of any eruption is known, but there are not wanting signs that in some parts of this vclcanic region the subterranean forces may yet be slumbering rather than dead. Premonitory Symptoms. — A volcanic eruption is usually preceded by certain symptoms, of which the most common are In. ;il earthquakes. The mountain, or other eruptive centre, may be thrown by internal activity into a state of tremor; the tremors perhaps continuing intermittently for months or even years, and becoming more frequent and violent as the crisis approaches. At first they are usually confined to the volcano and its immediate neighbourhood, but may sub- sequently extend to a considerable distance, though probably never developing into earthquakes of the first magnitude. The sudden opening of a subterranean crack, by rupture of a rock under strain, or the rapid injection of lava into such a fissure, will tend to produce a jar at the surface. For at least sixteen years before the first recorded eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79 earthquakes had been frequent in the Campania and had wrought havoc in the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Again, the formation of Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli, in 1538, heralded by local earthquakes beginning several years in advance of the eruption. So too in recent years many volcanic outbursts have been preceded by a succession of earthquakes; but as volcanoes are frequently situated in areas of marked seismic activity, the shocks antecedent to an eruption may not, unless exceptionally violent, receive much attention from local observers. It commonly happens that a volcanic outburst is announced by subterranean roaring and rumbling, often compared to thunder or the discharge of artillery underground. Other precursory symptoms may be afforded by neighbouring springs, which not unusually flow with diminished volume, or even fail altogether. Possibly fissures open underground and drain off the water from the springs and wells in the im- mediate locality. Occasionally, however, an increased flow has been recorded. In some cases thermal springs make their appearance, whilst the temperature of any existing warm springs may be increased, and perhaps carbon dioxide be evolved. A disturbed state of the atmosphere is by no means a constant forerunner of an eruption, some of the greatest outbursts having occurred in a period of atmospheric stability: indeed the air is often felt to be close and still. Immediately before a renewed outburst in an old volcano, the floor of the crater is generally upheaved to a greater or less extent, whilst the discharge of vapour from any fumaroles is increased. Where a crater has been occupied by water, forming a crater-lake, the water on the approach of an erup- tion becomes warm, evolves visible vapour, and may even boil. In the case of cones which are capped with snow, the internal heat of the rising lava usually causes a rapid melting of the snow-cap, resulting perhaps in a disastrous deluge. It seems probable that by attention to the premonitory symptoms a careful local observer might in many cases foretell an eruption. It generally happens that a great eruption is preceded by a preliminary phase of feeble activity. Thus, the gigantic catastrophe at Krakatoa on the 27th of August 1883, so far from having been a sudden outburst, was the culmination of a state of excitement, sometimes moderate and sometimes violent, which had been in progress for several months. Emission of Vapour. — Of all volcanic phenomena the most constant is the emission of vapour. It is one of the earliest features of an eruption; it persists during the paroxysms, attaining often to prodigious volume; and it lingers as the last 'elic of an outburst, so that long after the ejection of ashes and lava has ceased an occasional puff of vapour may be the only memento of the disturbance. By far the greatest proportion of the vapour is steam, which sometimes occurs almost to the exclusion of other gaseous products. Such, at least, is the usual and probably correct view, though it is opposed by A. Brun, who regards the volcanic vapours as chiefly composed of chlorides with steam in only subordinate amount. In the case of a mild eruption, like that occurring normally at Stromboli, the vapours may be discharged in periodical puffs, marking the explosion of bubbles rising more or less rhythmically from the seething lava in the volcanic cauldron. S. Wise observed at the volcano of Sangay, in Ecuador, no fewer than 267 explosions in the course of an hour, the vapour here being associated, as is so often the case, with ashes. During a violent eruption the vapour may be suddenly shot upwards as a vertical column of enormous height, penetrating the passing clouds. For a short distance above the vent the superheated steam sometimes exists as a transparent vapour, but it soon suffers partial condensation, forming clouds, which, if not dispersed by winds, accumulate over the mountain. When the vapour is free from ash it forms rolling balls of fleecy cloud, but usually it carries in mechanical association more or less finely divided lava as volcanic dust and ashes, whereby it becomes yellow, brown, or even black, sometimes as foul as the densest smoke. In a calm atmo- sphere the dust-laden vapour may rise in immense rings with a rotatory movement, like that of vortex-rings. Frequently the vapours, emitted in a rapid succession of jets, form cumulus clouds, or are massed together in cauliflower-like forms. The well-known " pine-tree appendage " of Vesuvius (pino vul- canico), noted by the younger Pliny in his first letter to Tacitus on the eruption in the year 79, is a vertical shaft of vapour terminating upwards in a canopy of cloud, and compared popularly with the trunk and spreading branches of the stone- pine. Whilst in some cases the cloud resembles a gigantic expanded umbrella, in others it is more mushroom-shaped. In a great eruption, the height of the mountain itself may appear dwarfed by comparison with that of the column of vapour. During the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906, the steam and dust rose to a height of between 6 and 8 m. At Krakatoa in 1883 the column of vapour and ashes reached an altitude of nearly 20 m.; whilst it was estimated by some authorities that during the most violent explosions the finely- divided matter must have been carried to an elevation of more than 30 m. The emission of vast volumes of vapour at high tension naturally produces much atmospheric disturbance, often felt at great distances from the centre of eruption. Electrkal Excitement. — It is probably to the uprushing current of vapour that much of the electrical excitement which invari- ably accompanies an eruption may be referred. The friction of the steam rushing in jets through the volcanic vent must produce electrical disturbance, and indeed an active volcano has been aptly compared to a hydroelectric machine of gigantic power. Another cause of excitement may be found in the mutual friction of the ejected cinders and ashes as they rise and fall in showers through the air. Much trituration of volcanic material may go on in the crater and elsewhere during the eruption, whereby the solid lava is reduced to a fine dust. Other means of generating electricity are found in the chemical reactions effected in the volcano and in the sudden condensa- tion of the emitted vapour. L. Palmieri, in the course of his investigations at the observatory on Vesuvius, found that the vapours free from cinders carried a positive charge, whilst the cinders were negative. The electrical phenomena attending an eruption are often of great intensity and splendour. The dark ash-laden clouds of vapour are shot through and through by volcanic lightning, sometimes in rapid horizontal flashes, then in oblique forked streaks, or again in tortuous lines compared to fiery serpents, whilst the borders of the cloud may be brilliant with electric scintillations, often forming balls and stars of fire. During the great eruption of Krakatoa remarkable phenomena were observed by ships in the Strait of Sunda, luminous balls like " St Elmo's fire " appearing at the mast-heads and the i8o VOLCANO yard-arms, whilst the volcanic mud which fell upon rigging and deck was strongly phosphorescent. Quite distinct from any electrical phenomena is that inter- mittent reddish glare which is often seen at night in clouds hanging over an active crater, and which is simply a glow due to reflection from the incandescent lava and stones in the volcanic cauldron below. Volcanic Rain and Mud. — The condensation of the vast volumes of steam exhaled during an eruption produces torrents of rain, which, mingling to a greater or less extent with the volcanic ashes, forms a hot muddy stream known in Italy as lava d'acqua and lava di fango, and in South America as moya. Deluges of such mud-lava may rush violently down the moun- tain-side and spread over the neighbouring country with terribly destructive effect, whence they are greatly dreaded by those who dwell at the base of a volcano. The solidified volcanic mud, often mingled with larger fragments of lava, is known as tuff or tufa. Herculaneum was buried beneath a flood of mud swept down from Vesuvius during the Plinian eruption of 79, and the hard tufaceous crust which thus sealed up the ill- fated city came in turn to be covered by lava-flows from sub- sequent eruptions: hence the difficulty of excavating at Hercalaneum compared with similar work at Pompeii, where there was probably much less mud, since the city, having been at a greater distance from the volcanic centre, was overwhelmed in great measure by loose ashes, capable of removal with com- parative ease. It sometimes happens that volcanic mud is formed by the mingling of hot ashes not directly with rain but with water from streams and lakes, or even, as in Iceland, with melted .snow. A torrent of mud was one of the earliest symptoms of the violent eruption of Mont Pele in Martinique in 1902. This mud had its source in the Etang Sec, a crater-basin high up on the S.W. side of the mountain. By the explosive discharge of ashes and vapours mingled with the water of the tarn there was produced a vast volume of hot muddy matter which on the sth of May suddenly escaped from the basin, when a huge torrent of boiling black mud, charged with blocks of rock and moving with enormous rapidity, rolled like an avalanche down the gorge of the Riviere Blanche. If a stream of lava obstructs the drainage of a volcano, it may give rise to floods. Ejected Blocks. — When a volcano after a long period of re- pose starts into fresh activity, the materials which have accu- mulated in the crater, including probably large blocks from the disintegration of the crater-walls, have to be ejected. If the lava from the last eruption has consolidated as a plug in the throat of the volcano, the conduit may be practically closed, and hence the first effort of the renewed activity is to expel this obstruction. The hard mass becomes shattered by the explosions, and the angular fragments so formed are hurled forth by the outrushing stream of vapour. When the discharge is violent, the vapour, as it rushes impetuously up the volcanic duct, may tear fragments of rock from its walls and project them to a considerable distance from the vent. Such ejected blocks, by no means uncommon in the early stages of an eruption, are often of large size and naturally vary accord- ing to the character of the rocks through which the duct has been opened. They may be irregular masses of igneous rocks, possibly lavas of earlier eruptions, or they may be stratified, sedimentary and fossiliferous rocks representing the platform on which the volcano has been built, or the yet more deeply seated fundamental rocks. By Dr H. J. Johnston-Lavis, who specially studied the ejected blocks of Vesuvius, the volcanic materials broken from the cone are termed " accessory " ejecta, whilst other fragmentary materials he conveniently calls " accidental " products, leaving the term " essential " ejecta for plastic lava, ashes, crystals, &c. Masses of Cretaceous or Apennine limestone ejected from Somma are scattered through the tuffs on the slopes of Vesuvius; and objects carved in such altered limestone are sold to tourists as " lava " orna- ments. Under the influence of volcanic heat and vapours, the ejected blocks suffer more or less alteration, and may contain in their cavities many crystallized minerals. Certain blocks of sandstone ejected occasionally at Etna are composed of white granular quartz, permeated with vitreous matter and encased in a black scoriaceous crust of basic lava. A rock consisting of an irregular aggregation of coarse ejected materials, including many large blocks, is known as a " volcanic agglomerate." Any fragmental matter discharged from a volcano may form rocks which are described as " pyroclastic." Cinders, Ashes and Dust. — After the throat of a volcano has been cleared out and a free exit established, the copious dis- charge of vapour is generally accompanied by the ejection of fresh lava in a fragmentary condition. If the ejected masses bear obvious resemblance to the products of the hearth and the furnace, they are known as " cinders " or " scoriae," whilst the small cinders not larger than walnuts often pass under their Italian name of " lapilli " (q.v.). When of globular or ellipsoidal form, the ejected masses are known as " bombs " (j.».) or " volcanic tears." Other names are given to the smaller fragments. If the lava has become granulated it is termed " volcanic sand "; when in a finer state of division it is called ash, or if yet more highly comminuted it is classed as dust; but the latter terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The pulverized material, consisting of lava which has been broken up by the explosion, or triturated in the crater, is often dis- charged in prodigious quantity, so that after an eruption the country for miles around the volcano may be covered with a coating of fine ash or dust, sometimes nearly white, like a fall of snow, but often of greyish colour, looking rather like Portland cement, and in many cases becomirg reddish by oxidation of the ferruginous constituents. Even when first ejected the ash is sometimes cocoa-coloured. This finely divided lava insinu- ates itself into every crack and cranny, reaching the interior of houses even when windows and doors are closed. A heavy fall of ash or cinders may cause great structural damage, crushing the roofs of buildings by sheer weight, as was markedly the case at Ottajano and San Guiseppe during the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906. On this occasion the dry ashes slipped down the sides of the volcanic cone like an avalanche, forming great ash- slides with ridges and furrows rather like barrancos, or ravines, caused by rain. The burial of Ottajano and San Ginseppe in 1906 by Vesuvian ejecta, mostly lapilli, has been compared with that of Pompeii in 79. Deposits of volcanic sand and ashes retain their heat long after ejection, so that rain will cause them to evolve steam, and if the rain be heavy and sudden it may produce explosions with emis- sion of great clouds of vapour. The fall of ash is at first prejudicial to vegetation, and is often accompanied or followed by acid rain; but ultimately the ash may prove beneficial to the soil, chiefly in consequence of the alkalis which it contains. The " May dust " of Barbados was a rain of volcanic ash which fell in May 1812 from the eruption of the Soufriere in St Vincent. It is estimated that the amount of dust which during this eruption fell on the surface of Barbados, 100 m. distant from the eruptive centre, was about 3,000,000 tons. The distance to which ash is carried depends greatly on the atmospheric conditions at the time of the eruption. Ashes from Vesuvius in an eruption in the year 472 were carried, it is said, as far as Constantinople. During an eruption of Cotopaxi, on the 3rd of July 1880, observed by E. Whymper, an enormous black column of dust-laden vapour was shot vertically upwards with such rapidity that in less than a minute it rose to a height estimated at 20,000 ft. above the crater-rim, or nearly 40,000 ft. above sea-level, when it was dispersed by the wind over a very wide area. It is believed that the amount of dust in this discharge must have been more than 2,000,000 tons. Enormous quantities of dust ejected from Krakatoa in 1883 were carried to prodigious distances, samples having been collected at more than a thousand miles from the volcano; whilst the very fine material in ultra- microscopic grains which remained suspended for months in the higher regions of the atmosphere seems to have enjoyed an almost world-wide distribution, and to have been responsible for the re- markable sunsets at that period. The ash falling in the immediate vicinity of a volcanic vent will generally be coarser than that carried to a distance, since the particles as they are wafted through the air undergo a kind of sifting. Professor J. W. Judd, who made an exhaustive examination of the products of the eruption of Krakatoa, found that the dust near the volcano was comparatively coarse, dense and rather dark- coloured, in consequence of the presence of numerous fragments of VOLCANO 181 **(.* 5 heavy, dark, crystalline minerals, whilst the dust at a distance was excessively fine and perfectly white. According to this observer, the particles tended to fall in the following order : magnetite, pyroxenes, frl-par, glass. The finely comminuted material, carried to a great height in the atmosphere, consisted largely of delicate threads and attenuated plates of vitreous matter, in many cases hollow and containing air-bubbles. The greater part of the dust was formed by the mutual attrition of fragments of brittle pumice as they rose and fell in the crater, which thus became a powerful "dust-making mill." By this trituration of the pumiceous lava, carried on for a space of three months during which the eruption lasted, the quantity of finely pulverized material must have been enormous; yet the amount of ejected matter was probably very much less than that extruded during some other historical eruptions, such as that of Tomboro in Sumbawa, in 1815. The explosions at Krakatoa however, exceptionally violent, having been sufficient to Jject some of the finely pulverized lava to an altitude estimated lave been at least 30 m. It is usually impossible during a great ci uption to determine the height of the column of " smoke," since it hangs over the country as a pall of darkness. The great black cloud, which was so characteristic a feature in the terrible eruptions in the West Indies in 1902, was formed of steam with sulphur dioxide and other gases, very heavily charged with incandescent sand or dust, forming a dense mixture that in some respects behaved like a liquid. Unlike the Krakatoa dust, which was derived from a vitreous pumice, the solid matter of the black cloud was largely composed of fragments of crystalline minerals. According to Drs Anderson and Flett it is not impossible that on the afternoon of the lyth of May 1902, the solid matter ejected from the Soufriere of St Vincent amounted to several billions of tons, and that some of the dust fell at distances more than 2000 m. east of the centre of eruption. In Mexico and Central America, under the favourable influence of warmth and moisture, rich soils are rapidly formed by the decom- position of finely divided volcanic ejecta. Vast areas in North America, especially in Nebraska and Kansas, are covered with thick deposits of volcanic dust, partly from recent eruptions but princi- pally from volcanic activity in geologic time. The dust is used in the arts as an abrasive agent. Lava. — The volcanic cinders, sand, ashes and dust described above are but varied forms of solidified lava. Lava is indeed the most characteristic product of volcanic activity. It consists of mineral matter which is, or has been, in a molten state; but the liquidity is not due to simple dry fusion. The magma, or subterranean molten matter, may be regarded as composed essentially of various silicates, or their constituents, in a state of mutual solution, and heavily charged with certain vapours or gases, principally water-vapour, superheated and under pressure. In consequence of the peculiar constitution of the magma, the order in which minerals separate and solidify from it on cooling does not necessarily correspond with the inverse order of their relative fusibility. The lava differs from the magma before eruption, inasmuch as water and various volatile substances may be expelled on extrusion. The rapid escape of vapour from the lava contributes to the explosive phenomena of an eruption, whilst the rate at which the vapour is disengaged depends largely on the viscosity of the magma. The lava on its immediate issue from the volcanic vent is probably at a white heat, but the temperature is difficult of determination since the molten matter is usually not easy of approach, by reason of the enshrouding vapour. Determinations of temperature are generally made at a short distance from the exit, when the lava has undergone more or less cooling, or on a small stream from a subordinate vent. A. Bartoli, using a platinum electric resistance pyrometer, found that a stream of lava near a bocca, or orifice of emission, on Etna, in the eruption of 1892, had at a depth of one foot a temperature of 1060° C. In the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna thin wires of silver and of copper have frequently been melted. Probably the lava at the surface of the stream has a temperature of something like 1100° C., but this must not be assumed to be its temperature at the volcanic focus. C. Doelter, in some experiments on tne melting-point of lava by means of an electric furnace, found that a lava from Etna softened at from 962° to 970° C. and became fluid at 1010° to 1040°, whilst a Vesuvian lava softened at 1030° to 1060° and acquired fluidity at 1080° to 1090°. These results were obtained at ordinary atmospheric pressure, but it has been assumed that the melting-point of lava at a great depth would, through pressure alone, exceed that obtained in the laboratory. On the other hand the presence of water and of certain volatile fluxes in the magma lowers the fusing-point, and hence the extruded lava from which these have largely escaped may be much less fusible than the original magma. Determinations of the melting-points of various glasses formed by the fusion of certain igneous rocks have been made by J. A. Douglas, with the meldometer of Professor J. Joly. The results give temperatures ranging from 1260° C. for rhyolite to 1070° for dolerite from the Clee Hills in Shropshire. The melting-points of the rocks in a glassy condition as here given are, however, lower than those of the corresponding rocks in a crystalline state. It should be noted that all determinations of the melting-points of minerals and rocks involving ocular inspection of the physical state of the material are liable to considerable error, and the only accurate method seems to be that of determining the point at which absorption of heat abruptly occurs; — the latent heat of fusion. This has been done in the refined investigations by Mr A. L. Day and his colleagues in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution at Washington. It is believed that the temperature of lava in the volcanic conduit may be in some cases sufficiently high to fuse the neighbouring rocks, and so melt out a passage through them in its ascent. The wall- rock thus dissolved m the magma will not be without influence on the composition of the lava with which it becomes assimilated. Many interesting observations are on record with regard to the heating effect of lava on metals and other objects with which it may have come in contact. Thus, after the destruction of Torre del Greco by a current of lava from Vesuvius in 1794, it was found that brass in the houses under the lava had suffered decomposition, the copper having become crystallized ; whilst silver had been not only fused but sublimed. This indicates a temperature of upwards of 1000° C. Panes of glass in the windows at Torre del Greco on the same occasion suffered devitrification. Notwithstanding the high temperature of lava on emission, it cools so rapidly, and the consolidated lava conducts heat so slowly, that vegetable structures may be involved in a lava-flow without being entirely destroyed. A stream of lava on entering a wood, as in the sylvan region on Etna, may burn up the undergrowth but leave many of the larger trees with their trunks merely carbonized. On Vesuvius a lava-flow has been observed to surround trees while the foliage has been apparently uninjured. A vertical trunk of a coniferous tree partially enveloped in Tertiary basalt occurs at Gribon in the Isle of Mull, as described by Sir A. Geikie and others; plant-remains in basalt from the Bo'ness coalfield in Linlithgow- shire have been noticed by H. M. Cadell; and attention has been called by B. Hobson to a specimen of scoriaceous basalt, from Mexico, which shows the impression of ears of maize and even relics of the actual grains. In consequence of the slow transmission of heat by solid lava, the crust on the surface of a stream may be crossed with impunity whilst the matter is still glowing at a short distance below. Lichens may indeed grow on lava which remains highly heated in the interior. The solidified surface of a sheet of lava may be smooth and shining, sometimes quite satiny in sheen, though locally wrinkled and perhaps even ropy or hummocky, the irregularities being mainly due to superficial movement after partial solidification. The " corded lava " has a surface similar to that often seen on blast- furnace slag, and is suggestive of a tranquil flow. After a lava stream has oecpme crusted over on cooling, the subjacent lava, still moving in a viscous condition, tends to tear the crust, forming irregular blocks, or clinkers, which are carried forward by the flow and ultimately left in the form of confused heaps, perhaps of con- siderable magnitude. The front of a stream may present a wall of scoriaceous fragments looking like a huge pile of coke. As the clinkers are carried along, on the surface of the lava, they produce by mutual friction a crunching noise; and the sluggish flow of the lava-stream laden with its burden has been compared with that of a glacier. Since the upper part of the stream moves more rapidly than the lower, which is retarded by cooling in contact with the bed-rock, the superficial clinkers are carried forward and, rolling over the end, may become embedded in the lava as it advances. Scoriae formed on the top of a stream may thus find their way to the base. Rock- fragments or other detrital matter occurring in the path of the lava will be caught up by the flow and become involved in the lower part of the molten mass; whilst the rocks over which the lava travels may suffer more or less alteration by the heat of the stream. The rapidity of a lava flow is determined partly by the slope of the bed over which it moves and partly by the consistency of the lava, this being dependent on its chemical composition and on the condi- tions of cooling. In an eruption of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, in 1855, the lava was estimated to flow at a rate of 40 m. an hour; and at an eruption of Vesuvius in 1805 a velocity of more than 50 m. an hour, at the moment of emission, was recorded. The rapidity of flow is, how- ever, rapidly checked as the stream advances, the retardation being very marked in small flows. Where lava travels down a steep incline there is naturally a great tendency to form a rugged surface, whilst a quiet flow over a flat plane favours smoothness. If the lava meet a precipice it may form a cascade of great beauty, the clinkers rapidly rolling down with a clatter, as described by Sir W. Hamilton in the eruption of Vesuvius in 1771, when the fiery torrent had a perpendicular fall of 50 ft. In Hawaii the smooth shining lava, often superficially waved and lobed, is known as pahoehoe, whilst the rugged clinker beds are termed aa. These terms are now used in general terminology, having been introduced by American geologists. The fields of aa often contain lava-balls and bombs. It may be said that the 182 VOLCANO pahoehoe corresponds practically with the Fladen lava of German vulcanologists, and the aa with their Schollen lava. Rugged flows are known in Auvergne as cheires. The surface of a clinker-field has often a horribly jagged character, being covered with ragged blocks bristling with sharp points. In the case of an obsidian- now a most dangerous surface is produced by the keen edges and points of the fragmentary volcanic glass. If, after a stream of lava has become crusted over, the underlying magma should flow away, a long cavern or tunnel may be formed. Should the flow be rapid the roof may collapse and the fragments, falling on to the stream, may be carried forward or become absorbed in the fused mass. The walls and roof of a lava-cave are occasionally adorned with stalactites, whilst the floor may be covered with stalagmitic deposits of lava. The volcanic stalactites are sjender, tubular bodies, extremely fragile, often knotted and rippled. Beautiful examples of lava stalactites from Hawaii have been described by Professor E. S. Dana. Caverns may also be formed in lava-flows by the presence of large bubbles, or by the union of several bubbles. It may happen, too, that certain monticules thrown up on the surface of the lava are hollow, of which a famous example is furnished by the Caverne de Rosemond, at the base of Piton Barry, in the Isle of Reunion. It is of great interest to determine whether molten lava contracts or expands on solidification, but the experimental evidence on this subject is rather conflicting. According to some observers a piece of solid lava thrown on to the surface of the same lava in a liquid state will sink, while according to others it floats. It has often been observed that cakes formed by the natural fracture of the crust on the lava of Kilauea sink in the liquid mass, but it has been suggested that the fragments are drawn down by convection-currents. On the other hand a solid piecf, though denser than the corresponding liquid, may be buoyed up for a time by the viscous condition of the molten lava. Moreover, the presence of minute vesicles may lighten the mass. Although the minerals of a rock-magma may separately contract on crystallization it does not follow that the magma itself, in which they probably exist in a state of solution, will undergo on crystallization a similar change of volume. On the whole, however, there seems reason to believe that lava on solidifying almost always diminishes in volume and consequently increases in density. According to the experiments of C. Doelter the specific gravity of molten lava is invariably less than that of the same lava when solid, though in some cases the difference is but slight. In a vitreous or isotropic condition the lava has a lower density than when crystalline. denser than the same rock in a crystalline condition in the interior of the dykes. Physical Structure of Lavas. — An amorphous vitreous mass may result from the rapid cooling of a lava on its extrusion from the volcanic vent. The common type of volcanic glass is known as obsidian (?.».). Microscopic examination usually shows that even in this glass some of the molecules of the magma have assumed definite orientation, forming the incipient crystalline bodies known as microlites, &c. By the increase of these minute enclosures, in number and magnitude, the lava may become devitrified and assume a lithoidal or stony structure. If the molten magma consolidate slowly, the various silicates in solution tend to separate by crystalliza- tion as their respective points of saturation are reached. Should the process be arrested before the entire mass has crystallized, the crystals that have been developed will be embedded in the residual magma, which may, on consolidation, form a vitreous base. It is believed that in many cases the lava brings up, through its conduit, myriads of crystals that have been developed during slow solidification in the heart of the volcanic apparatus. Showers of crystals of leucite have occurred at Vesuvius, of labradorite at Etna, and of pyroxene at Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli. These " intratelluric crystals '' were probably floating in the molten magma, and had they remained in suspension, this magma might on consolidation have enveloped them as a ground-mass or base. A rock so formed is generally known as a " porphyry," and the structure as porphyritic. In such a lava the large crystals, or phenocrysts, evidently represent an early phase of consolidation, and the minerals of the matrix a later stage. It is notable that the intratelluric crystals often lack sharpness of outline, as though they had suffered corrosion by attack of the molten magma, whilst they may contain vitreous enclosures, suggesting that the surrounding mass was liquid during their consolidation. It is believed that the more slowly consolidation has occurred, the larger generally arc the crystals; and the higher the temperature of the magma the greater the corrosion or resorption. Possibly under certain con- ditions the phenocrysts and the ground-mass may have solidified simultaneously. In some cases the entire igneous mass assumes a crystalline structure, or becomes " holocrystalline." Such a structure is well displayed when the magma has consolidated at considerable depths, cooling slowly under great pressure, and forming rocks which are termed " plutonic " or " abyssal " to distinguish them from rocks truly volcanic, or those which, if not effusive, like lava-flows, have at least solidified very near to the surface as dykes and sills. Volcanic and plutonic rocks pass, however, into each other by gradual transi- tion. The dyke-rocks, or intrusive masses, form an intermediate group sometimes distinguished under the name of " hypabyssal " rocks, as suggested by W. C. Brogger. Lavas extruded in sub- marine eruptions may have solidified under a great weight of sea- water, and therefore to that extent rather under plutonic conditions. Chemical Composition of Lavas. — Lavas are usually classified roughly, from a chemical point of view, in broad groups according to the proportion of silica which they contain. Those in which the proportion of silica reaches 66% or upwards are said to be acid or acidic, whilst those in which it falls to 55 % or below are called basic lavas. The two series are connected by a group of intermediate com- position, whilst a small number of igneous rocks of exceptional type are recognized as ultrabasic. Professor F. W. Clarke has suggested a grouping of igneous rocks as per-silicic, medio-silicic and sub- silicic, in which the proportion of silica is respectively more than 60, between 50 and 60, or less than 50 %. By far the greater part of all lavas consists of various silicates, either crystallized as definite minerals or unindividualized as volcanic glass. In addition, however, to the mineral silicates, a volcanic rock may contain a limited amount of free acid and basic oxides, repre- sented by such minerals as quartz and magnetite. Rhyolite may be cited as a typical example of an acid lava, andesite as an intermediate and basalt as a basic lava. The various volcanic rocks are described under their respective headings, so that it is needless to refer here to their chemical or mineralogical composition. It may, however, be useful to cite a few selected analyses of some recent lavas and ashes : — Sgures give the specific gravity: — I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Natural solid lava. Liquid. Rapidly cooled, glassy. Slowly cooled, crystalline. Silica Alumina . Ferric oxide Ferrous oxide . 48-28 18-39 I-I2 7-88 49-73 18-46 6-95 5-59 50-00 13-99 5-13 9-10 68-99 16-07 2-63 I-IO 61-88 18-30 1-97 4-32 49-20 14-90 4-Si 12-75 Lava of Etna ,, Vesuvius 2-83 2-83-2-85 2-58-2-74 2-68-2-74 2-71-2-75 2-69-2-75 2-81-2-83 2-77-2-81 Manganous oxide . Magnesia . Lime 3-72 9-20 3-99 10-71 4-06 10-81 0-28 i -08 ,Vi6 2-71 6-32 0-28 3-9° 9-20 Experiments by Dr C. Barus showed that a diabase of specific gravity 3-017 formed a glass of sp. gr. 2-717, and melted to a liquid Soda .... Potash Titanium dioxide 2-84 7-25 1-28 3-50 1-07 3-02 2-87 4-04 1-83 0-82 3-17 1-09 0-31 1-96 o-95 1-72 of sp. gr. 2-52. J. A. Douglas on examining various igneous rocks Found that in all cases the rock in a vitreous state had a lower sp. gr. than in a crystalline condition, the difference being greatest in the Phosphorus pentoxide Loss on ignition 0-51 0-62 0-24 0-09 0-19 0-42 O-IO acid plutonic rocks. A. Harker, however, has called attention to the fact that the elassv selvace of certain basic civkes in Scotland is 100-96 lOO'OO 99-22 IOO-OO 100-35 99-89 I. From Vesuvius, eruption of 1906; by M. Pisani. II. ,, Etna. Mean of several analyses by Silvestri and Fuchs (Mercalli). III. ,, Stromboli, 1891 ; by Ricciardi. IV. „ Krakatoa, eruption of 1883; by C. Winkler. V. „ Mont Pel<5, Martinique, eruption of 1902; by M. Pisani. VI. „ Kilauea, Hawaii ; by O. Silvestri. In the course of the life of a volcano, the lava which it emits may undergo changes, within moderate limits, being at one time more acid, at another more basic. Such changes are sometimes connected with a shifting of the axis of eruption. Thus at Etna the lavas from the old axis of Trifogjietto in the Valle del Bove were andesites, with about 55% of silica, but those rising in the present conduit are doleritic, with a silica-content of only about 50%. It seems probable that, to a limited extent, changes in the character of a lava may sometimes be due to contact of the magma with different rocks underground : if these are rich in silica, the acidity of the lava will naturally increase; while if they are rich in calcareous and ferro- magnesian constituents, the basicity will increase: the variation is consequently apt to be only local, and probably always slight. By von Richthpfen and some others it has been held that during a long period of igneous activity a definite order in the succession of the erupted rocks is everywhere constant; but though some striking coincidences may be cited, it can hardly be said that this generalization has been satisfactorily established. It has, however, often been observed, as emphasized by Professor Iddings, that a volcanic centre will start with the emission of lavas of neutral or intermediate type, followed in the course of a geological period by VOLCANO 183 md basic lavas, and ending with those of extreme composition, indicating progressive change in the magma. The old idea of a universal magma, or continuous pyrosphere, has generally abandoned. Whatever may have been the case in a itive condition of the interior of the earth, it seems necessary to that the magma must now exist in separate reservoirs. The .. -intent activity of neighbouring volcanoes strikingly illustrated in Kilauea and Mauna Loa in Hawaii, only 20 m. apart, suggests it i >f communication between the conduits; and though the £t-r very similar at these two centres, it would seem that they , ,ITI hardly be drawn from a common source. Again, the volcanoes a hern Italy and the neighbouring islands exhibit little or no ithy in their action, and emit lavas of diverse type. The lavas ilcano, one of the Lipari Isles, are rhyolitic, whilst those of Stromboli, another of the group, are basaltic. It is believed that the magma in a subterranean reservoir, though originally homogeneous, may slowly undergo certain changes, whereby the more basic constituents migrate to one quarter whilst the acid segregate in another, so that the canal, at successive periods, may bring up material of different types. The cause of this " mag- matic differentiation," which has been the subject of much discus- -ion, is of fundamental importance in any broad study of the genetic relations of igneous rocks. It has often been observed that all the rocks from a definite igneous centre have a general similarity in chemical and minera- il characters. This relationship is called, after Professor Iddings, " consanguinity," and appears to be due to the fact that the rocks are drawn from a common source. Professor Judd pointed out the nee of distinct " petrographical provinces," within which the eruptive rocks during a given geological period have a certain family likeness and have appeared in definite succession. Thus he recog- nized a Brito-Icelandic petrographical province of Tertiary and recent lavas. It has been shown by A. Marker that alkali igneous rocks are generally associated with the Atlantic type of coast-line and sub-alkali rocks with the Pacific type. Although changes in the character of an erupted product from a Riven centre are usually brought about very slowly, it has often been supposed that even in the course of a single prolonged eruption, or series of eruptions, the character of the lava may vary to some extent. That this is not, however, usually the case has been re- peatedly proved. M. H. Arsandaux, for instance, analysed the bombs of augite-andesite thrown out from Santorin at the beginning of theeruptionof 1866, others ejected in 1867, and others again at the close of the eruption in 1868; and he found no important variation in the composition of the magma during these successive stages. Moreover, Professor A. Lacroix found that the material extruded from Vesuvius in 1906 remained practically of the same composition from thebcginningtotheendof theeruption, and further, that it presented great analogy to that of 1872 and even to that of 1631. All the Vesuvian lavas are of the type of rock known as leuco- tephrite or leucitetephrite, or they pass, by the presence of a little ohvine, into leucite-basanite. Leucite is characteristic of the lavas of Vesuvius, whilst it is excessively rare in those of Etna, where a normal doleritic type prevails. Nepheline, a felspathoid related to leucite, is characteristic of certain lavas, such as those of the Canary Islands, which comprise nepheline-tephrites and nepheline-basanites. Most of the lavas from the volcanoes of South America consist of hypersthene-andesite, and it is notable that the fragmental ejecta- menta from the eruptions of St Vincent and Martinique in 1902 and from Krakatoa in 1883 were evidently derived from a magma of this Pacific type. It commonly happens that acid lavas are paler in colour, less dense and less fusible than basic lavas, and they are probably drawn in some cases from shallower depths. As a consequence of the ready fusibility of many basic lavas, they flow freely on emissjon, running to great distances and forming far-spreading sheets, whilst the more acid lavas rapidly become viscid and tend to consolidate nearer to their origin, often in hummocky masses. The shape of a volcanic mountain is consequently determined to a large extent by the chemical character of the lavas which it emits. In the Hawaiian Islands, for instance, where the lavas are highly basic and fluent, they form mountains which, though lofty, are flat domes with very gently sloping sides. Such is the fluidity of the lava on emission that it flows freely on a slope of less than one degree. In consequence, too, of this mobility, it is readily thrown into spray and even pro- jected by the expansive force of vapour into jets, which may rise to the height of hundreds of feet and fall back still incandescent, producing the appearance of "fire fountains." The emission is not usually accompanied, however, by violent explosions, such as are often associated with the eruption of magmas of less basic and more viscous nature. The viscosity of the lava at Kilauea was estimated by G. F. Becker to be about fifty times as great as that of water. It may be pointed put that the fusibility of a lava depends not on the mere fact that it is basic, but rather on the character of the bases. A lava from Etna or Vesuvius may be really as basic as one from Hawaii. Capillary Lava. — A filamentous form of lava well known at Kilauea, in Hawaii, is termed Pelt's hair, after Pele, the reputed goddess of the Hawaiian volcanoes. It resembles the capillary slag much used in the arts under the name of " mineral wool " — a material formed by injecting steam into molten slag from an iron blast-furnace. It is commonly supposed that Pele's hair has been formed from drops of lava splashed into the air and drawn out by the wind into fine threads. According, however, to Major C. E. Dutton, the filaments •are formed on the eddying surface of the lava by the elongation of minute vesicles of water-vapour expelled from the magma. C. F. W. Krukenberg, who examined the hair microscopically, figured a large number of fibres, some of which showed the presence of minute vesicles and microscopic crystals, the former when drawn out rendering the thread tubular. In a spongy vitreous scoria from Hawaii, described as " thread-lace," a polygonal network of delicate fibres forms little skeleton cells. Capillary lava is not confined to the Hawaiian volcanoes : it is known, for example, in Reunion, and may be formed even at Vesuvius. Pumiceous Lava. — The copious disengagement of vapour in a glassy lava gives rise to the light cellular or spongy substance, full of microscopic pores, known as pumice (g.P.J. It is usually, though not invariably, produced from an acid lava, and may some- times be regarded as the solidified foam of an obsidian. During the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 enormous quantities of pumice were ejected, and were carried by the sea to vast distances, until they ultimately became water-logged and sank. Professor Judd found the pumice to consist of a vitieous lava greatly inflated by imprisoned vapours; the walls of the air-cells were formed of the lava drawn out into thin plates and threads, often with delicate fibres running across the cavities. Having been suddenly cooled, it was extremely brittle, and its ready pulverization gave rise to much of the ash ejected during this eruption. It has been shown by Dr Johnston- Lavis that a bed of pumiceous lava, especially if basic, is generally vitreous towards the base, becoming denser, darker and more crys- talline upwards, until it may pass superficially into scoria. The change is explicable by reduction in the temperature of the magma consequent on the conversion of water Into steam. Water in Lavas. — Whether an eruption is of an explosive or a tranquil character must depend largely, though not wholly, on the chemical composition of the magma, especially on the extent to which it is aquiferous. By relief of pressure on the rise of the column in the volcanic channel, or otherwise, more or less steam will be disengaged, and if in large quantity this must become, with other vapours, a projectile agency of enormous power. The precise physical condition in which water exists in the magma is a matter of speculation, and hence Johnston-Lavis proposed to designate it simply as H8O. Water above its critical point, which is about 370 C. or 698° F., cannot exict as a liquid, whatever be the pressure, neither is it an ordinary vapour. It has been estimated that the critical point would probably be reached at a depth of about 7 m. At very high temperatures the elements of water may exist in a state of dissociation. Much discussion has ansen as to the origin of the volcanic water, but probably it is not all attributable to a single source. Some may be of superficial origin, derived from rain, river or sea; whilst the upward passage of lava through moist strata must generate large volumes of steam. It has often been remarked that wet weather increases the activity of a volcano, and that in certain mountains the eruptions are more frequent in winter. According, however, to Professor A. Ricco's prolonged study of Etna, rain has no apparent influence on the activity of this mountain, and indeed the number of eruptions in winter, when rains are abundant, seems rather less than in summer. The popular belief that explosive action is due to the admission of water to the volcanic focus is founded mainly on the topographic relation of volcanoes to large natural bodies of water, many being situated near the shore of a continent or on islands or even on the sea-floor. Salt water gaining access to heated rocks, through fissures or by capillary absorption, would give rise not only to water- vapour but to the volatile chlorides so common in volcanic exhala- tions. Yet it is notable that comparatively little chlorine is found among the products exhaled by the volcanoes of Hawaii, though these are typically insular. L. Palmieri, however, described certain sublimates on lava at Vesuvius after the eruption of 1872 as deposits of " sea-salt," to show that they were not simply sodium chloride, but contained other constituents found in sea-water. Professor T. J. J. See believes that sea-water gains access to the heated rocks of the earth's interior by leakage through the floor of the ocean, the bottom never being water-tight, and Arrhenius supposes that it reaches the magma by capillarity through this floor. It has been supposed that water on reaching the hot walls of a subterranean cavity would pass into the spheroidal state, and on subsequent reduction of temperature might come into direct contact with the heated surface, when it would flash with explosive_ violence into steam. Such catastrophes probably occur in certain cases. When, for example, a volcano becomes dormant, water commonly accumulates in the crater, and on a renewal of activity this crater- lake may be absorbed through fissures in the floor leading to the reopened duct, and thus become rapidly, even suddenly, converted into vapour. But such incidents are accidental rather than normal, and seem incompetent to account for volcanic activity in general. The effect of the contact of lava with water is often misunderstood. 184 VOLCANO When a stream of lava flows into the sea it no doubt immediately generates a prodigious volume of steam ; but this is only a temporary phenomenon, for the lava rapidly becomes chilled by the cold water, with formation of a superficial solid layer, which by its low thermal conductivity allows the internal mass to cool slowly and quietly. In the great eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 the «sea-water gained- occasional access to the molten lava, and by its cooling effect checked the escape of vapour, thus temporarily diminishing the volcanic activity. But Judd compares this action to that of fastening down the safety-valve of a steam-boiler. The tension of the elastic fluids being increased by this repression would give rise subsequently to an explosion of greater violence; and hence the short violent paroxysms characteristic of the Krakatoa eruption were due to what he calls a " check and rally " of the subterranean forces. The action in the volcanic conduit has, indeed, been compared with that of a geyser. The downward passage of water through fissures must be confined to the upper portion of the earth's crust known as the " zone of fracture, for it is there only that open channels can exist. Water might also percolate through the pores of the rocks, but even the pores are closed at great depths. It was shown many years ago by G. A. Daubree that water could pass to a limited extent through a heated rock against the pressure of steam in the opposite direction. According to S. Arrhemus, water may pass inwards through the sea-bottom by osmotic pressure. As the melting points of various silicates are lowered by admixture with water, it appears that the access of surface-waters to heated rocks must promote their fusibility. Judd has suggested that the proximity of large bodies of water may be favourable to volcanic manifestations, because the hydrated rocks become readily melted by internal heat and thus yield a supply of lava. Whilst some of the water-vapour exhaled from a volcano is undoubtedly derived from superficial sources, notably in such insular volcanoes as Stromboli, the opinion has of late years been gaining ground, through the teaching of Professor E. Suess and others, that the volcanic water must be largely referred to a deep-seated sub- terranean origin — that it is, in a word, " hypogene " or magmatic rather than meteoric. It is held that the magma as it rises through the volcanic conduit brings up much water-vapour and other gaseous matters derived from original sources, perhaps a relic of what was present in the earth in its molten condition, having possibly been absorbed from a dense primordial atmosphere, or, as suggested by Professor T. C. Chamberlin, entrapped by the globe during its formation by accretion of planetesimal matter. Water brought from magmatic depths to the surface, and appear- ing there for the first time, has been termed " juvenile," and it has been assumed that such water may be seen in hot springs like those at Carlsbad. Professor I. W. Gregory has suggested that certain springs in the interior of Australia may derive part of their supply from juvenile or plutonic waters. According to A. Gautier, the origin of volcanic water may be found in the oxidation of hydrogen, developed from masses of crystalline rock, which by subsidence have been subjected to the action of subterranean heat. Volcanic Vapours. — It seems not unlikely that the vapours and gases exist in the volcanic magma in much the same way that they can exist in molten metal. It is a familiar fact that certain metals when .melted can absorb large volumes of gases without entering into chemical combination with them. Molten silver, for example, is capable of absorbing from the atmosphere more than twenty times its volume of oxygen, which it expels on solidification, thus producing what is called the " spitting of silver." Platinum again can absorb and retain when solid, or occlude, a large volume of hydrogen, that can be expelled by heating the metal in vacuo. In like manner molten rock under pressure can absorb much steam. It appears that many igneous rocks contain gases locked up in their pores, not set free by pulverization, yet capable of expulsion by strong heat. The gases in rocks have been the subject of elaborate study by R. T. Chamberlin, whose results appear in Publication No. 106 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Sir W. A. Tilden has found that granite, gabbro, basalt and certain other igneous rocks enclose many times their volume of gases, chiefly hydrogen and carbon dioxide, with carbon monoxide, methane and nitrogen. Thus, the basalt of Antrim in Ireland, which is a Tertiary lava, yielded eight times its volume of gas having the _ following percentage composition: hydrogen 36-15, carbon dioxide 32-08, carbon monoxide 20-08, methane 10, nitrogen 1-61. No doubt some of the gases evolved on heating rocks may be gener- ated by reactions during the experiment, as shown by M. W. Travers, and also by Armand Gautier. It has been pointea out by Gautier that the gas exhaled from Mont Pel£ during the eruption of 1902 had practically the same composition as that which he obtained on heating granite and certain other rocks. According to this authority a cubic kilometre of granite heated to redness would yield not less than 26,000,000 tons of water-vapour, besides other pases. If then a mass of granite in the earth's crust were subject to a great local accession of heat it might evolve vast volumes of gaseous matter, capable of producing an eruption of explosive type. Judd found that the little balls of Siberian obsidian called marekanite threw off, when strongly heated, clouds of finely divided particles formed by rupture of the distended mass through the escape of vapour. Pitchstone when ignited loses in some cases as much as 10% of its weight, due to expulsion of water. Much of the steam and other vapour brought up from below by the lava may be evolved on mere exposure to the air, and hence a stream freshly extruded is generally beclouded with more or less vapour. Gaseous bubbles in the body of the lava render it vesicular, especially in the upper part of a stream, where the pressure is relieved, and the vesicles by the onward flow of the lava tend to become elongated in the direction of movement. Vesiculatipn, being naturally resisted by cohesion, is not common in very viscid lavas of acid type, nor is it to be expected where the lava has been subject to great pressure, but it is seen to perfection in surface-flows of liquid lavas of basaltic character. A vesicular structure may some- times be seen even in dykes, but the cavities are usually rounded rather than elongated, and are often arranged in bands parallel to the walls of the dyke. A very small proportion of water in a lava suffices to produce vesiculation. Secondary minerals developed in a cellular lava may be deposited in the steam-holes, thus producing an amygdaloidal rock. After the surface of a lava-stream has become crusted over, vapour may still be evolved in the interior of the mass, and in seeking release may elevate or even pierce the crust. Small cones may thus be thrown up on a lava-flow, and when vapour escapes from terminal or lateral orifices they are known as " spiracles." The steam may issue with sufficient projectile force to toss up the lava in little fountains. When the lava is very liquid, as in the Hawaiian volcanoes, it may after projection from the blow-hcle fall back in drops and plastic clots, which on consolidation form, by their union, small cones. Vapour-vents on lava are often known as fumaroles (q.v.). The character of the gaseous exhalations varies with the temperature, and the following classification was suggested by C. Sainte-Claire Deville: (i) Dry or white fumaroles having a temperature above 500° C. and evolving compounds of chlorine, and perhaps fluorine. (2) Acid fumaroles, exhaling much steam, with hydrocholoric acid and sulphur dioxide. (3) Alkaline fumaroles, at a temperature of about 100°, with much steam and ammonium chlorideand some sulphuretted hydrogen. (4) Cold fumaroles, below 100°, with aqueous vapour, carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen. (5) Mofettes, indicating the expiring phase of vulcanism. A similar sequence of emanations, following progressive cooling of the lava, has been noted by other observers. During an eruption, the gaseous products may vary considerably. Johnston-Lavis found at Vesuvius that the vapour which first escaped from the boiling lava contained much sul- phurous acid, and that hydrochloric acid and other chlorides appeared later. If the vapours exhaled from volcanoes were derived originally from superficial sources, the lava would, of course, merely return to the surface of the earth what it had directly or indirectly absorbed. But if, as is now rather generally believed, much if not most of the volcanic vapour is derived from original subterranean sources, it must form a direct contribution from the interior of the earth to the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and consequently becomes of extreme geological interest. Description of Special Gases and Vapours. — Hydrochloric acid, HC1, escapes abundantly from many vents, often accompanied with the vapours of certain metallic chlorides, and is responsible for much of the acrid effects of volcanic exhalations. To avoid dangerous vapours an active volcano should be ascended on the windward side. Free hydrofluoric acid, HF, has sometimes been detected with the hydrochloric acid among Vesuvian vapours, and silicon fluoride, SiF4, has also been reported. Sulphuretted hydrogen, H2S, is a frequent emanation, and being combustible may contribute to the lambent flames seen in some eruptions. It readily suffers oxidation, giving rise to sulphur dioxide and water. By the interaction of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, water and carbon oxy- sulphide, COS, are formed ; whilst bv reaction with sulphur dioxide, water and free sulphur are produced, such being no doubt the origin of many deposits of volcanic sulphur. Hydrogen sulphide may be formed by the decomposition of certain metallic sulphides, like that of calcium, in the presence of moisture, as suggested by Anderson and Flett with regard to certain muds at the Soufriere of St Vincent. Sulphur dioxide, SOj, is one of the commonest exhalations, especially at acid fumaroles. It may be detected by its characteristic smell, that of burning brimstone, even when present in very small pro- portion and in the presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid. By hydration it readily forms sulphurous acid, which may be further oxidized to sulphuric acid. J. B. Boussingault found free sulphuric acid (with hydrochloric acid) in the water of the Rio Vinagre which issues from the volcano of Purac6 m the Andes of Colombia; and it occurs also in certain other volcanic waters. Carbon dioxide, COj, is generally a product of the later stages of an eruption, and is ieJd VOLCANO 185 often evolved after all other gases have ceased to escape. Although it may sometimes be due to the decomposition of limestone, it seems to be mostly of true magmatic origin. At the well-known Grotta del Cane, at Lake Agnano, in the Phlegraean Fields near Naples, there has been for ages a copious discharge, and analyses of the air of the cave by T. Graham Young showedthe presence of from 61-5 tn 71 % of carbon dioxide. Gautier, in 1907, found 96 to 97% of this yas in the vapours (excluding water-vapour) emitted from the ,tara near Pozzuoli in the Bay of Naples. The gas by its ay tends to accumulate in depressed areas, as in the Death li in the Yellowstone Park and in the Upas Valley of Java. In the Eifel, in the Auvergne and in many other volcanic regions it is :,irged at temperatures not above that of the atmosphere. This natural carbonic acid gas is now utilized industrially at many localities. In the gases of the fumaroles of Mont Pele, carbon monoxide, CO, was detected by H. Moissan. Probably certain hydrocarbons, notably methane or marsh-gas, CH«, often exist in inic gases. They might be formed by the action of water on natural carbides, such as that of magnesium, calcium, &c. Moissan found 5-46% of methane in vapour from a fumarole on Mont Pel6 in 1902. Free hydrogen was detected by R. Bunsen as far back as 1846 in vapours from volcanoes in Iceland. In 1861 Deville and Fouqu£ found it, with hydrocarbons, at Torre del Greco near Naples ; and in 1866 Fouque discovered it at Santorin, where some of the vapour at the immediate focus of eruption contained as much as of hydrogen. It is notable that at Santorin free oxygen was also found. The elements of water may possibly exist, at the high temperature of the magma, in a state of dissociation, and certain volcanic explosions have sometimes been attributed to the com- bination of these elements. Oxygen is not infrequently found among volcanic emanations, but may perhaps be derived in most cases from superficial air and ground-water; and in. like manner the nitrogen, often detected, may be sometimes of atmospheric origin, though in other cases derived from nitrides in the lava. In the vapours emitted by Mont Pele in 1902 argon was detected by H. Moissan, to the extent of 0-71 %; and in those from Vesuvius in 1906 argon and neon were found by Gautier. The collection of volcanic vapours offers difficulty, and it is not easy to avoid admixture with the atmo- sphere. F. A. Perret has successfully collected gases on Vesuvius. Volcanic Flames. — Although the incandescence of the lava and stones projected during an eruption, and the reflection from incan- descent matter in the crater have often been mistaken for red flames, there can be no doubt that true combustion, though generally feeble, does occur during volcanic outbursts. Among the gases cited above, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and the hydrocarbons are inflammable. The names seen in volcanoes are generally pale and of bluish, greenish or yellowish tint. They were first examined spectro- scopically by J. Janssen, who in 1867 detected the lines of burning hydrogen at Santorin. Subsequently he proved the presence of hydrogen, sodium and hydrocarbons in the volcanic flames of Kilauea. During the eruption of Vulcano, in the Lipari Isles, in 1888, flames with a bluish or greenish tinge were seen by A. E. Narlian, an experienced observer resident in the island. These, however, were referred to the kindling of sulphur deposited around the fumaroles, the flames being coloured by the presence of boric acid and arsenic sulphide. When a stream of lava flows over vegetation the combustion of the leaves and wood may be mistaken for flames issuing from the lava. In like manner brushwood may grow in the crater of a dormant volcano and be ignited by a fresh outburst of lava, thus producing flames which, Ifrom their position in the crater, may readily deceive an observer. Volcanic Sublimates. — Certain mineral substances occur as sub- limates in and around the volcanic vents, forming incrustations on the lava. They are either deposited directly from the effluent vapours, which carry them in a volatile condition, or are produced by interaction of the vapours among themselves; whilst some of the incrustations, rather loosely called sublimates, are due to reaction of the vapours on the constituents of the lava. Possibly at the temperature of the magma-reservoirs even silica and various silicates may be volatilized, and might thus yield sublimation products. Many of the volcanic sublimates occur at first as incan- descent crusts on the lava. Being generally unstable they are difficult of preservation, and are not usually well represented in collections. Among the commonest sublimates is halite, or sodium chloride, X.iCl, occurring as a white crystalline incrustation, sometimes accompanied, as at Vesuvius, by sylvite, or potassium chloride, KC1, which forms a similar sublimate. The two chlorides may be intimately associated. Sal ammoniac, or ammonium chloride, NH4CI, is not uncommon, especially at Etna, as a white crystalline crust, probably formed in part by the reaction of hydrochloric acid with nitrogen and hydrogen in the vapours. Bunsen, on finding it in Iceland, regarded it as a product of the distillation of organic matter. At the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli, sal ammoniac was formerly collected as a sublimate on tiles placed round a bocca or vapour- vent. . Ferric chloride, FeCli, not infrequently occurs as a reddish or brownish yellow deliquescent incrustation, and because it thus colours the lava it has received the name of molysite (from Gr. /lAXuffij, stain). The action of hydrochloric acid on the iron com- pounds in the lava may readily yield this chloride, which from its yellowish colour has sometimes been mistaken for sulphur. A crystalline sublimate from the fumaroles on Vesuvius, containing ferric and alkaline chlorides, KCl-NH4Cl-2FeCl,+6H,O, is known as kremersite, after P. Kremers. From a scoriaceous lava found on Vesuvius after the eruption of 1906, Johnston-Lavis procured a yellow rhombohedral sublimate, which he proved to be a chloride of manganese and potassium, whence he proposed for it the name chlormanganokahte. It was studied by L. J. Spencer, and found to contain 4KCl-MnClj. Chlorocalcite, or native calcium chloride, CaCU, has been found in cubic crystals on Vesuvian lava. Fluorite, or calcium fluoride, CaFj, is also known as a volcanic product. Lead chloride, PbCl2, a rare Vesuvian mineral, was named cotunnite, after Dr Cotugno of Naples. The action of hydrogen sulphide on this chloride may give rise to galena, PbS, found by A. Lacroix on Vesu- vius in 1906. Atacamite, or cupric oxychlonde, CuCla-3Cu(OH),, occurs as a green incrustation on certain Vesuvian lavas, notably those of 1631. Another green mineral from Vesuvius was found by A. Scacchi to be a sulphate containing copper, with potas- sium and sodium, which he named from its fine colour euclorina — a word which has been written in English as euchlorinite. The copper in the sublimates on Vesuvius will sometimes plate the iron nails of a traveller's boots when crossing the newly erupted lava. Cupric oxide, CuO, occurs in delicate crystalline scales termed tenorite, after Professor G. Tenore of Naples; whilst cupric sulphide, CuS, forms a delicately reticulated incrustation known as covellite, after N. Covelli, its discoverer at Vesuvius. A sublimate not infrequently found in feathery crystalline deposits on lava at Vesuvius, and formerly called " Vesuvian salt," is a potassium and sodium sulphate, (K'NaWSO* known as aphthi- talite (from Gr. t^ffirm, imperishable, and 4Xs, salt). A sulphate with the composition PbSO4-(K-Na)zSO4, found in the fumaroles at Vesuvius after the eruption of 1906, was named by A. Lacroix palmierite, after L. Palmieri, who was formerly director of the observatory on Vesuvius. Various sulphites are formed on lavas by the sulphurous acid of the vapours. Ferric oxide, FejOi, which occurs in beautiful _ metallic scales as specular iron-ore, or as an amorphous reddish incrustation on the lava, is probably formed in most cases by the interaction of vapour of ferric chloride and steam at a high temperature. Less frequently, magnetite, Fe«O«, and magnesioferrite, MgFejO*, are found in octahedral crystals on lava. An iron nitride (FejNj) was detected thinly incrusting a lava erupted at Etna in 1874, and was named by O. Silvestri, who examined it, siderazote. Boric acid, HsBOs, occurs in the crater of Vulcano so abundantly that it was at one time collected commercially. It has also led to the foundation of an industry in Tuscany, where it is obtained from the soffipni (g.v.) of the Maremma. From Sasso in Tuscany it has received the name of sassolin or sassplite. Realgar, or arsenic sulphide, AsjSj, occurs in certain volcanic exhalations and is de- posited as an orange-red incrustation, often associated with sulphur, as at the Solfatara, where orpiment, AsjSj, has also been found. Of all volcanic products, sulphur (q.v.) is in some respects the most important. It may -occur in large quantity lining the walls of the crater, as at Popocatepetl in Mexico, where it was formerly worked by the Indian " volcaneros," or on the other hand ft may be a rare product, as at Vesuvius. Sulphur appears generally to owe its origin in volcanic areas to the interaction of sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, or to the action of water on the latter. A" volcanic vent where sulphur is deposited is truly a solfatara (solfo terra) or a spufriere, but all volcanoes which have passed into that stage in which they emit merely heated vapours now pass under this name (see SOLFATARA). The famous Solfatara, an old crater in the Phlegraean Fields, exhales sulphurous vapours, especially at the Bocca Grande, from which sulphur is deposited. In the orange- coloured sulphur of the Solfatara, realgar may be present to the extent of as much as 18 %. A brown seleniferous sulphur occurring at Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands, was termed by W. Haidinger volcanite, but it should be noted that Professor W. H. Hobbs has applied this name to an anorthoclase-augite rock ejected as bombs at Vulcano. Sulphur containing selenium is known as a volcanic product in Hawaii, whilst in Japan not only selenium but tellurium occurs in certain kinds of sulphur. At the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli, the hot sulphurous vapours attack the trachytic rocks from which they issue, giving rise to such pro- ducts as alum, kaolin and gypsum. To some of these products, including alunogen and mendozite (soda-alum), the name solfatarite was given by C. W. Sheppard in 1835. By prolonged action of the acid vapours on lava, the bases of the silicates may be removed, leaving the silica as a soft white chalk-like substance. The occur- rence of kaolin and other white earthy alteration-products led to the hills around the Solfatara being known to the Romans as the Colli leucogei. The Hot Dust Cloud and Avalanche of Pelf. — The terrific erup- tions in the islands of Martinique and St Vincent in the West Indies in 1902, furnished examples of a type of activity not previ- ously recognized by vulcanologists, though, as Professor A. Lacroix i86 VOLCANO has pointed out, similar phenomena have no doubt occurred elsewhere, especially in the Azores. By Drs Jempest Anderson and J. S. Flett, who were commissioned by the Royal Society to report on the phenomena, this type of explosive eruption is distinguished as the " Pelean type." Its distinctive character is found in the sudden emission of a dense black cloud of super- heated and suffocating gases, heavily charged with incandescent dust, moving with great velocity and accompanied by the dis- charge of immense volumes of volcanic sand, which are not rained down in the normal manner, but descend like a hot avalanche. The cloud, with the avalanche, is called by Lacroix a nu£e Peleenne, or nufe ardente, the latter term having been applied to the fatal cloud in the eruptions at San Jorge in the Azores in 1818. In its typical form, the cloud seen at Pele appeared as a solid bank, opaque and impenetrable, but having the edge in places hanging like folds of a curtain, and apparently of brown or purplish colour. Rolling along like an inky torrent, it produced in its passage intense darkness, relieved by vivid lightning. So much solid matter was suspended in the cloud, that it became too dense to surmount obstacles and behaved rather like a liquid. It has, however, been suggested that its peculiar movement as it swept down the mountain was due not simply to its heavy charge of solids, but partly to the oblique direction of the initial explosion. After leaving the crater, it underwent enormous expansion, and Anderson and Flett were led to suggest that possibly at the moment of emission it might have been partly in the form of liquid drops, which on solidify- ing evolved large volumes of gas held previously in occlusion. The deadly effect of the blast seems to have been mostly due to the irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages by the fine hot dust, but suffocating gases, like sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, were associated with the water-vapour. Possibly the incandescent dust was even hotter than the surrounding vapour, since the latter might be cooled by expansion. It is said that the black cloud as it swept along was accom- panied by an indraught of air, not however sufficiently powerful to check its rapid advance. The current of air was likened by Anderson and Flett to the inrush of air at a railway station as an express train passes. An attempt was made to determine the temperature of the fatal blast which destroyed St Pierre, but without very definite results. Thus it was assumed that as the telephone wires were not melted the temperature was below the fusing-point of copper: possibly, however, the blast may have passed too rapidly to produce the effects which might normally be due to its temperature. Shape of Volcanic Cones. — Those volcanic products which are solid when ejected, or which solidify after extrusion, tend to form by their accumulation around the eruptive vent a hill, which, though generally more or less conical, is subject to much variation in shape. It occasionally happens that the hill is composed wholly of ejected blocks, not themselves of volcanic origin. In this case an explosion has rent the ground, and the effluent vapours have hurled forth fragments of the shattered rock through which the vent was opened, but no ash or other fragmentary volcanic material has been ejected, nor has any lava been poured forth. _ This exceptional type is represented in the Eifel by certain monticules which consist mainly of fragments of Devonian slate, more or less altered. In some cases the area within a ring of such rocky materials is occupied by a sheet of water, forming a crater-lake, known in the Eifel as a maar. Piles of fragmentary matter of this character, though containing neither cinders nor lava, may be fairly regarded as volcanic, inasmuch as they are due to the explosive action of hot subterranean vapours. In the ordinary paroxysmal type of eruption, however, cinders and ashes are shot upwards by the explosion and then descend in showers, forming around the orifice a mound, in shape rather like the diminu- tive cone of sand in the lower lobe of an hour-glass. Little cinder- cones of this character may be formed within the crater of a large volcano during a single eruption; whilst large cones are built up by many successive discharges, each sheet of fragmentary material mantling more or less regularly round the preceding layer. The symmetry of the hill is not infrequently affected by disturbing influences — a strong wind, for example, blowing the loose matter towards one side. The sides of a cinder cone have generally a steep slope, varying from 30° to 45°, depending on the angle of repose of the ejectamenta. Excellent examples of small scoria-cones are found among the puys of Auvergne in central France, whilst a mag- nificent illustration of this type of hill is furnished by Fusiyama, in Japan, which reaches an altitude of 12,000 ft. How such a cone may be rapidly built up was well shown by the formation of Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli — a hill 400 ft. high and a mile and a half in circumference, which is known from contemporary evidence to have been formed in the course of a few days in September 1538. The shape of a cinder cone may be retained for ages, since it is not liable to suffer greatly by denudation, as the rain soaks into the loose porous mass instead of running down the outside. If lava rises in the duct of a cinder cone, it may, on accumulation in the crater, break down the wall, and thus effect its escape as a stream. Cones /breached in this way are not uncommon in Auvergne. It often happens that the cinders and ashes ejected from a volcano become mixed with water, and so form a paste, which sets readily as a hard tufaceous mass. Such natural tuff is indeed similar to the hydraulic cement known as pozzolana, which is formed artificially from volcanic ashes, and is renowned for durability. Although streams of volcanic mud are commonly associated with the ashes of a cinder-cone they may also form independent structures or tuff- cones. These are generally broad-topped hills, having sides with an angle of slope as low in some cases as 15°. Lava-cones are built up of streams of lava which have consolidated around the funnel of escape. Associated with the lava, however, there is usually more or less fragmentary matter, so that the cones are composite in structure and consequently more acute in shape than if they were composed wholly of lava. As the streams of lava in a volcano run at different times in different directions, they radiate from the centre, or flow from lateral or eccentric orifices, as irregular tongues, and do not generally form continuous sheets covering the mountain. When lava is the sole or chief element in the cone, the shape of the hill is determined to a great extent by the chemical composition and viscosity of the lava, its copiousness and the rapidity of flow. If the lava be highly basic and very mobile, it may spread to a great distance before solidifying, and thus form a hill covering a large area and rising perhaps to a great height, but remarkably flat in profile. Were the lava perfectly liquid, it would indeed form a sheet without any perceptible slope of surface. As a matter of fact, some lavas are so fluent as to run down an incline of i°, and flat cones of basalt have in some cases a slope of only 10° or even less. The colossal mass of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, forms a remarkably flat broad cone, spreading over a base of enormous area and rising to a height of 13,900 ft. Major Dutton, writing in 1883, said that " a moderate eruption of Mauna Loa represents more material than Vesuvius has emitted since the days of Pompeii." Yet the lava is so mobile that it generally wells forth quietly, without explosive demonstra- tion, and therefore unaccompanied by fragmentary ejectamenta. Fluent lavas like those of Hawaii are also poured forth from the volcanoes and volcanic fissures of Iceland. If the lava be less basic and less fusible, the hill formed by its accumulation instead of being a low dome will take the shape of a cone with sides of higher gradient : in the case of andesite cones, for instance, the slope may vary from 25° to 35°. Acid rocks, or those rich in silica, such as rhyolites and trachytes, may be emitted as very viscous lavas tending to form dome-shaped or bulbous masses. Experiment shows that such lavas may persist for a considerable time in a semi-solid condition. It is possible for a dome to increase in size not by the lava running over the crater and down the sides but by injection of the pasty magma within the expanding bulb while still soft; or if solidified, the crust yields by cracking. Such a mode of growth, in which the dome consists of successive sheets that have been compared to the skins of an onion, has been illustrated by the experiments of Dr A. Reyer, and the structure is typically represented by the mamelons- or steep-sided domes of the Isle of Bourbon. The Puy-de-D6me in Auvergne is an example of a cone formed of the trachytic rock called from its locality domite, whilst the Grand Sarcoui in the same region illustrates the broad dome- shaped type of hill. Such domes may have no summit-crater, and it is then usually assumed that the top with the crater has been removed by denudation, but possibly in some cases such a feature never existed. The " dome volcano " of von Seebach is a dome of acid lava extruded as a homogeneous mass, without conspicuous chimney or crater. Although domes are usually composed of acid rocks, it seems possible that they may be formed also of basic lavas, if the magma be protruded slowly at a low temperature so as to be rapidly congealed. The Spine of Pele. — A peculiar volcanic structure appeared at Mont Pel6 in the course of the eruption of 1902, and was the subject of careful study by Professor A. Lacroix, Dr E. A. Hoovey, A. Heilprin and other observers. It appears that from fissures in the floor of the Etang Sec a viscous andesitic lava, partly quartziferous, was poured forth and rapidly solidified superficially, forming a dome- shaped mass invested by a crust or carapace. According to Lacroix, the crust soon became fractured, partly by shrinkage on consolida- tion and partly by internal tension, and the dome grew rapidly by injection of molten matter. Then there gradually rose from the dome a huge monolith or needle, forming a terminal spine, which in the course of its existence varied in shape and height, having been at its maximum in July. 1903, when its absolute height was about VOLCANO 187 5276 ft. above sea-level. The walls of the spine, inclined at from 75 to 90° to the horizon, were apparently slickensided, or polished and scratched by friction: masses were occasionally detached and .iirs were continually escaping. Several smaller needles were tormcd. Some observers regarded the great spine as a solidified of lava from a previous outburst, expelled on a renewal of 1-acroix, however, believed that it was formed by the of an enormous mass of highly viscid magma, perhaps !y solidified before emission, and he compared the formation of the dome in the crater to the structure on Santorin in 1866, described bv Fouqu6 as a " cumulo-volcano." Professor H. F. Cleland has -•u-il a comparison with the cone of andesite in the crater of the volcano of Toluca in Mexico, and it is said that similar formations U-en observed in the volcanoes of the Andes. Dr Tempest Anderson, on visiting Pel6 in 1907, found a stump of the spine, consisting of a kind of volcanic agglomerate, rising from a cone of talus formed of its ruins. The Crater. — The eruptive orifice in normal volcano — the bocca of Italian vulcanologists — is usually situated at the bottom of a depression or cup, kno\yn as the crater. This hollow is formed and kept open by the explosive force of the elastic vapours, and when the i no becomes dormant or extinct it may be closed, partly by rock falling from its crumbling walls and partly by the solidification of the lava which it may contain. If a renewed outburst occurs, the floor of the old crater may reopen or a new outlet may be formed at some weak point on the side of the mountain : hence a crater may, with regard to position, be either terminal or lateral. The position of the crater will evidently be also changed on any shifting of the general axis of eruption. In shape and size the crater vanes from to time, the walls being perhaps breached or even blown away during an outburst. Hence the height of a volcanic mountain in activity, measured to the rim of the crater or the terminal peak, is not constant. Vesuvius, for example, suffered a reduction of several hundred feet during the great eruption of 1906, the east side of the cone having lost, according to V. R. Matteucci, 120 metres. Whilst in many cases the crater is a comparatively small circular hollow around the orifice of discharge, it forms in others a large bowl- like cavity, such as is termed in some localities a " caldera." In the Sandwich Islands the craters are wide pits bounded by nearly vertical walls, showing stratified and terraced lavas and floored by a great plain of black basalt, sometimes with lakes of molten lava. Professor W. H. Pickering compares the Java-pits of Hawaii to the crater-rings in the moon. Some of the pit-craters in the Sandwich Islands are of great size, but none comparable with the greatest of the lunar craters. Dr G. K. Gilbert, however, has suggested that the ring-shaped pits on the moon are not of volcanic origin, but are depressions formed by the impact of meteorites. Similarly the " crater " of Coon Butte, near Canyon Diablo, in Arizona, which is 4000 ft. in diameter and 500 ft. deep, has been regarded as a vast pit due to collision of a meteorite of prodigious size. Probably the largest terrestrial volcanic crater is that of Aso-san, in the isle of Kiushiu (Japan), which is a huge oval depression estimated by some observers to have an area of at least 100 sq. m. Some of the large pit-craters have probably been formed by subsidence, the cone of a volcano having been eviscerated by extravasation of lava, and the roof of the cavity having then subsided by loss of support. The term caldera has sometimes been limited to craters formed by such collapse. On the floor of the crater, ejected matter may accumulate as a conoidal pile; and if such action be repeated in the crater of the new cone, a succession of concentric cones will ultimately be formed. The walls of a perfect crater form a ring, giving the cone a truncated appearance, but the ring may suffer more or less destruction in the course of the history of the mountain. A familiar instance of such change is afforded by Vesuvius. _The mountain now so called, using the term in a restricted sense, is a huge composite cone built up within an old crateral hollow, the walls of which still rise as an encircling rampart on the N. and N.E. sides, and are known as Monte Somma ; but the S. and S.W. sides of the ancient crater have disappeared, haying been blown away during some former outburst, probably the Plinian eruption of 79. In like manner the relics of an old crater form an ampnitneatre partially engirdling the Soufriere in St Vincent, and other examples of " Somma rings are known to vulcanologists. Much of the fragmental matter ejected from a volcano rolls down the inside of the crater, forming beds of tuff which incline towards the central axis, or have a centroclinal dip. On the contrary, the sheets of cinder and lava which form the bulk of the cone slope away from the axis, or have a dip that is sometimes described as peri- centric or qua-qua-versal. According to the old " crater-of -elevation theory," held especially by A. von Humboldt, L. von Buch and Elie de Beaumont, this inclination of the beds was regarded as mainly due to upheaval. It was contended that the volcanic cone owed its shape, for the most part, to local distension of the ground, and was indeed comparable to a huge blister of the earth's crust, burst at the summit to form the " elevation crater." Palma, in the Canary Islands, was cited as a_ typical example of such a formation. This view was opposed mainly by Poulett-Scrope, Sir Charles Lyell and Constant Prevost, who argued that the volcano, so far from being bladder-like, was practically a solid cone of erupted matter: hence this view came to be known as the " crater-of-eruption theory." Its general soundness has been demonstrated whenever an insight has been obtained into the internal structure of a volcano. Thus, after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 a magnificent natural section of the great cone of Rakata, at the S. end of the island, was exposed — the northern half haying been blown away — and it was then evident that this mountain was practically a solid cone, built up of a great succession of irregular beds of tuff and lava, braced together by intersecting dykes. The internal architecture of a volcano is raiely so well displayed as in this case, but dissections of cones, more or less distinct, are often obtained by denudation. It should be mentioned that, in connexion with the structures called laccoliths, there may have been an elevation, or folding, and even faulting, of the super- ficial rocks by subterranean intrusion of lava ; but this is different from the local expansion and rupture of the ground required by the old theory. It may be noted, however, that in recent years the view of elevation, in a modified form, has not been without supporters. Where the growth of a volcanic mound takes place from within, as in certain steep-sided trachytic cones, there may be no perceptible crater or external outlet. Again, there are many volcanoes which have no crater at the summit, because the eruptions always take place from lateral outlets. Even when a terminal pit is present, the lava may issue from the body of the mountain, and in some cases it exudes from so many vents or cracks that the volcano has been described as " sweating fire." Parasitic Cones. — In the case of a lofty volcano the column of lava may not have sufficient ascensional force to reach the crater at the summit, or at any rate it finds easier means of egress at some weak spot, often along radial cracks, on the flanks of the mountain. 1 hus at Etna, which rises to a height of more than 10,800 ft., the eruptions usually proceed from lateral fissures, sometimes at least hall-way down the mountain-side. When fragmental materials are ejected from a lateral vent a cinder-cone is formed, and by frequent repetition of such ejections the flanks of Etna have become dotted over with hundreds of scoria-cones much like the puys of Auvergne, the largest (Monte Minardo) rising to a height of as much as 750 ft. Hills of this character, seated on the parent mountain, are known as parasitic cones, minor cones, lateral cones, &c. Such subordinate cones often show a tendency to a linear arrange- ment, rising from vents or bocche along the floor ot a line of fissure. Thus in 1892 a_ chain of five cones arose from a rift on the S. side of Etna, running in a N. and S. direction, and the hills became known as the Monti Silvestri, after Professor Orazio Silvestri of Catania. This rift, however, was but acontinuation of a fissure from which therearose in 1886 the series of cones called the Monti Gemmellaro, while this in turn was a prolongation of a rent opened in 1883. The eruption on Etna in the spring of 1910 took place along the same general direction, but at a much higher elevation. The tendency for erup- tions to be renewed along old lines of weakness, which can be readily opened afresh and extended, is a feature well known to vulcanologists. The small cones which are frequently thrown up on lava streams were admirably exemplified on Vesuvius in the eruption of 1855 and figured by J. Schmidt. The name of "driblet cones" was given by J. D. Dana to the little cones and pillars formed by jets of lava projected from blowing holes at Kilauea, the drops of lava remaining plastic and cohering as they fell. Such clots may form columns and pyramids, with almost vertical sides. Steep-sided cones more or less of this character occur elsewhere, but are usually built up around spiracles. Small cones formed by mere dabs of lava are known trivially as " spatter cones." Fissure Eruptions. — In certain parts of the world there are vast tracts of basaltic lava with little or no evidence of cones or of pyroclastic accompaniment. To explain their formation, Baron F. von Richthofen suggested that they represent great floods of lava which were poured forth not from ordinary volcanic craters with more or less explosive violence, but from great fissures in the earth's crust, whence they may have quietly welled forth and spread as a deluge over the surface of the country. The eruptions were thus effusive rather than explosive. Such phenomena, constituting a distinct type of vulcanism, are distinguished as fissure eruptions or massive eruptions — terms which suggest the mode of extrusion and the character of the extruded matter. As the lava in such outflows must be very fusible, it is generally of basaltic type, like \hat of Hawaii: indeed, the Hawaiian volcanoes, with their quiet emission of highly fluent lavas, connect the fissure eruptions with the " central eruptions," which are usually regarded as representing the normal type of activity. At the present day true fissure eruptions seem to be of rather limited occurrence, but excellent examples are furnished by Iceland. Here there are vast fields of black basalt, formed of sheets of lava which have issued from long chasms, studded in most cases with rows of small cones, but these generally so insignificant that they make no scenic features and might be readily obliterated by denudation. Dr T. Thoroddsen enumerates 87 great rifts and lines _of cones in Iceland, and even the larger cones of Vesuvian type are situated on fissures. It is believed that fissure eruptions must have played a far more important part in the history of the earth than eruptions of the familiar cone-and-crater type, the latter representing indeed only VOLCANO a declining phase of vulcanism. Sir Archibald Geikie, who has specially studied the subject of fissure eruptions, regards the Tertiary basaltic plateaus of N.E. Ireland and the Inner Hebrides as out- flows from fissures, which may be represented by the gigantic system of dykes that form so marked a feature in the geological structure of the northern part of Britain and Ireland. These dykes extend over an area of something like 40,000 sq. m., while the outflows form an aggregate of about 3000 ft. in thickness. In parts of Nevada, Idaho. Oregon and Washington, sheets of late Tertiary basalt from fissure eruptions occupy an area of about 200,000 sq. m., and constitute a pile at least 2000 ft. thick. In India the " Deccan traps " represent enormous masses of volcanic matter, probably of like origin but of Cretaceous date, whilst South Africa furnishes other examples of similar outflows. Professor J. W. Gregory recognized in the Kapte plains of East Africa evidence of a type of vulcanism, which he distinguished as that of " plateau eruptions. " According to him a number of vents opened at the points of inter- section of lines of weakness in a high plateau, giving rise to many small cones, and the simultaneous flows of lava from these cones united to form a far-spreading sheet. Extrusive and Intrusive Magmas. — When the molten magma in the interior of the earth makes its way upwards and flows forth super- ficially as a stream of lava, the product is described as extrusive, effusive, effluent or eruptive; but if, failing to reach the surface, the magma solidifies in a fissure or other subterranean cavity, it is said to be intrusive or irruptive. Rocks of the former group only are sometimes recognized as strictly " volcanic, " but the term is conveniently extended, at least in certain cases, to igneous rocks of the latter type, including therefore certain hypabyssal and even plutonic rocks. When the intrusive magma has been forced into narrow irregular crevices it forms " veins, which may exhibit complex ramifications, especially marked in some acid rocks; but when injected into a regularly shaped fissure,, more or less parallel-sided, and cutting across the planes of bedding, it forms a wall-like mass of rock termed a " dyke. " Most dykes are approximately vertical, or at least highly inclined in position. The inclination of a dyke to a vertical plane is termed its " hade. " In a cinder-cone, the lava as it rises may force its way into cracks, formed by pressure of the magma and tension of the vapours, and will thus form a system of veins and dykes, often radiating from the volcanic axis and strengthening the structure by binding the loose materials together. Thus, in the Valle del Bove, a huge cavity on the east side of Etna, the walls exhibit numerous vertical dykes, which by their hardness stand out as rocky ribs, forming a marked feature in the scenery of the valley. In a similar way dykes traverse the walls of the old crater of Monte Somma at Vesuvius. Exceptionally a dyke may be hollow, the lava having solidified as a crust at the margin of the fissure but having escaped from the interior while still liquid. When molten matter is thrust between beds of tuff or between successive lava-flows or even ordinary sedimentary strata, it forms an intrusive sheet of volcanic rock known as a " sill. " A sill may sometimes be traced to its connexion with a dyke, which represents the channel up which the lava rose, but instead of reaching the surface the fluid found an easier path between the strata or perhaps along a horizontal rent. Although a dyke may represent a conduit for the ascent of lava which has flowed out superficially, yet if the lava has been removed at the surface by denudation the dyke terminates abruptly, so that its function as the former feeder of a lava-current is not evident. In other cases a dyke may end bluntly because the crack which it occupies never reached the surface. Lava which has insinuated itself between planes of stratification may, instead of spreading out as a sheet or sill, accumulate locally as a lenticular mass, known as a laccolith or laccolite (q.v.). Such a mass, in many cases rather mushroom-shaped, may force the super- incumbent rocks upwards as a dome, and though at first concealed may be ultimately exposed by removal of the overlying burden by erosion. The term phacolite was introduced by A. Harker to denote a meniscus-shaped mass of lava intruded in folded strata, along a crest or a trough. The bysmalith of Professor Iddings is a laccolith of rather plug-like shape, with a faulted roof. An intrusive mass ?uite irregular in shape has been termed by R. A. Daly a chonolith Gr. xte"!, a mould), whilst an intrusion of very great size and ill- defined form is sometimes described as a bathylith or batholite. Structural Peculiarities in Lava. — Many of the structures exhibited by lava are due to the conditions under which solidification has been effected. A dyke, for example, may be vitreous at the margin where it has been rapidly chilled by contact with the walls of the fissure into which it was injected, whilst the main body may be lithoidal or crystalline: hence a basalt dyke will sometimes have a selvage formed of the basaltic glass known as tachylyte. A similar glass may form a thin crust on certain lava-flows. In a homogeneous vitreous lava, contraction on solidification may develop curved fissures, well seen in the delicate " perlitic " cracks of certain obsidians, indicating a tendency to assume a globular structure. This structure becomes very distinct by the develop- ment of " spherulites, " or globular masses with a radiating fibrous structure, sometimes well seen in devitrified glass. Occasionally the spherulitic bodies in lava are hollow, when they are known as lithophyses, of which excellent examples occur at Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone National Park, as described by Professor Iddings. Globular structure on a large scale is sometimes displayed by lavas, especially those of basic type, such as the basalt of Aci Castello in Sicily, which was probably formed, according to Professor Gaetano Platania, by flow of the lava into submarine silt, relics of which still occur between the spheroids. Ellipsoidal or pillow-shaped masses are not infrequently developed in ancient lava-flows, and Sir A. Geikie has suggested the term " pillow-structure " for such formations. Dr T. Anderson has observed them in the recent lavas of Savaii. Joints, or cracks formed by shrinkage on solidification, may divide a sheet of lava into columns, as familiarly seen in basalt, where the rock often consists of a close mass of regular polygonal prisms, mostly hexagonal. Each prism is divided at intervals by transverse joints, more or less curved, so that the portions are united by a slight ball-and-socket articulation. As the long axes of the columns lie at right angles to the cooling surface they are vertical in a horizontal sheet of lava, horizontal in a vertical dyke, and inclined or curved in other cases. It sometimes happens that in a basaltic dyke the formation of the prisms, having started from the opposite walls as chilling surfaces, has not been completed; and hence the prisms fail to meet in the middle. A spheroidal structure is often developed in basalt columns by weathering, the rock exfoliating in spherical shells, rather like the skins of an onion : such a structure is characteristically shown at the Kasekellar, known also as the Elfen Grotto, at Bertrich, near Alf on the Mosel, where the pillars of the lava are broken into short segments which suggest by their flattened globular shape a pile of Dutch cheeses. Although prismatic jointing, or columnar structure, is most common in basalt, it occurs also in other volcanic rocks. Fine columns of obsidian, for instance, are seen at Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone Park, where the pillars may be 50 ft. or more in height. Such an occurrence, however, is exceptional. Vitreous lavas often show fluxion structure in the form of streaks, bands or trains of incipient crystals, indicating the flow of the mass when viscous. The character of this structure is related to the viscosity of the lava. Those structural peculiarities which depend mainly on the presence of vapour, such as vesiculation, have been already noticed, and the porphyritic structure has likewise beei described. Submarine Volcanoes. Considering how large a proportion of the face of the earth is covered by the sea, it seems likely that Volcanic eruptions must frequently occur on the ocean-floor. When, as occasionally though not often happens, the effects of a submarine eruption are observed during the disturbance, it is seen that the surface of the sea is violently agitated, with copious discharge of steam; the water passes into a state of ebullition, perhaps throwing up huge fountains; shoals of dead fishes, with volcanic cinders, bombs and fragments of pumice, float around the centre of eruption, and ultimately a little island may appear above sea-level. This new land is the peak of a volcanic cone which is based on the sea-floor, and if in deep water the submarine mountain must evidently be of great magnitude. Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, described by Dr C. W. Andrews, appears to be a volcanic mountain, with Tertiary limestones, standing in water more than 14,000 ft. deep. Many volcanic islands, such as those abundantly scattered over the Pacific, must have started as submarine volcanoes which reached the surface either by continued upward growth or by upheaval of the sea-bottom. Etna began its long geological history by submarine eruptions in a bay of the Mediterranean, and Vesuvius in like manner represents what was originally a volcano on the sea-floor. As the ejectamenta from a submarine vent accumulate on the sea-bottom they become intermingled with relics of marine organisms, and thus form fossiliferous volcanic tuffs. By the distribution of the ashes over the sea-floor, through the agency of waves and currents, these tuffs may pass insensibly into submarine deposits of normal sedimentary type. One of the best examples of a submarine eruption resulting in the formation of a temporary island occurred in 1831 in the Mediter- ranean between Sicily and the coast of Africa, where the water was known to have previously had a depth of 100 fathoms. After the usual manifestations of volcanic activity an accumulation of black cinders and ashes formed an island which reached at one point a height of 200 ft., so that the pile of erupted matter had a thickness of about 800 ft. The new island, which was studied by Constant PreVost, became known in England as Graham's Island, in France as Tie Julie and in Italy by various names as Isola Ferdinandea. Being merely a loose pile of scoriae, it rapidly suffered erosion by the sea, and in about three months was reduced to a shoal called Graham's VOLCANO 189 Ki'i-f. In 1891 a submarine eruption occurred near the isle of I'.iniellaria in the same waters, and the eruptive centre was termed |py I'rof essor H.S.Washington and Foci stner volcano, butit gave rise to no island. A well-known instance of a temporary volcanic island furnished by Sabrina — an islet of cinders thrown up by sub- marine eruptions in 1811, off the coast of St Michael's, one of the Azores. The island of Bogosloff, or Castle Island, in Bering Sea, about 40 m. W. of Unalaska Island, is a volcanic mass which was first observed in 1796 after an eruption. In 1883 another eruption in the neighbouring water threw up a new volcanic cone of black sand and ashes, known as New Bogosloff or Fire Island, situated about half a mile to the N.W. of Old Bogosloff, with which it was connected by a low beach. Another island, called Perry Island, larger than either of the others, made its appearance in the neigh- bourhood about the time of the great earthquake in California in 1906. It is reported that some of these islands have since dis- appeared. Mud Volcanoes. Mud volcanoes are small conical hills of clay which discharge, more or less persistently, streams of fine mud, sometimes as- sociated with naphtha or petroleum, and usually with bubbles of gas. As the mud is generally saline, the hills are known also as " salses." The gases are chiefly hydrocarbons, often with more or less sulphuretted hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and sometimes with nitrogen. Though generally less than a yard in height, the cones may in exceptional cases rise to an elevation of as much as 500 ft. The mud oozes from the top and spreads over the sides, or is spurted forth with the gases. Occasionally the discharge is vigorous, mud and stones being thrown up to a considerable height, sometimes accompanied by flames due to combustion of the hydrocarbons. Mud volcanoes occur in groups, and have a wide distribu- tion. They are known in Iceland; in Modena; at Taman and Kertch, in the Crimea; at Baku on the Caspian; in Java and in Trinidad: Humboldt described those near Turbaco, in Colombia. In Sicily they occur near Girgenti, and a group is known at Paterno on Etna. By the Sicilians they are termed, maccalube, a word of Arabic origin. The " paint-pots" of the Yellowstone National Park are small mud volcanoes. Many so-called mud volcanoes appear to be due to the de- rangement of subterranean water-flow or to landslips in con- nexion with earthquakes, whilst others may be referable to certain chemical reactions going on underground; but there are others again which seem to be truly of volcanic origin. Hot water and steam escaping through clays, or crumbling tuffs reduced to a clayey condition, may form conical mounds of pasty material, through which mud oozes and water escapes. Geysers are closely related to volcanoes, but in consequence of their special interest they are treated separately (see GEYSER). For natural steam-holes and other phenomena connected with declining vulcanicity, see SOFFIONI, SOLFATARA and MOFETTA. Geographical Distribution of Volcanoes. It is matter of frequent observation that volcanoes are most abundant in regions marked by great seismic activity. Although the volcano and the earthquake are not usually connected in the direct relation of cause and effect, yet in many cases they seem referable to a common origin. Both volcanic ex- trusion and crustal movement may be the means of relieving local strains in the earth's crust, and both are found to occur, as might reasonably be expected, in many parts of the earth where folding and fracture of the rocks have frequently happened and where mountain-making appears to be still in progress. Thus, volcanoes may often be traced along zones of crustal deformation, cr folded mountain-chains, especially where they run near the borders of the oceanic basins. They are frequently associated with the Pacific type of coast-line. The most conspicuous example of linear distribution is furnished by the great belt of volcanoes, coinciding for the most part with a band of seismic disturbance, which engirdles intermittently the huge basin of the Pacific ; though here, as elsewhere in studying volcanic topography, regard must be paid to dormant and extinct centres as well as to those that are active at the present time. As volcanoes are in many cases ranged along what are commonly regarded as lines of fracture, it is not surprising that the centres of most intense vulcanicity are in many cases situated at the intersection of two or more fracture-lines. On the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean the great volcanic ring may be traced, though with many and extensive interruptions, from Cape Horn to Alaska. In South America the chain of the Andes between Corcovado in the south and Tolima in the north is studded at irregular intervals with volcanoes, some recent and many more extinct, including the loftiest volcanic mountains in the world. The grandest group of South American volcanoes, though mostly quiescent, is in Ecuador. Cotopaxi, seen in activity by E. Whymper in 1880, has, according to him, a height Of 19,613 ft., whilst Saneay is said to be one of the most active volcanoes in the world. The linear arrangement, often a marked feature in the distribution of volcanoes, is well exemplified in the general north-and- south trend of the Andean ranges, the volcanoes being situated along the orographic axis. These folded mountains with their volcanoes also illustrate the close relationship to the sea so frequently observed in volcanic topography, a relationship, however, not without many exceptions. The volcanic rock called andesite was so named by L. von Buch from its characteristic occurrence in the Andes. It is notable that the volcanic rocks throughout the great Pacific belt present much similarity in composition. The volcanoes of Ecuador nave, been described in detail by A. Stubel and others (see ANDES). Central America contains a large number of active volcanoes and solfataras, many of which are located in the mountains parallel to the western coast. Conseguina, on the south side of the Gulf of Fonseca, is remarkable for its eruption in 1835, when an enormous volume of ash was ejected and the summit of the mountain blown away. Izalco, in San Salvador, came into existence in 1770, and is habitually active. In the centre of Lake Ilopango in Salvador, which possibly occupies an ancient crater, a volcanic island arose in 1880 and attained a height of 160 ft. Guatemala is peculiarly- rich in volcanoes, as described by Dr Tempest Anderson, who visited the country in 1907. The Cerro Quemado, or the Volcano of Quezaltenango, was the scene of a great eruption in 1785. At the Volcano of Santa Maria there was an outburst in 1902 more violent than the simultaneous eruptions in the Lesser Antilles. The cones of Guatemala include the Volcan de Fuego and the Volcan de Agua, the former often active in historic times, whilst the latter is notable for the flood which in 1541 swept down from the mountain and destroyed Old Guatemala, but this flood was probably not of volcanic origin. The plateau of Mexico is the seat of several active volcanoes which occur in a band stretching across the country from Colima in the west to Tuxtla near Vera Cruz. The highest of these volcanic mountains is Orizaba, or Cithaltepetl, rising to an altitude of 18,200 feet, and known to have been active in the l6th century. Popocatepetl (" the smoking mountain ") reaches a height of about 17,880 ft., and from its crater sulphur was at one time systemati- cally collected. The famous volcano of Jorullo, near Toluca, at a distance of about 120 m. from the sea, has been the centre of much scientific discussion since it was regarded by Humboldt, who visited it in 1803, as a striking proof of the elevation theory. It came into existence rapidly during an eruption which began in September !759. when it was said by unscientific observers that the ground became suddenly inflated from below. The cone, though not of exceptional magnitude, is situated in an elevated district, and its summit rises to about 4330 ft. above sea-level. In the neighbour- hood of Jorullo there are three subordinate cones of similar cha- racter known as volcancitos, with great numbers of small mounds of cinder and ash formed around fumaroles on the lava, and locally called hornitos, or " little ovens. " The streams of basaltic lava from Jorullo form rough barren surfaces, which pass under the name of malpays, or bad lands. In the United States very few volcanoes are active at the present day, though many have become extinct only in times that are geologically recent. An eruption occurred in 1857 atTres Virgines, in the south of California, and the cinder cone on Lassen's Peak (California) was also active in the middle of the 19th century. The Mono Valley craters and Mount Shasta, in California, are extinct. The Cascade Range contains numerous volcanic peaks, but only few show signs of activity. Mount Hood, in Oregon, exhales vapour, as also does Mount Rainier in Washington. Mount St Helens (Washington) was in eruption in 1841 and 1842; and Mount Baker (Washington), the most northern of the volcanoes connected with the Cascade Range, is said to have been active in 1843. Few volcanic peaks occur in the Rocky Mountains, but evidence of lingering activity is very marked in the geysers and hot springs of the Yellowstone National Park. The earth's internal heat is also manifested at many points elsewhere, as at Steamboat Springs on the Virginia Range, an offshoot of the Sierra Nevada, and in the Comstock Lode Volcanic activity is prominent in Alaska, along the Coast Range and in the neighbouring islands. The crater of Mount Edgecumbe, in Lazarus Island, is said to have been active in 1796, but this is doubtful. Mount Fairweather has probably been in recent activity, and the lofty cone of Mount Wrangell, on Copper river, is reported to have been in eruption in 1819. In the neighbourhood of Cook's Inlet there are several volcanoes, including the island of St Augustine. Unimak Island has two volcanoes, which have supplied the natives with sulphur and obsidian; one of these volcanoes being Mount Shishaldm, a cone rivalling Fusiyama in graceful contour. The VOLCANO Aleutian volcanic belt is a narrow, curved chain of islands, extending from Cook's Inlet westwards for nearly 1600 m. It is notable that the convexity of the curve faces the great ocean, as has been observed in other cases, the arcs following the direction of the rock-folds. According to Professor I. C. Russell, an authority on the volcanoes of N. America, there are in the Aleutian Islands and in the peninsula no fewer than 57 craters, either active or recently extinct. From the Aleutian Islands the volcanic band of the Pacific changes its direction, and passing to the peninsula of Kamschatka, where 14 volcanoes are said to be active, turns southwards and forms the festoon of the Kurile Islands. Here again the convexity of the insular arc is directed towards the ocean. This volcanic archi- pelago leads on to the great islands of Ja^an, where the volcanoes have been studied by Professor J. Milne, who also described those of the Kuriles. Of the 54 volcanoes recognized as now active or only recently extinct in Japan, the best known is the graceful cone of the sacred mountain Fusiyama, but others less pretentious are far more dangerous. The great eruption of Bandaisan, about 120 m. N. of Tokio, which occurred in 1888, blew off one side of the peak called Kobandai, removing, according to Professor Sekiya's estimate, about 2982 million tons of material. Aso-san in Kiushui, the southern- most large island of Japan, is notable for the enormous size of its crater. In the Bonin group of islands volcanic activity is indicated by such names as Volcano Island and Sulphur Island. South of the Japanese archipelago the train of volcanoes passes through some small islands in or near the Loo Choo (Liu Kiu) group and thence onwards by Formosa to the Philippine Islands, where subterranean activity, finds abundant expression in earthquakes and volcanoes. After leaving this region the linear arrangement of the eruptive centres becomes less distinctly marked, for almost every island in the Moluccas and the Sunda Archipelago teems with volcanoes, solfataras and hot springs. Possibly, however, a broken zone may be traced from the Moluccas through New Guinea and thence to New Zealand, perhaps through eastern Australia (for though no active volcanoes are known there, relics of com- paratively recent activity are abundant) ; or again by way of the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, the Fiji Islands and Kermodoc Island. The great volcanic district in New Zealand is situated in the northern part of North Island, memorable for the eruption of Tarawera in 1886. This three-peaked mountain on the south side of Lake Tarawera, not previously known to have been active, suddenly burst into action; a huge rift opened, and Lake Rotomahana subsided, with destruction of the famous sinter terraces. The crater of Tongariro is in the solfatara stage, whilst Mount Ruapehu is regarded as extinct. On White Island in the Bay of Plenty the cone of Wharkari is feebly active. Far to the south, on Ross Island, off South Victoria Land, in Antarctica, are the volcanoes of Erebus and Terror, the former of which is active. These are often regarded as remotely related to the Pacific zone, but Dr G. T. Prior has shown that the Antarctic volcanic rocks which he examined belonged to the Atlantic and not the Pacific type. Within the great basin of the Pacific, imperfectly surrounded by its broken girdle of volcanoes, there is a vast number of scattered islands and groups of islands of volcanic origin, rising from deep water, and haying in many cases active craters. The most im- portant group is the Hawaiian Archipelago, where there is a chain of at least fifteen large volcanic mountains — all extinct, however, with the exception of three in Hawaii, namely Mauna Loa, Kilauea and Hualalai; and of these Hualalai has been dormant since 1811. It is notable that the two present gigantic centres of activity, though within 20 m. of each other, appear to be independent in their eruptivity. Several of the Hawaiian Islands, as pointed out by J. D. Dana, who was a very high authority on this group, consist of two volcanoes united at the base, forming volcanic twins or doublets. The volcanic regions of the Pacific are connected with those of the Indian Ocean by a grand train of islands rich in volcanoes, stretching from the west of New Guinea through the Moluccas and the Sunda Islands, where they form a band extending axially through Java and Sumatra. Here is situated the principal theatre of terrestrial vulcanicity, apparently representing an enormous fissure, or system of fissures, in the earth's crust, sweeping in a bold curve, with its convexity towards the Indian Ocean. Numerous volcanic peaks occur in the string of small islands to the east of Java — notably in Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali; and one of the most terrific eruptions on record in any part of the world occurred in the province of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa, in the year 1815. Java contains within its small area as many as 49 great volcanic mountains — active, dormant and extinct. The largest is Smerin, about 12,000 ft. high, but the most regularly active is said to be Gownong Lamongang, which is in almost un- interrupted activity, emitting usually only ashes and vapour, though in 1883 lava streamed forth. Many of the Javanese volcanoes present marked regularity 01 contour, with the sides of the cones rather symmetrically furrowed by tropical rains and probably ridged by ash-slides. The radial furrows on volcanic cones are sometimes known as " barrancos." The little uninhabited island of Krakatoa in the Strait of Sunda appears to be situated at a volcanic node, or the intersection of two curved fissures, and it is believed that the island itself represents part of the basal wreck of what was once a volcano of gigantic size. After two centuries of repose, a violent catastrophe occurred in 1883, whereby the greater part of the island was blown away. This eruption and its effects were made the subject of careful study by Verbeek, Breon and Judd. Through the great island of Sumatra, a chain of volcanoes runs longitudinally, and may possibly be continued northwards in the Bay of Bengal by Barren Island and Norcondam — the former an active and the latter an extinct volcano. On the western side of the Indian Ocean a small volcanic band may be traced in the islands of the Mascarene group, several craters in Reunion (Bourbon) being still active. Far south in the Indian Ocean are the volcanic islands of New Amsterdam and St Paul. The Comoro Islands in the channel of Mozambique exhibit volcanic activity, whilst in East and Central Africa there are several centres, mostly extinct but some partially active, associated with the Rift Valleys. The enormous cones of Kenia and Kilimanjaroo are extinct, but on Kibo, one of the summits of the latter, a crater is still preserved. The Mfumbiro volcanoes, S. of Lake Edward, rise to a height of more than 14,700 feet. Kirunga, N. of Lake Kivu, is still partially active. Elgon is an old volcanic peak, but Ruwenzori is not of volcanic origin. On the west side of Africa, the Cameroon Peak is a volcano which was active in 1909, and the island of Fernando Po is also vol- canic. Along the Red Sea there are not wanting several examples of volcanoes, such as Jebel Teir. Aden is situated in an old crater. Passing to the Atlantic, a broken band of volcanoes, recent and extinct, may be traced longitudinally through certain islands, some of which rise from the great submarine ridge that divides the ocean, in part of its length, into an eastern and a western trough. The northern extremity of the series is found in Jan Mayen, an island in the Arctic Ocean, where an eruption occurred in 1818. Iceland, however, with its wealth of volcanoes and geysers, is the most important of all the Atlantic centres. According to Dr T. Thoroddsen there are in Iceland about 130 post-glacial volcanoes, and it is known that from 25 to 30 have been in eruption during the historic period. Many of the Icelandic lava-flows, such as the immense flood from Laki (Skapta Jokull) in 1783, are referable to fissure eruptions, which are the characteristic though not the exclusive form of activity in this island. Probably this type was also responsible for the sheets of old lava in the terraced hills of the Faroe Islands, to which may have been related the Tertiary volcanoes of the west of Scotland and the north of Ireland. An immense gap separates the old volcanic area of Britain from the volcanic, archipelagoes of the Azores, the Canaries and the Cape Verd Islands. Palma — a little island in the Canary group, with a caldera or large crater at its summit, from which fissures or barrancos radiate — is famous in the history of vulcanology, in that it furnished L. von Buch with evidence on which he founded the " crater-of- elevation " theory. The remaining volcanic islands of the Atlantic chain, all now cold and silent, include Ascension, St Helena and Tristan da Cunha, whilst in the western part of the South Atlantic are the small volcanic isles of Trinidad and Ferdinando do Noronha. St Paul's rocks appear also to be of volcanic origin. One of the most important volcanic regions of the world is found in the West Indies, where the Lesser Antilles — the scene of the great catastrophes of 1902 — form a string of islands, stretching in a regular arc that sweeps in a N. and S. direction across the eastern end of the Caribbean Sea. Subject to frequent seismic disturbance, and rich in volcanoes, solfataras and hot springs, these islands seem to form the summit of a great earth-fold which, rising as a curved ridge from deep water, separates the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic. The volcanoes are situated on the inner border of the curve. It is notable that the Antilles and the Sunda Islands, two of the grandest theatres of vulcanicity on the face of the earth, are situated at the antipodes of each other — one being apparently an eastern and the other a western offshoot of the great Pacific girdle. The European volcanoes, recent and extinct, may be regarded as representing rather ill-defined branches thrown off eastwards from the Atlantic band. Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the main- land, but in the Mediterranean there are Etna on the coast of Sicily; the Lipari Islands, with Stromboli and Vulcano in chronic activity ; and farther to the east the archipelago of Santorin, where new islands have appeared in historic times. Submarine eruptions have occurred also between Sicily and the coast of Africa; one in 1831 having given rise temporarily to Graham's Island, and another in 1891 appearing near Pantellaria, itself a volcanic isle. Of the extinct European volcanoes, some of the best known are in Auvergne, in the Eifel, in Bohemia and in Catalonia, whilst the vol- canic land of Italy includes the Euganean hills, the Alban hills, the Phlegraean Fields, &c. The great lakes of Bolsena and Bracciano occupy old craters, and many smaller sheets of water are on similar sites. The volcanic islands no longer active include Ischia, with the great cone of Epomeo which was in a state of eruption in 1301; the Ponza Islands, Nisida, Vivera and others near Naples; and several in the Greek archipelago, such as Milos, Kimolos and Polinos. From the eastern end of the Mediterranean evidence of former VOLCANO 191 volcarr activity may be traced into Asia Minor and thence to Armenia and the Caucasus. East of Smyrna there is a great desolate tr.ict which the ancients recognized as volcanic and termed the irccaumene (burnt country). The volcanic districts of Lydia were ic-d by Professor H. S. Washington. In the plateau of Armenia an- several extinct volcanic mountains, more or less destroyed, (Jf which the best known is Ararat. Nimrud Dagh on the shore of Y.m is said to have been in eruption in the year 1441. Dr F. ild has described the volcanoes of Armenia. Of the volcanoes rsian territory not now active, Demavend, south of the Caspian, important example. Elburz is also described as an old volcano. 1 1 lias been said that in Central Asia there are certain vents still r, and recent volcanic rocks are known irom the Przhevalsky i-luiii and other localities. The number of volcanoes known to be actually active on the earth •iierally estimated at between 300 and 400, but there is reason lieve that this estimate is far too low. If account be taken of volcanic cones which have not been active in historic time, the will probably rise to several thousands. The distribution of noes at various periods of the earth's history, as revealed by the : occurrence of volcanic rocks at different horizons in the crust of the earth, is discussed under GEOLOGY. Periods of great earth- movement have been marked by exceptional volcanic activity. Causes of Vidcanicity. In discussing the cause of vulcanicity two problems demand attention: first the origin of the heat necessary for the mani- festation of volcanic phenomena, and secondly the nature of the force by which the heated matter is raised to the surface and ejected. According to the old view, which assumed that the earth was a spheroid of molten matter invested by a com- paratively thin crust of solid rock, the explanation of the phenomena appeared fairly simple. The molten interior supplied the heated matter, while the shrinkage of the cooling crust produced fractures that formed the volcanic channels through which it was assumed the magma might be squeezed out in the process of contraction. When physicists urged the necessity of assuming that the globe was practically solid, vulcanologists were constrained to modify their views. Follow- ing a suggestion of W. Hopkins of Cambridge, they supposed that the magma, instead of existing in a general central cavity, was located in comparatively small subterranean lakes. Some authorities again, like the Rev. O. Fisher, regarded the magma as constituting a liquid zone, intermediate between a solid core and a solid shell. If solidification of the primitive molten globe pioceeded from the centre outwards, so as to form a sphere practically solid, it is conceivable that portions of the original magma might never- theless be retained in cavities, and thus form " residual lakes." Although the mass might be for the most part solid, the outer portion, or " crust," could conceivably have a honeycombed structure, and any magma retained in the cells might serve indirectly to feed the volcanoes. Neighbouring volcanoes seem in some cases to draw their supply of lava from independent sources, favouring the idea of local cisterns or " intercrustal reservoirs." It is probable, however, that subterranean re- servoirs of magma, if they exist, do not represent relics of an original fluid condition of the earth, but the molten material may be merely rock which has become fused locally by a temporary development of heat or more likely by a relief of pressure. It should be noted that the quantity of magma required to supply the most copious lava-flows is comparatively small, the greatest recorded outflow (that of Tomboro in Sum- bawa, in 1815) not having exceeded, it is said, six cubic miles; and even this estimate is probably too high. Whilst in many cases the magma-cisterns may be comparatively small and temporary, it must be remembered that there are regions where the volcanic rocks are so similar throughout as to suggest a common origin, thus needing intercrustal reservoirs of great extent and capacity. It has been suggested that comparatively small basins, feeding individual volcanoes, may draw their supply from more extensive reservoirs at greater depths. Much speculation has been rife as to the source of the heat required for the local melting of rock. Chemical action has naturally been suggested, especially that of superficial water, but its adequacy may be doubted. After Sir Humphry Davy's dis- covery of the metals of the alkalis, he thought that their remark- able behaviour with water might explain the origin of subterranean heat ; and in more recent years others have seen a local source of heat in the oxidation of large deposits of iron, such as that brought up in the basalt of Disco Island in Greenland. It has been assumed by Moissan and by Gautier that water might attack certain metallic carbides, if they occur as subterranean deposits, and give rise to some of the products characteristic of volcanoes. But it seems that all such action must be very limited, and utterly inadequate to the geneial explanation of volcanic phenomena. At the same time it must be remembered that access of water to a rock already heated may have an important physical effect by reducing its melting point, and may thus greatly assist in the production of a supply of molten matter. The admission of surface-waters to heated rocks is naturally regarded as an important source of motive power in consequence of the sudden generation of vapour, but it is doubtful to what extent it may contribute, if at all, to the origin of volcanic heat. According to Robert Mallet a competent source of sub- terranean heat for volcanic phenomena might be derived from the transformation of the mechanical work of compressing and crushing parts of the crust of the earth as a consequence of secular contraction. This view he worked out with much ingenuity, supporting it by mathematical reasoning and an appeal to experimental evidence. It was claimed for the theory that it explained the linear distribution of volcanoes, their relation to mountain chains, the shallow depth of the foci and the intermittence of eruptive activity. A grave objection, however, is the difficulty of conceiving that the heat, whether due to crushing or compression, could be concentrated locally so as to produce a sufficient elevation of temperature for melting the rocks. According to the calculations of Rev. O. Fisher, the crushing could not, under the most .favourable cir- cumstances, evolve heat enough to account for volcanic phenomena. Since pressure raises the melting-point of any solid that expands on liquefaction, it has been conjectured that many deep-seated rocks, though actually solid, may be potentially liquid; that is, they are maintained in a solid state by pressure only. Any local relief of pressure, such as might occur in the folding and faulting of rocks, would tend, without further accession of heat, to induce fusion. But although moderate pressure raises the fusing-point of most solids, it is believed, from modern researches, that very great pressures may have a contrary effect. It is held by Professor S. Arrhenius that at great depths in the earth the molten rock, being above its critical point, can exist only hi the gaseous condition; but a gas under enormous pressure may behave, so far as compressibility is concerned, like a rigid solid. He concludes, from the high density of the earth as a whole and from other considerations, that the central part of our planet consists of gaseous iron (about 80% of the earth's diameter) followed by a zone of rock magma in a gaseous condition (about 15%), which passes insensibly out- wards into liquid rock (4%), covered by a thin solid crust (less than i% of diameter). If water from the crust penetrates by osmosis through the sea-floor to the molten interior, it acts, at the high temperature, as an acid, and decomposes the silicates of the magma. The liquid rock, expanded and rendered more mobile by this water, rises in fissures, but in its ascent suffers cooling, so that the water then loses its power as an acid and is displaced by silicic acid, when the escaping steam gives rise to the explosive phenomena of the volcano. The mechanism of the volcano is therefore much like that of a geyser, a comparison long ago suggested by Rev. O. Fisher and other geologists. According to the " planetesimal theory " of Professor T. C. Chamberlin and Dr F. R. Moulton, which assumes that the earth was formed by the accretion of vast numbers of small cosmical bodies called planetesimals, the original heat of the earth's interior was due chiefly to the compression of the grow- ing globe by its own gravity. The heat, proceeding from the 192 VOLCANO ISLANDS— VOLE centre outwards, caused local fusion of the' rocks, though without forming distinct reservoirs of molten magma, and the fused matter charged with gases rose in liquid threads or tongues, which worked their way. upwards, some reaching the super- ficial part of the earth and escaping through fissures in the zone of fracture, thus giving rise to volcanic phenomena. It is held that the explosive activity of a volcano is due to the presence of gases which have been brought up from the interior of the earth, whilst only a small and perhaps insignificant part is played by water of superficial origin. Entirely new views of the origin of the earth's internal heat have resulted from the discovery of radioactivity. It has been shown by the Hon. R. J. Strutt, Professor J. Joly and others that radium is present in all igneous rocks, and it is estimated that the quantity in the crust of the earth is amply sufficient to maintain its temperature. An ingenious hypothesis was enunciated by Major C. E. Button, who found in the radio- activity of the rocks a sufficient source of heat for the ex- planation of all volcanic phenomena. He believes that the development of heat arising from radioactivity may gradually bring about the local melting of the rocks so as to form large subterranean pools of magma, from which the volcanoes may be supplied. The supply is usually drawn from shallow sources, probably, according to Button, from a depth of not more than three or rarely four miles, and in some cases at not more than a mile from the surface. If the water in the local magma should attain sufficient expansive power, it will rupture the overlying rocks and thus give rise to a volcanic eruption. When the reservoir becomes exhausted the eruption ceases, but if more heat be generated by continued radioactivity further fusion may ensue, and in time the eruption be repeated. According, however, to Professor Joly, it is improbable that sufficient heat for the manifestation of volcanic phenomena could be developed by the local radioactivity of the rocks in the upper part of the earth's crust. AUTHORITIES. — On general vulcanicity see G. Mercalli, I Vulcani attivi delta terra (1907) ; Sir A. Geikie, Text-Book of Geology (4th ed., '903) (with bibliography) ; The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain (2 vols., 1897) (with general sketch of vulcanology) ; T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, Geology, Processes and their Results (1905); G. P. Scrope, Volcanoes (2nd ed., 1872); J. W. Judd, Volcanoes (2nd ed., 1881); T. G. Bonney, Volcanoes (1899); Tempest Ander- son, Volcanic Studies in many Lands (1903) (excellent views). On special volcanoes see J. Phillips, Vesuvius (1869); J. L. Lobley, Mount Vesuvius (1889); H. J. Johnston-Lavis, The South Italian Volcanoes (with copious bibliography) (1891); "The Eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906," Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. (Jan. 1909); W. Sartorius von Waltershausen, Der Aetna (herausgegeben von A. von Lasaulx, 1880); F. Fouqu6, Santorin et ses eruptions (1879); R. D. M. Verbeek, Krakatau (1886) (with Album Atlas); The Eruption of Krakaloa and Subsequent Phenomena, Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society (" On the Volcanic Phenomena, &c.," by Professor J. W. Judd) (1888); Royal Society Report on the Eruption of the Soufribre, in St Vincent, in 1902, by Tempest Anderson and J. S. Flett, two parts, Phil. Trans., 1903, ser. A. vol. 200, and 1908, vol. 208; A. Lacroix, La Montagne Pelee (1904); La Montagne Pelee apres ses eruptions, avec observa- tions sur les eruptions du Vesuve en 1879 et en 1906 (1908) ; A. Heilprin, Mont Pelee (1903); E. O. Hoovey, The 1902-3 Eruptions of Mont Pelee and the Soufriere, Ninth Internal. Geolog. Congress (Vienna, 1903); Am. Jour. Sci. xiv. (1902), p. 319; JVai. Geog. Mag. xiii. (1902), p. 444; J. Milne, " The Volcanoes of Japan," Trans. Seismological Soc. of Japan (1886); A. Stubel, Die Vulkanberge von Ecuador (1897); I. C. Russell, Volcanoes of North America (1897) ; J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes (Hawaiian Islands) (1890); C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian Volcanoes, 4th Rep. U.S. Geological Survey (1882-83), 1884; C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Vokanoes (Honolulu, 1909). For the chemistry of volcanic phenomena see F. W. Clarke, " The Data of Geochemistry," Bull. U.S. Geolog. Survey, No. 330 (1908). For the planetesimal theory consult T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, Geology : Earth History, vol. ii. (1906). For other modern views of vulcanism see S. Arrhenius, " Zur Physik des Vulcanismus" in Geologiska Foreningens i Stock- holm Forhandlingar, Band xxii. (1900) (Abstract by R. H. Rastall in the Geological Magazine, April 1907) ; C. E. Dutton, " Volcanoes 47; (1909); A. Harker,"r&« Natural ~Hi'story of Igneous Rocks (1909!"; and E. Suess, The Face of the Earth (Das Antlitz der Erde), transl. by H. B. C. Sollas, vol. iv. cap. xvi. (1909). (F. W. R.*) ises 5 128 ibe ory ± im. VOLCANO ISLANDS, three small islands in the weste: Pacific Ocean, S. of the Bonin Islands, forming part of t! Japanese empire (annexed in 1891). They are also known the Magellan Archipelago, and in Japan as Kwazan-ret (series of volcanic islands). They are situated between 2, and 26° N. and 141° and 142° E. Their names are Kita-iwo- jima (Santo Alessandro), Iwo-jima (Sulphur) and Minami- iwo-jima (Santo Agostino). Kita-iwo-jima — which, as its name (kita) implies, is the most northerly of the three — rises 2520 ft. above the water, and Minami-iwo-jima, the mi southerly, to a height of 3021 ft. The islands are not inhabit With this group is sometimes included another island, Ar: bispo, nearer the Bonin group. VOLCEI (mod. BUCCINO), an ancient town of Lucania, 2128 ft. above sea-level, the chief town of the independent tribe of the Volceiani, Vulcientes or Volcentani, whose territory was bounded N. by that of the Hirpini, W. and S. by Luca and E. by the territory of Venusia. Some pre-Roman rui still exist (Not. Scav., 1884, 115). It became a municipium, and in A.D. 323 had an extensive territory attached to it, includ- ing the town of Numistro, the large Cyclopean walls of whii may still be seen, 25 m. below Muro Lucano. Below the to' is a well-preserved Roman bridge over the Tanager (mi Tanagro). See G. Patroni in Notizie degli scavi (1897), 183. VOLCI, or VULCI, an ancient town of Etruria. The circ of the walls measures about 4 m., and scanty traces of the and of Roman buildings within them still exist. The Pon della Badia over the Fiora, a bridge with a main arch of 66 span, 98 ft. above the stream, is also Roman. An aquedu passes over it. The former wealth of the town is mainly provi by the discoveries made in its extensive necropolis from 18 onwards — Greek vases, bronzes and other remains — man of which are now in the Vatican. By 1856 over 15,000 torn had, it was calculated, been opened. These were entirely su terranean, and little is now to be seen on the site but great tumulus, the Cucumella, and a few smaller ones. T! frescoes from the Francois tomb, discovered in 1857, illustrati: Greek and Etruscan myths, are now in the Museo Torloni at Rome. Volci was one of the twelve towns of Etruri; Coruncanius triumphed over the people of Vulsinii and Vol in 280 B.C.. and the colony of Cosa was founded in their territory. This seems to have led to the decline of the city, and it d not seem to have been of great importance in the Rom period, though it became an episcopal see. See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883 i. 437, ii. 503; S. Gsell, Fouilles dans la necropole de Vulci (Pari 1891), for the excavations of 1889 (with copious references to earli publications). (T. As.) VOLE, a book-name (invented by Br J. Fleming, author a work on British animals) for the water-rat and those sped of field-mice which have cheek-teeth of the same general ty] Although the British representatives of this group shoul undoubtedly retain their vernacular designations of water-ra and short-tailed field-mouse, the term " vole" is one of grea convenience in zoology as a general one for all the membe of the group. Systematically voles are classed in the mammalia order RODENTIA, in which they constitute the typical sectioi of the subfamily Microtinae in the Muridae, or mouse-group. As a group, voles are characterized by being more heavil built" than rats and mice, and by their less brisk movements. They have very small eyes, blunt snouts, inconspicuous ears and short limbs and tails, in all of which points they are markedly contrasted with true rats and mice. In common with lemmings and other representatives of the Microtinae, voles are, however, broadly distinguished from typical rats and mice by the structure of their three pairs of molar teeth. These, as shown in the figure, are composed of a variable number of vertical triangular prisms, in contact with one another by two (or one) of their angles. On the number and relations of these prisms the voles, which form an exceedingly large group, rang- ing all over Europe and Asia north of (and inclusive of) the VOLGA '93 Himalaya, and North America, are divided into genera and subgenera. Examples of some of these are afforded by the English representatives ofthe«rouP- The first of these is the common short- tailed field-mouse, or " field-vole," Microtus agrestis, which belongs to the typical section of the type genus, and is about the size of a mouse, with a short stumpy body, and a Uppcrand Lower Molarsof the Water-Rat fail •**»*• one-third th! [or Water- Vole), Microtus amphibius. length of the head and body. The hind feet have six pads on their inferior surfaces, and the colour is dull grizzled brown above and greyish white below. The molar teeth have respectively 5, 5 and 6 prisms above, and 9, 5 and 3 below. This rodent is one of the commonest of British mammals, and fre- quents fields, woods and gardens in numbers, often doing consider- able damage owing to its fondness for garden produce. It is spread over the whole of Great Britain (exclusive of the Orkneys), while on the continent of Europe its range extends from Fin- land to North Italy and from France and Spain to Russia. The second and larger species is the water-rat, or " water- vole," which belongs to a second section of the genus, and is commonly known as Microtus (Arvicola) amphibius, although some writers employ the inappropriate specific name terrestris. It is about the size of a rat, and has long soft thick fur, of a uniform grizzled brown, except when (as is not uncommon) it is black. The tail is about half the length of the head and body, and the hind feet are long and powerful, although not webbed, and have five rounded pads on their lower surfaces. In the upper jaw the first molar has 5, the second 4 and the third 4 prisms, of which the last is irregular and sometimes divided into two, making 5. In the lower jaw the first molar has 7 prisms, of which the 3 anterior are generally not fully separated from one another, the second 5 and the third 3. The water-rat is perhaps the most often seen of all English mammals, owing to its diurnal habits. It frequents rivers and streams, burrowing in the banks, and often causing con- siderable damage. Its food consists almost wholly of water- weeds, rushes and other vegetable substances, but it will also eat animal food on occasion, in the shape of insects, mice or young birds. The female has during the summer three or four litters, each of from two to seven young. The range of the water-rat extends over Europe and North Asia from England to China, but the species is not found in Ireland, where no member of the group is native. The red-backed field-mouse or " bank-vole " may be distinguished externally from the first species by its more or less rusty or rufous- coloured back, its larger ears and its comparatively longer tail, which attains to about half the length of the head and body. On account of an important difference in the structure of its molars, it is now very generally referred to a distinct genus, under the name of Evotomys gtareolus; these teeth developing roots at a certain stage of existence, instead of growing permanently. Their prisms number respectively 5 and 4 and 5 above, and 7, 3 and 3 below. The habits of this species are in every way similar to those of the one first on the list. Its range in Great Britain extends northwards to Morayshire, but it is represented in an island off the Pembroke coast by a distinct form; on the continent of Europe it extends from France and Italy to southern Russia, while it is represented in northern Asia and North America by closely allietl species. Fossil voles from the Pliocene of England and Italy with molars which are rooted as soon as developed form the genus Mimomys. (R. L.") VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Ilil or Aid; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rfia and Oarus), the longest and most important river of European Russia. It rises in the Valdai plateau of Tver and, after a winding course of 2325 m. (1070 in a straight line), falls into the Caspian at Astrakhan, It is by far the longest river of Europe, the x xvm. 7 Danube, which comes next to it, being only 1775 m., while the Rhine (760 m.) is shorter even than two of the chief tri- butaries of the Volga — the Oka and the Kama. Its drainage area, which includes the whole of middle and eastern as well as part of south-eastern Russia, amounts to 363,300 sq. m., thus exceeding the aggregate superficies of Germany, France and the United Kingdom, and containing a population of fifty millions. Its tributaries are navigable for an aggregate length of nearly 20,000 m. The " basin " of the Volga is not limited to its actual catchment area. By a system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Neva, the commercial mouth of the Volga has been transferred, so to speak, from the Caspian to the Baltic, thus making St Petersburg, the capital and chief seaport of Russia, the chief port of the Volga basin as well. Other less important canals connect it with the Western Dvina (Riga) and the White Sea (Archangel); while a railway only 45 m. in length joins the Volga with the Don and the Sea of Azov, and three great trunk lines bring its lower parts into connexion with the Baltic and western Europe. The Volga rises in extensive marshes on the Valdai plateau, where the W. Dvina also has its origin. Lake Seliger was formerly considered tobetheprincipalsource;butthatdistinctionisnowgivento a small spring issuing beneath a chapel (57° 15' N. ; 32° 30' E.) in the midst of a large marsh to the west of Seliger. The honour has also been claimed, not without plausibility, for the Runa rivulet. Recent exact surveys have shown these originating marshes to be no more than 665 ft. above sea-level. The stream first traverses several small lakes, all having the same level, and, after its confluence with the Runa, enters Lake Volga. A dam erected a few miles below that lake, with a storage of nearly 10,000 million cub. ft. of water, makes it possible to raise the level of the Volga as far down as the Sheksna, thus rendering it navigable, even at low water, from its 6j>th mile onwards. From its confluence with the Sheksna the Volga flows with a very gentle descent towards the south-east, past Yaroslavl and Kostroma, along a broad valley hollowed to a depth of 150-200 ft. in the Permian and Jurassic deposits. In fact, its course lies through a string of depressions formerly filled with wide lakes, all linked together. When the Volga at length assumes a due south-east direction it is a large river (8250 cub. u. per second, rising occasionally in high flood to as much as 178,360 cub. ft.) ; of its numerous tribu- taries, the Unzha (365 m., 330 navigable), from the north, is the most important. The next great tributary is the Oka, which comes from the south- west after having traversed, on its course of 950 m., all the Great Russian provinces of central Russia. It rises in the govern- Cooao, ment of Orel, among hills which also send tributaries to the face wltll Dnieper and the Don, and receives on the left the Upa, the tAe otfc Zhizdra, the Ugra (300 m.), the Moskva, on which steamers ply up to Moscow, the Klyazma (395 m.), on whose banks arose the middle- Russian principality of Suzdal, and on the right the navigable Tsna (255 m.) and Moksha. Every one of these tributaries is con- nected with some important event in the history of Great Russia. The drainage area of the Oka is a territory of 97,000 sq. m. _ It has been maintained that, of the two rivers which unite at Nizhniy- Novgorod, the Oka, not the Volga, is the chief; the fact is that both in length (818 m.) and in drainage area above the confluence (89,500 sq. m.), as well as in the aggregate length of its tributaries, the Volga is the inferior stream. At its confluence with the Oka the Volga enters the broad lacustrine depression which must have communicated with the Caspian during the post-Pliocene period by means of at least a broad strait. Its level at low water is only 190 ft. above that of the ocean. Immediately below the confluence the breadth of the river ranges from 350 to 1 750 yds. There are many islands which change their appearance and position after each inundation. On the right the Volga is joined by the Sura, which drains a large area and brings a volume of 2700 to 22,000 cub. ft. of water per second, the Vetluga (465 m. long, of which 365 are navigable), from the forest-tracts of Yaroslavl, and many smajler tributaries. Then the stream turns south-east and descends into another lacustrine depression, where it receives the Kama, below Kazan. Remains of molluscs still extant in the Caspian occur extensively throughout this depression and up the lower Kama. The Kama,1 which brings to the Volga a contribution ranging from 52,500 to 144,400 cub. ft. and occasionally reaching 515,000 cub. ft. per second, might again be considered as the more important of the two rivers. It rises in Vyatka, takes a wide sweep towards the north and east, and then flows south and south-west to join the Volga after a course of no less than 1 150 m. 1 To the Votyaks it is known as the Budzhim-Kam, to the Chuvashes as the Shoiga-adil and to the Tatars as the Cholman-idel or Ak-idel, all words signifying " White river." 194 VOLGA The Samara bead. Along the next 738 m. of its course the Volga — now 580 to 2600 yds. wide — flows south-south-west, with but one great bend at Samara. At this point, where it pierces a range of limestone hills, the course of the river is very picturesque, fringed as it is by cliffs which rise 1000 ft. above the level of the stream (which is only 54 ft. above the sea at Samara). Along the whole of the Samara bend the Volga is accompanied on its right hank by high cliffs, which it is constantly undermining, while broad lowland areas stretch along the left or eastern bank, and are intersected by several old beds of the Volga. At Tsaritsyn the great river reaches its extreme south-western limit, and is there separated from the Don by an isthmus only 45 m. in width. The isthmus is too high to be crossed by means of a canal, but a railway to Kalach brings the Volga into some sort of connexion with the Don and the Sea of Azov. At Tsaritsyn the river takes a sharp turn in a south-easterly direction towards the Caspian; it enters the Caspian steppes, and a few miles above Tsaritsyn sends off a branch — the Akhtub?. — which accompanies it for 330 m. before falling into the Caspian. Here the Volga _ receives no tributaries; its right bank is skirted by low The lower ^JH^ jjut Qn tne jeft ;t anastomoses freely with the delta ' Akhtuba when its waters are high, and floods the country for X5 to 35 m. The width of the main stream ranges from 520 to 3500 yds. and the depth exceeds 80 ft. The delta proper begins 40 m. above Astrakhan, and the branches subdivide so as to reach the sea by as many as 200 separate mouths. Below Astrakhan navigation is difficult, and on the sand-bars at the mouth the maximum depth is only 12 ft. in calm weather. The figures given show how immensely the river varies in volume, and the greatness of the changes which are constantly going on in the channel and on its banks. Not only does its level occasionally rise in flood as much as 50 ft. and overflow its banks for a distance of 5 to 15 m.; even the level cf the Caspian is considerably affected by the sudden influx of water brought by the Volga. The amount of suspended matter brought down is correspondingly great. All along its course the Volga is eroding and destroying its banks with great rapidity; towns and loading ports have constantly to be shifted farther back. The question of the gradual desiccation of the Volga, and its causes, has often been discussed, and in 1838 a committee which included Kail Baer among its members was appointed by the Russian academy of sciences to investigate the subject. No positive result was, however, arrived at, principally on account of the want of regular measurements of the volume of the Volga and its tributaries — measurements which began to be made on scientific principles only in 1880. Still, if we go back two or three centuries, it is indisputable that rivers of the Volga basin which were easily navigable then are now hardly accessible to the smallest craft. The desiccation of the rivers of Russia has been often attributed to the steady destruc- tion of its forests. But it is obvious that there are other general causes at work, which are of a much more important character — causes of which the larger phenomena of the general desiccation of Eastern and Western Turkestan are contemporaneous manifestations. The gradual elevation of the whole of northern Russia and Siberia, and the consequent draining of the marshes, is one of these deeper-seated, ampler causes; another is the desiccation of the lakes all over the northern hemisphere. Fisheries. — The network of shallow and still limans or " cut-offs " in the delta of the Volga and the shallow waters of the northern Caspian, freshened as these are by the water of the Volga, the Ural, the Kura and the Terek, is exceedingly favourable to the breeding of fish, and as a whole constitutes one of the most productive fishing grounds in the world. As soon as the ice breaks up in the delta innumerable shoals of roach (Lettciscus ruiilus) and trout (Luciotrutta leucichthys) rush up the river. They are followed by the great sturgeon (Acipenser huso), the pike, the bream and the Eike perch (Leucioperca sandra). Later on appears the Caspian erring (Clupea casp'.a), which formerly was neglected, but has now become more important than sturgeon; the sturgeon A. stellatus and " wels " (Silurus glanis) follow, and finally the sturgeon Acipenser gtildenstadtii, so much valued for its caviare. In search of a gravelly spawning-ground the sturgeon go up the river as far as Sarepta (250 m.). The lamprey, now extensively pickled, the sterlet (A. ruthenus), the tench, the gudgeon and other fluvial species also appear in immense numbers. It is estimated that 180,000 tons of fish of all kinds, of the value of considerably over £1,500,000, are taken annually in the four fishing districts of the Volga, Ural, Terek and Kura. Seal-hunting is carried on off the Chief River Ports on the Volga. Vessels. Tons. Approxi- mate Value. Entered. Cleared. Imported. Exported. Total. Astrakhan Tsaritsyn . Rybinsk . Nizhniy- Novgorod Saratov . 2.724 6,412 3-760 12,960 1-639 3,228 1,482 6,295 7,585 1,738 938,000 1,152,000 590,000 4,092,000 923,000 3,734,000 462,000 172,000 84,000 128,000 4,672,000 1,614,000 762,000 4,176,000 1,051,000 £ 7,812,000 5,000,000 3,573,000 2,727,000 1,882,000 Volga mouth, and every year about 40,000 of Phoca viliilina killed to the north of the Manghishlak peninsula on the east side i the Caspian. Ice Covering. — In winter the numberless tributaries and sut tributaries of the Volga become highways for sledges. The ic. lasts 90 to 160 days, and breaks up earlier in its upper course than in some parts lower down. The average date of the break-up is April nth at Tver, and 14 days later about Kostroma, from which point a regular acceleration is observed (April i6th at Kazan, April 7th at Tsaritsyn, and March 1 7th at Astrakhan). Traffic. — The greater part of the traffic is up river, the amour of merchandise which reaches Astrakhan being nearly fifteen time less than that reaching St Petersburg by the Volga canals. The goods transmitted in largest quantity are fish, metals, manufacture wares, hides, flax, timber, cereals, petroleum, oils and salt. The down- river traffic consists chiefly of manufactured goods and timber, the latter mostly for the treeless governments of Samara, Saratov and Astrakhan, as well as for the region adjacent to the lower course of the Don. Dredging machines are kept constantly at work, while steamers are stationed near the most dangerous sandbanks to assist vessels that run aground. The following table shows the principal river ports, with the movement of shipping in an average year: — Formerly tens of thousands of burlaki, or porters, were employ m dragging boats up the Volga and its tributaries, but this metni of traction has disappeared unless from a few of the tributarii Horse-power is still extensively resorted to along the three ca systems. The first large steamers of the American type were built in 1872. Thousands of steamers are now employed in the traffic, to say nothing of smaller boats and rafts. Many of the steamei use as fuel mazut or petroleum refuse. Large numbers of the boa and rafts are broken up after a single voyage. History. — The Volga was not improbably known to the earl; Greeks, though it is not mentioned by any writer previous to Ptolemy. According to him, the Rha is a tributary of an interior sea, formed from the confluence of two great rivers, the sources of which are separated by twenty degrees of longi- tude, but it is scarcely possible to judge from his statements how far the Slavs had by that time succeeded in penetrating into the basin of the Volga. The Arab geographers throw little light on the condition of the Volga during the great migrations of the 3rd century, or subsequently under the invasion of the Huns, the growth of the Khazar empire in the southern steppes and of that of Bulgaria on the middle Volga. But we know that in the 9th century the Volga basin was occupied by Finnish tribes in the north and by Khazars and various Turkish races in the south. The Slavs, driven perhaps to the west, had only the Volkhov and the Dnieper, while the (Mahommedan) Bulgarian empire, at the confluence of the Volga with the Kama, was so powerful that for some time it was an open question whether Islam or Christianity would gain the upper hand among the Slav idolaters. But, while the Russians were driven from the Black Sea by the Khazars, and later on by a tide of Ugrian migration from the north-east, a stream of Slavs moved slowly towards the north-east, down the upper Oka, into the borderland between the Finnish and Turkish regions. After two centuries of struggle the Russians succeeded in colonizing the fertile valleys of the Oka basin; in the i2th century they built a series of fortified towns on the Oka and Klyazma; and finally they reached the mouth of the Oka, there founding (in 1222) a new Novgorod — the Novgorod of the Lowlands, now Nizhniy-Novgorod. The great lacustrine depression of the middle Volga was thus reached; and when the Mongol invasion of 1239-42 came, it encountered in the Oka basin a dense agricultural population with many fortified and wealthy towns — a population which the Mongols found they could conquer, indeed, but were unable to drive before them as they had done so many of the Turkish tribes. : rly VOLHYNIA— VOLLMAR '95 This invasion checked but did not stop the advance o: the Russians down the Volga. Two centuries elapsed before the Russians covered the 300 m. which separate the mouths of the Oka and the Kama and took possession of Kazan. Bui in the meantime a flow of Novgorodian colonization had moved eastward, along the upper portions of the left-bank tributaries of the Volga, and had reached the Urals. With the capture of Kazafi (1552) the Russians found the lower Volga open to their boats, and eight years afterwards they were masters of the mouth of the river at Astrakhan. Two centuries more elapsed before the Russians secured a free passage to the Black Sea and became masters of the Sea of Azov and the Crimea; the Volga, however, was their route. During these two centuries they fortified the lower river, settled it, and penetrated farther eastward into the steppes towards the upper Ural and thence to the upper parts of the Tobol and other great Siberian rivers. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. P. Semenov's Geogtaphical and Statistical Dictionary (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-85) contains a full biblio- graphy of the Volga and tributaries. See also V. Ragozin's Volga "Is., St Petersburg, 1880-81, with atlas; in Russian); N. Bogolyubov, The Volga from Tver to Astrakhan (Russian, 1876); 1. Roskoschny, Die Wolga tind ihre Zuflusse (Leipzig, 1887, vol. i.), history, ethnography, hydrography and biography, with rich bibliographical information ; N. Boguslavskiy, The Volga as a Means of Communication (Russian, 1887), with detailed profile and maps; Peretyatkovich, Volga Region in the ijth and i6th Centuries (1877); and Lender, Die Wolga (1889). (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) VOLHYNIA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by the Polish governments of Lublin and Siedlce on the W., Grodno and Minsk on the N., Kiev on the E. and Podolia and Galicia (Austria) on the S., with an area of 27,690 sq. m. A broad, flat spur of the Carpathians — the Avratynsk plateau — which enters from the west and stretches out eastward towards the Dnieper occupies its southern portion, reaching a maximum elevation of 1200 ft.; another branch of the Carpathians in the west of the government ranges between 700 and 900 ft. at its highest points. Both are deeply grooved in places, and the crags give a hilly aspect to the districts in which they occur. The remainder of the government, which is quite flat, with an imperceptible slope towards the marshes of Pinsk, is known as the Polyesie (see MINSK). The population in 1906 was estimated at 3,547,500. Some three-fourths of the population are Little Russians; the other elements are White and Great Russians, Poles (5-2%), Jews (13-3%) and Germans (5-7 %). The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Zhitomir, the capital, Dubno, Kovel, Kremenets, Lutsk, Novograd Volhynskiy, Ostrog, Ovruch, Vladimir Volhynskiy, Rovno, Staro-Konstantinov and Zaslavl. The conditions of peasant ownership differ from those which prevail in other parts of Russia, and of the total area the peasants hold ap- proximately one-half; 42% of the total is in the hands of private owners, a considerable number of Germans having settled and bought land in the government. Forests cover nearly 50 % of the area in the north (that is, in the Polyesie) and 15% elsewhere. Agriculture is well developed in the south, and in 1900 there were 4,222,400 acres (24%) under cereal crops alone. In the Polyesie the principal occupations are connected with the export of timber and firewood, the preparation of pitch, tar, potash and wooden wares, and boat-building. Lignite and coal, some graphite and kaolin, are mined, as also amber, which cultural machinery works. Domestic industry in the villages is chiefly limited to the making of wooden goods, including parquetry. The exports of grain and timber, chiefly to Germany and Great Britain, and of wool and cattle, are considerable. Volhynia has been inhabited by Slavs from a remote antiquity. In Nestor's Annals its people are mentioned under the name of Dulebs, and later in the i2th century they were known as Velhynians and Buzhans (dwellers on the Bug). From the Qth century the towns of Volhynia-Vladimir, Ovruch, Lutsk and Dubno were ruled by descendants of the Scandinavian or Varangian chief Rurik, and the land of Volhynia remained independent until the I4th century, when it fell under Lithuania. In 1569 it was annexed to Poland, and so remained until 1795, when it was taken possession of by Russia. VOLK, LEONARD WELLS (1828-1895), American sculptor, was born at Wellstown (now Wells), Hamilton county, New York, on the ?th of November 1828. He first followed the trade of a marble cutter with his father at Pittsfield, Massa- chusetts. In 1848 he opened a studio at St Louis, Missouri, and in 1855 was sent by his wife's cousin, Stephen A. Douglas, to Rome to study. Returning to America in 1857, he settled in Chicago, where he helped to establish an Academy of Design and was for eight years its head. Among his principal works are the Douglas monument at Chicago and the Soldiers' and Sailors' monument at Rochester, New York, and statues of President Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas (in the Illinois State Capitol at Springfield, III.), and of General James Shields (in Statuary Hall, Capitol, Washington), Elihu B. Washburn, Zachariah Chandler and David Davis. In 1860 he made a life- mask (now in the National Museum, Washington) of Lincoln, of whom only one other, by Clark Mills in 1865, was ever made. His son, Douglas Volk (b. 1856), figure and portrait painter, who studied under J. L. Ger6me in Paris, became a member of the Society of American Artists in 1880 and of the National Academy of Design in 1899. VOLKSRUST, a town of the Transvaal, 175 m. S.E. of Johannesburg and 308 m. N.N.W. of Durban. Pop. (1904) 2382, of whom 1342 were whites. The town lies at an ele- vation of 5429 ft. just within the Transvaal frontier and 4 m. N. of the pass through the Drakensberg known as Laing's Nek. It is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It was founded by the Boer government in 1888. As a customs port of entry it was of some importance, and it maintains its position as a distributing depot. It was created a municipality in 1003. Sandstone is quarried in the district. VOLLENDAM, a small fishing village of Holland in the province of North Holland, adjoining Edam on the shores of the Zuider Zee. It is remarkable for the quaintness of the buildings and the picturesque costume of the villagers, who are of a singularly dark and robust type. Many artists have been attracted to settle here. Vollendam has its origin in the build- ing of the great sea-dam for the new waterway to Edam in the middle of the I4th century. On the seaward side of the dike are some houses built on piles in the style of lake dwellings. VOLLMAR, GEORG HEINRICH VON (1850- ), German Socialist, was born at Munich in 1850. He was educated in a school attached to a Benedictine monastery at Augsburg, and in 1865 entered the Bavarian army as a lieutenant in a cavalry regiment. He served in the campaign of 1866, and then entered the papal army as a volunteer. In 1869 he returned to Germany, and during the war with France served in the army railway department. He was severely wounded at Blois and pensioned. Permanently crippled by his wounds, he devoted himself to political and social studies. In 1872 he was con- verted to the principles of Social Democracy, and threw himself with great energy into political agitation. In 1877 he became editor of the party organ at Dresden, and under the Socialist law was repeatedly condemned to various terms of imprisonment, and was also expelled from that city. From 1879 to 1882 he lived at Zurich, then the headquarters of Social Democracy, when, besides attending the university, he took part in editing the Social Demokrat. In 1881 he was elected member of the Reichstag, and from 1883 to 1889 was a member of the Saxon diet. After 1885 he resided in Bavaria, and it was to him that was chiefly due the great success of the Socialists in the older Bavarian provinces. He identified himself with the more moderate and opportunist section of the Socialist party, decisively dissociating himself from the doctrine of a sudden and violent overthrow of society, and urging his associates to co-operate in >ringing about a gradual development towards the Socialistic tate. He refused to identify Social Democracy with the extreme views as to religion and the family advocated by Bebel, and uccessfully resisted attempts made in 1891 to expel him from 196 VOLNEY— VOLOGDA the party in consequence of his opinions. He became a member of the Bavarian Diet in 1893. In addition to a couple of books on the preservation of forests, he published Der isolierte Soziale Stoat (Zurich, 1880). VOLNEY, CONSTANTIN FRANQOIS CHASSEBffiUF, COMTE DE (1757-1820), French savant, was born at Craon (Maine-et- Loire) on the 3rd of February 1757, of good family; he was at first surnamed Boisgirais from his father's estate, but afterwards assumed the name of Volney. He spent some four years in Egypt and Syria, and published his Voyage en Egypte el en Syrie in 1787, and Considerations sur la guerre des Turcs et de la Russie in 1788. He was a member both of the States-General and of the Constituent Assembly. In 1791 appeared Les Ruines, ou meditations sur les revolutions des empires, an essay on the philosophy of history, containing a vision which predicts the final union of all religions by the recognition of the common truth underlying them all. Volney tried to put his politico- economic theories into practice in Corsica, where in 1792 he bought an estate and made an attempt to cultivate colonial produce. He was thrown into prison during the Jacobin triumph, but escaped the guillotine. He was some time professor of history at the newly founded Ecole Normale. In 1795 he undertook a journey to the United States, where he was accused in 1797 of being a French spy sent to prepare for the reoccupation of Louisiana by France. He was obliged to return to France in 1798. The results of his travels took form in his Tableau du climat et du sol des Etats-Unis (1803). He was not a partisan of Napoleon, but, being a moderate man, a savant and a Liberal, was impressed into service by the emperor, who made him a count and put him into the senate. At the restoration he was made a peer of France. He became a member of the Institute in 1795. He died in Paris on the 25th of April 1820. VOLO) a town and seaport of Greece, on the east coast of Thessaly, at the head of the gulf to which it gives its name. Pop. (1907) 23,319. It is the chief seaport and second in- dustrial town of Thessaly, connected by rail with the town of Larissa. The anchorage is safe, vessels loading and discharging by means of lighters. The port has a depth of 23 to 25 ft. The Kastro, or citadel, of Vo!o stands on or close to the site of Pagasae, whence the gulf took the name of Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus, and which was one of the oldest places of which mention occurs in the legendary history of Greece. From this port the Argonautic expedition was said to have sailed, and it was already a nourishing place under the tyrant Jason, who from the neighbour- ing Pherae ruled over all Thessaly. Two miles farther south stand the ruins of Demetrias, founded (290 B.C.) by Demetrius Ppliorcetes, and for some time a favourite residence of the Macedonian kings. On the opposite side of the little inlet at the head of the gulf rises the hill of Episcopi, on which stood the ancient city of lolcus. At Dimini, about 3 m. W. of Volo, several tombs have been found which yielded remains of the later. Mycenean Age. VOLOGAESES (Vologaesus, Vologases; on the coins Ologases; Armen. Valarsh; Mod. Pers. Balash), the name of five Parthian kings. (i) VOLOGAESES I., son of Vonones II. by a Greek con- cubine (Tac. Ann. xii. 44), succeeded his father in A.D. 51 (Tac. Ann. xii. 14; cf. Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). He gave the kingdom of Media Atropatene to his brother Pacorus, and occupied Armenia for another brother, Tiridates (Tac. Ann. xii. 50, xv. 2; Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). This led to a long war with Rome (54-63), which was ably conducted by the Roman general Corbulo. The power of Vologaeses was weakened by an attack of the Dahan and Sacan nomads, a rebellion of the Hyrcanians, and the usurpation of VardanesII. (Tac. Ann. xjii. 7, 37; xiv. 25; xv. i; cf. Joseph. Ant. xx. 4, 2, where he is prevented from attacking the vassal king of Adiabene by an invasion of the eastern nomads). At last a peace was concluded, by which Tiridates was ac- knowledged as king of Armenia, but had to become a vassal of the Romans; he went to Rome, where Nero gave him back the diadem (Tac. Ann. xv. iff.; Dio Cass. Ixii. 19 ff., Ixiii. i ff.) ; from that time an Arsacid dynasty ruled in Armenia under Roman supremacy. Vologaeses was satisfied with this result, and honoured the memory of Nero (Suet. Nero, 57 though he stood in good relations with Vespasian also, to whom he offered an army of 40,000 archers in the war against Vitellius (Tac. Hist. iv. 51; Suet, Vespas. 6; cf. Joseph. Ant. vii. 5, 2. 7, 3; Dio Cass. Ixvi. n). Soon afterwards the Alani, a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invaded Media and Armenia (Joseph. Bell. vii. 7, 4); Vologaeses applied in vain for help to Vespasian (Dio Cass. Ixvi. u; Suet. Domiliijn, 2). It appears that the Persian losses in the east also could not be repaired; Hyrcania remained an independent kingdom (Joseph. Bell. vii. 7,4; Aurel. Viet. Epit. 15, 4). Vologaeses I. died about A.D. 77. His reign is marked by a decided reaction against Hellenism; he built Vologesocerta (Balashkert) in the neighbourhood of Ctesiphon with the intention of drawing to this new town the inhabitants of the Greek city Seleucia (Plin. vi. 122). Another town founded by him is Vologesias on a canal of the Euphrates, south of Babylon (near Hira; cf. Noldeke in Zeitschnft der deutschen-morgenl. Gesellschaft, xxviii. 93 ff.). On some of his coins the initials of his name appear in Aramaic letters. (2) VOLOGAESES II., probably the son of Vologaeses I appears on coins, which bear his proper name, in 77-79, an again 121-47. During this time the Parthian kingdom was torn by civil wars between different pretenders, which reached their height during the war of Trajan, 114-17. Besides Vologaeses II. we find on coins and in the authors Pacorus (78-c. 105), Artabanus III.(8o-8i), Osroes (106-29), Mithradates V. (c. 129-47) and some others; thus the Parthian empire seems during this whole time to have been divided into two or three different kingdoms. By classic authors Vologaeses II. is men- tioned in the time of Hadrian (c. 131), when Cappadocia, Armenia and Media were invaded by the Alani (Dio Cass. Ixix. 15). (3) VOLOGAESES III., 147-91. Under him, the unity of the empire was restored. But he was attacked by the Romans under Marcus Aurelius and Verus (162-65). In this war Seleucia was destroyed and the palace of Ctesiphon burnt down by Avidius Cassius (164); the Romans even advanced into Media. In the peace, western Mesopotamia was ceded to the Romans (Dio Cass. Ixxi. i ff.; Capitolin. Marc. Aw. 8 f.; Verus 8, &c.). Vologaeses III. is probably the king Volgash of the Parsee tradition, preserved in the Dinkart, who began the gather- ing of the writings of Zoroaster. (4) VOLOGAESES IV., 191-209. He was attacked by Septimius Severus in 195, who advanced into Mesopotamia, occupied Nisibis and plundered Ctesiphon (199), but attempted in vain to conquer the Arabic fortress Atra; in 202 peace was restored. (5) VOLOGAESES V., 2oo-e. 222, son of Vologaeses IV. Soon after his accession his brother Artabanus IV., the last Arsacid king, rebelled against him, and became master of the greater part of the empire (Dio Cass. Ixxvii. 12). But Vologaeses V. maintained himself in a part of Babylonia; his dated coins reach down to A.D. 222. (ED. M ) VOLOGDA, a government of north-eastern Russia, having the government of Archangel on the N., Tobolsk on the E., Perm, Vyatka, Kostroma and Yaroslavl on the S., Novgorod, Olonetz and Archangel on the W. This immense government, which comprises an area of 155,218 sq. m., stretches in a north- easterly direction for 800 m., from Novgorod to the Urals, and includes the broad depression drained by the Sukhona from the S.W., and the Vychegda from the N.E., both head-waters of the N. Dvina. From the basin of the Volga it is separated by a flat, swampy, wooded swelling, where the heads of tribu- taries belonging to both Arctic and Caspian drainage-areas are closely intermingled. The eastern boundary of Vologda follows the main water-parting of the Urals, which has but few points over 3000 ft.; wide parmas, or woody plateaus, fill up the space between the main chain of the Urals and the southern spurs of the Timan Mountains, in the upper basin of the Pechora. It is above the parmas — especially over those which are nearest the Urals proper — that the highest summits of the Urals rise in the form of dome-shaped mountains (T6ll-poz-iz, 5535 ft.; Kozhem-iz, 4225 ft.; Shadmaha, 4115 ft.). The Timan u i VOLOGDA— VOLSCI 197 Mountains are a swampy plateau, where the rivers flowing to the N. Dvina or to the Pechora take their rise in common marshes; so that on the Mylva portage boats have to be dragged a distance of only 3 m. to be transported from one system to the other. Permian sandstones and cupriferous slates cover most ot the territory; only a few patches of Jurassic clays overlie them; in the east, in the Ural parmas, coal-bearing Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian slates and limestones appear, wrapping the crystalline of the main ridge. Vast layers of boulder clay and Lacustrine its overlie the whole. Rock-salt and salt springs, iron ore, ones and grindstones are the chief mineral products; but mining is in its infancy. The river Sukhona, which rises in the south-west and flows north-east, is navigable for 375 m. After its confluence with the Vug (390 m. long), which flows from the south, it becomes the u-ina, which proceeds north-west, and receives the Vychegda, 740 m. long and navigable for 570 m., though it passes through a nearly uninhabited region. The Luza, a tributary of the Yug, is also navigated for more than 250 m. The Pechora, which flows through eastern Vologda, is an artery for the export of corn and the import of fish. The Pinega, the Mezen and the Vaga, all belonging to the Arctic basin, rise in northern Vologda. In the south-west the Sukhona is connected by means of Lake Kubina and the canal of Alexander von Wurttemberg with the upper Volga. Numberless smaller lakes occur, and marshes cover a considerable part of the surface. The climate is severe, the average yearly temperature beine 36° F. at Vologda (Jan., I o0-?; July, 63°-5) and 32°-5 at Ust-Sysolsk (Jan., 4°-8; July, 6i°-7). The flora and the physical aspects vary greatly as the traveller moves north-east down the Sukhona and up the Vychegda, towards the parmas of the Pechora. In the south-west the forests are cleared, and the dry slopes of the hills have been converted into fields and meadows; the population is relatively dense, and nearly one-quarter of the area is under crops. There is a surplus of grain, which is used for distilleries, and apples are extensively cultivated. The flora is middle- Russian. Farther north-east the climate grows more severe; but still, until the Dvina is reached, corn succeeds well, and there is no lack of excellent meadows on the river-terraces. Flax is cultivated for export ; but only 4 % of the area is tilled, the remainder being covered with thick fir forests with occasional groups of deciduous trees (birch, aspen, elder). At about 46° E. the larch appears and soon supersedes the fir. Several plants unknown in western Russia make their appearance (SUene tartarica, Anthyllis vulneraria. Euphorbia palustns, Filago arvensis, Lycopodium com- planatum, Sanguisorba officinalis). The Veratrum is especially characteristic; it sometimes encroaches on the meadows to such an extent as to compel their abandonment. The region of the upper Mezen (the Udora) again has a distinctive character. The winter is so protracted, and the snowfall so copious, that the Syryenians are sometimes compelled to clear away the snow from their barley-fields. But the summer is so hot (a mean of 54° for the three summer months) that barley ripens within forty days after being sown. The Timan plateaus are a marked boundary for the middle-Russian flora. Those to the east of them are uninhabitable; even on the banks of the rivers the climate is so severe, especially on account of the icy northern winds, that rye and barley are mostly grown only in orchards. The whole is covered with quite impenetrable forests, growing on a soil saturated with water. Mosquitoes swarm in the forests; birds are rare. The Siberian cedar begins and the lime tree disappears. Fir, cedar, pine and larch compose the forests, with birch and aspen on their outskirts. Hunting is the chief occupation of the Syryenian inhabitants. The population was estimated in 1906 at 1,517,500,0! whom 57,407 lived in towns; 90% were Great Russians and 8-4% Syryenians (q.v.). The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns of which are Vologda, Gryazovets, Kadnikov, Nikolsk, Solvychegodsk, Totma or Totyma, Ustyug Velikiy, Ust-Sysolsk, Velsk and Yarensk. Agriculture thrives in the three south-western districts. Live-stock breeding occupies considerable numbers of people. A little salt is raised, and there are a few ironworks, but manufacturing industries are in their infancy; the chief branch is the weaving of linen in the villages. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) VOLOGDA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, situated in its south-western corner on the river Vologda, above its confluence with the navigable Sukhona, 127 m. by rail N. of Yaroslavl. Pop. (1881) 17,025; (1897) 27,822. It is an old town, having many ancient churches, including one which dates from the i2th century, and the cathedral, founded in 1568. Vologda is a considerable com- mercial centre — flax, linseed, oats, hemp, butter and eggs being exported to both St Petersburg and Archangel. It has distilleries, tanneries, and oil, soap, tobacco, candle and fur- dressing works. Vologda existed as a trading town as early as the izth century. It was a colony of Novgorod, and was founded in 1147, and carried on a brisk trade in flax, tallow, furs, corn, leather and manufactured goods. In 1273 it was plundered by the prince of Tver in alliance with the Tatars, but soon recovered. Moscow disputed its possession with Novgorod until the isth century; the Moscow princes intrigued to find support amidst the poorer inhabitants against the richer Nov- gorod merchants, and four successive times Vologda had to &ght against its metropolis. It was definitely annexed to Moscow in 1447. When Archangel was founded, and opened Eor foreign trade in 1553, Vologda became the chief depot for goods exported through that channel. Polish bands plundered it in 1613, and the plague of 1648 devastated it; but it main- tained its commercial importance until the foundation of St Petersburg, when Russian foreign trade took another channel. VOLSCI, an ancient Italian people, well known in the history of the first century of the Roman Republic. They then in- habited the partly hilly, partly marshy district of the S. of Latium, bounded by the Aurunci and Samnites on the S., the Heinici on the E., and stretching roughly from Norba and Cora in the N. to Antium in the S. They were among the most dangerous enemies of Rome, and frequently allied with the Aequi, whereas the Hernici from 486 B.C. onwards were the allies of Rome. In the Volscian territory lay the little town of Velitrae(Velletri), the birthplace of Augustus. From this town we have a very interesting though brief in- scription dating probably from early in the 3rd century B.C.; it is cut upon a small bronze plate (now in the Naples Museum), which must have once been fixed to some votive object, dedi- cated to the god Declunus (or the goddess Declaim}. The language of this inscription is clear enough to show the very marked peculiarities which rank it close beside the lan- guage of the Iguvine Tables (see IGTJVTOM). It shows on the one hand the labialization of the original velar ^(Volscian pis= Latin quis), and on the other hand it palatalizes the guttural c before a following i (Volscian /ofw = Latin facial). Like Umbrian also, but unlike Latin and Oscan, it has degraded all the diphthongs into simple vowels (Volscian se parallel to Oscan svai; Volscian deue, Old Latin and Oscan deiuai or deiuoi). This phenomenon of what might have been taken for a piece of Umbrian text appearing in a district remote from Umbria and hemmed in by Latins on the north and Oscan-speaking Sam- nites on the south is a most curious feature in the geographical distribution of the Italic dialects, and is dearly the result of some complex historical movements. In seeking for an explanation we may perhaps trust, at least in part, the evidence of the Ethnicon itself. The name Volsci belongs to what may be called the -CO- group of tribal names in the centre, and mainly on the west coast, of Italy, all of whom were subdued by the Romani before the end of the 4th century B. C.; and many of whom were conquered by the Samnites about a century or more earlier. They are, from south to north, Osci, Aurunci, Hernici, Marruci, Falisci; with these were no doubt associated the original inhabitants of Aricia and of Sidici-num, of Vescia among the Aurunci, and of Labici close to Hernican territory. The same formative element appears in the adjective Mons Massicus, and the names Glanica and Marica belonging to the Auruncan district, with Graviscae in south Etruria, and a few other names in central Italy (see " I due strati nella popolazione Indo-Europea dell' Italia Antica," in the Atti del Congresso Internasionale di Scicnze Storiche, Rome, 1903, p. 17). With these names must clearly be judged the forms Tusci and Etrusci, although these forms must not be re- garded as anything but the names given to the Etruscans by the folk among whom they settled. Now the historical fortune of these tribes is reflected in several of their names (see SABINI). The Samnite and Roman conquerors tended to impose the form of their own Ethnicon, namely the suffix -NO-, upon 198 VOLSINII— VOLTA the tribes they conquered; hence the Marruci became the Marrucini, the * Ariel became Aricini, and it seems at least probable that the forms Sidicini, Carecini, and others of this shape are the results of this same process. The conclusion sug- gested is that these -CO- tribes occupied the centre and west coast of Italy at the time of the Etruscan invasion (see ETRURIA: Language) ; whereas the -NO- tribes only reached this part of Italy, or at least only became dominant there, long after the Etruscans had settled in the Peninsula. It remains, therefore, to ask whether any information can be had about the language of this primitive -CO- folk, and whether they can be identified as the authors of any of the various archaeological strata now recognized on Italian soil. If the conclusions suggested under SABINI may be accepted as sound we should expect to find the Volsci speaking a language similar to that of the Ligures, whose fondness for the suffix -sco- we have noticed (see LIGURES), and identical with that spoken by tlie plebeians of Rome, and that this branch of Indo-European was among those which preserved the original Indo-European Velars from the labialization which befell them in the speech of the Samnites. The language of the inscription of Velitrae offers at first sight a difficulty from this point of view, in the conversion which it shows of q to p; but it is to be observed that the Ethnicon of Velitrae is Veliternus, and that the people are called on the inscription itself Veleslrom (genitive plural) ; so that there is nothing to prevent our assuming that we have here a settlement of Sabines among the Volscian hills, with their language to some extent (e.g. in the matter of the diphthongs and palatals) corrupted by that of the people round about them; just as we have reason to suppose was the case with the Safine language of the Iguvini, whose very name was later converted into Igumnales, the suffix -ti- being much more frequent among the -CO- tribes than among the Safines (see SABINI). The name Volsci itself is significant not merely in its suffix; the older form Volusci clearly contains the word meaning "marsh" identical with Gr. ?Xos, since the change of *velos- to *volus- is phonetically regular in Latin. The name Marica (" goddess of the salt-marshes ") among the Aurunci appears also both on the coast of Picenum and among the Ligurians; and Stephanus of Byzantium identified the Osci with the Siculi, whom there is reason to suspect were kinsmen of the Ligures. It is remarkable in how many marshy places this -co- or -ca- suffix is used. Besides the Aurunci and the dea Marica and the intempestaeque Graviscae (Virg. Aen. x. 184), we have the Ustica Cubans of Horace (Odes i. 17, n), the Hernici in the Trerus valley, Satricum and Glo.nica in the Pomptine marshes. For the text and fuller account of the Volscian inscription, and for other records of the dialect, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 267 sqq. (R. S. C.) VOLSINII, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy. The older Volsinii occupied in all probability the isolated tufa rock, so strongly defended by nature, upon which in Roman times stood the town which Procopius (B.C. ii. n seq.) calls Ovpfiifiti/Tos (Urbs veins, the modern Orvieto). This conjecture, first made by O. Miiller, has been generally accepted by modern archae- ologists; and it is a strong point in its favour that the bishop of Orvieto in 595 signs himself episcopus cvnlatis Bulsiniensis (Gregor. Magn. Registr. v. 570; cf. ii. n, vi. 27). It had, and needed, no outer walls, being surrounded on all sides except the S.W. by abrupt tufa cliffs; but a massive wall found by excavation on the S.W. side of the town may have belonged to the acropolis. No remains of antiquity are to be seen within the city; but at the foot of the hill on the N. a large Etruscan necropolis was found in 1874, dating from the 5th century B.C. The tombs, constructed of blocks of stone and arranged in rows divided "by passages (like houses in a town), often had the name of the deceased on the facade. Many painted vases, &c., were found; some of the best are in the Museo Civico at Orvieto. Tombs with paintings have also been found to the W. of the town on the way to Bolsena. Volsinii was reputed the richest of the twelve cities of Etruria. Wars between Volsinii and Rome are mentioned 392, 308 and 294 B.C., and in 265-64 B.C. the Romans assiste the inhabitants against their former slaves, who had successfully asserted themselves against their masters and took the tov Fulvius Flaccus gained a triumph for his victory, and it probably then that the statue of Vertumnus which stood the Vicus Tuscus at Rome was brought from Volsinii. Zonar; states that the city was destroyed and removed elsewhere, though the old site continued apparently to be inhabited, to judge from the inscriptions found there. The new city certainly situated on the hills on the N.E. bank of the Lak of Bolsena (Lacus V olsiniensis) , 12 m. W.S.W. of Orvieto, wh many remains of antiquity have been found, on and abov the site of the modern Bolsena (q.v.). These remains consis of Etruscan tombs, the sacred enclosure of the goddess Nortia, with votive objects and coins ranging from the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. to the middle of the 3rd century A.D., remains of Roman houses, &c., and an amphitheatre of the imperial period (E. Gabrici in Monumenti dei Lincei, xvi., 1906, 169 sqq., and in Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, 59 sqq.). The history of the new Volsinii is somewhat scanty. Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius, and Musonius Rufus the Stoic were natives of the place. The earliest dated inscription from the cemetery of S. Christina (discovered with its subterranean church in 1880-81) belongs to A.D. 376 and the first known bishop of Volsinii to A.D. 499. In the next century, however, the see was transferred to Orvieto. Etruscan tombs have been found on the Isola Bisentina, in the lake; and on the west bank was the town of Visentium, Roman inscriptions belonging to which have been found. The site is marked by a medieval castle bearing the name Bisenzo. See E. Bprmann in Corp. Inscr. Latin. xi., 1888, pp. 423 sqq.; Notizie degli Scavi, passim; G. Dennis, op. c.it. (ii. 18 sqq.). (T. As.) VOLTA, ALESSANDRO (1745-1827), Italian physicist, was born at Como on the i8th of February 1745. He is celebrated as a pioneer of electrical science, after whom the " volt " is named. In 1774 he was appointed professor of physics in the gymnasium of Como, and in 1777 he travelled through Switzer- land, where he formed an intimate friendship with H. B. de Saussure. In 1779 a chair of physics was founded in Pavia, and Volta was chosen to occupy it. In 1782 he journeyed through France, Germany, Holland and England, and became acquainted with many scientific celebrities. In 1791 he re- ceived the Copley medal of the Royal Society. In 1801 Napoleon called him to Paris, to show his experiments on contact electricity, and a medal was struck in his honour. He was made a senator of the kingdom of Lombardy. In 1815 the emperor of Austria made him director of the philosophical faculty of Padua. In 1819 he retired and settled in his native town, where he died on the 5th of March 1827. For Volta's electrical work, and his place in the history of discovery (see ELECTRICITY; also VOLTMETER). VOLTA, the largest river of the coast of Upper Guinea, between the Gambia and the Niger, with a length of about 900 m. Its mouth and the greater part of its course are in British territory. Its lower course had been known since the discoveries of the Portuguese, from whom it received (isth century) its name on account of the winding nature of its stream. It was not, however, until the last fifteen years of the igth century that the extent of its basin — extending far north within the bend of the Niger— -was made known. There are two main upper branches, the Black and the White Volta. Their sources lie on the grassy plateaus north of the forest belt of the Guinea coast, the Black Volta rising (as the Baule) in about 1 1 ° I 4° 50' W. Its course is at first E. and N.E., to 12° 25' N., at which point, after receiving a tributary from nearly 14° N. — the most northerly point of the basin, — it turns sharply south. From the eleventh to the ninth parallel the river forms the boundary between the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British) and the French Ivory Coast colony. The southerly course of the stream ceases at 8* 15' N. where it is deflected E., and even N., by a mountain range composed of sandstone and granite, which it finally breaks through by a narrow pass, in which its width is only some 60 yds. Elsewhere VOLTAIRE 199 it has a general width of 150 to 200 yds. In o° 50' W. it re- es the White Volta, which flows generally south from about 13° N. and likewise breaks through a narrow gap in the plateau :pmcnt. Both rivers shrink greatly in the dry season, reaching their loweM level at the end of January. Below the junction the . Hows S.E. and S., turning, however, E. for 40 m. just north of 6°. In 7° 37' N. it receives on the left bank a large tributary, >ii, coming from 12° N. In its lower course, through the forest i he river has often a width of over half a mile, with a depth in places of 40 to 50 ft. in the rains, but in 6° 18' N. it traverses a in which its width is narrowed to 30 yds. Its use as a water- way is limited by a number of rapids, the lowest of which occur in 6° 7' N., above the trading port of Akuse. Its mouth is obstructed during the greater part of the year by a bar. The river is usually navigable by small vessels from its mouth for about 60 m. The lower Volta was explored by M. J. Bonnat in 1875, but the upper basin was first traversed by the German traveller Krause (1886-87) and the French captain L. G. Binger (1888). It has since been explored by a number of colonial officials — German, French and British. Between 6° 41' and 8° 8' N. the Volta forms the boundary between the Gold Coast and Togoland. VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694-1778), French philosopher, historian, dramatist and man of letters, whose real name was Francois Marie Arouet simply, was born on the zist of November 1694 at Paris, and was baptized the next day. His father was Francois Arouet, a notary; his mother was Marie Marguerite Daumart or D'Aumard. Both father and mother were of Poitevin extraction, but the Arouets had been for two generations established in Paris, the grand- father being a prosperous tradesman. The family appear to have always belonged to the yeoman-tradesman class; their special home was the town of Saint-Loup. Voltaire was the fifth child of his parents — twin boys (of whom one survived), a girl, Marguerite Catherine, and another boy who died young, having preceded him. Not very much is known of the mother, who died when Voltaire was but seven years old. She pretty certainly was the chief cause of his early introduction to good society, the abbe de Chateauneuf (his sponsor in more ways than one) having been her friend. The father appears to have been somewhat peremptory in temper, but neither inhospitable nor tyrannical. Marguerite Arouet, of whom her younger brother was very fond, married early, her husband's name being Mignot; the eider brother, Armand, was a strong Jan- senist, and there never was any kind of sympathy between him and Francois. The abbe de Chateauneuf instructed him early in belles- lettres and deism, and he showed when a child the unsurpassed faculty for facile verse-making which always distinguished him. At the age of ten he was sent to the College Louis-le-Grand, which was under the management of the Jesuits, and remained there till 1711. It was his whim, as part of his general liberal- ism, to depreciate the education he received; but it seems to have been a very sound and good education, which formed the basis of his extraordinarily wide, though never extra- ordinarily accurate, collection of knowledge subsequently, and (a more important thing) disciplined and exercised his literary faculty and judgment. Nor can there be much doubt that the great attention bestowed on acting — the Jesuits kept up the Renaissance practice of turning schools into theatres for the performance of plays both in Latin and in the vernacular — had much to do with Voltaire's lifelong devotion to the stage. It must have been in his very earliest school years that the celebrated presentation of him by his godfather to Ninon de Lenclos took place, for Ninon died in 1705. She left him two thousand francs " to buy books with." He worked fairly, played fairly, lived comfortably, made good and lasting friends. Some curious traits are recorded of this life — one being that in the terrible famine year of Malplaquet a hundred francs a year were added to the usual boarding expenses, and yet the boys had to eat pain bis. In August 1711, at the age of seventeen, he came home, and the usual battle followed between a son who desired no profession but literature and a father who refused to consider literature a profession at all. For a time Voltaire submitted, and read law at least nominally. The abbe de Chateauneuf died before his godson left school, but he had already intro- duced him to the famous and dissipated coterie of the Temple, of which the grand prior Vend6me was the head, and the poets Chaulieu and La Fare the chief literary stars. It does not appear that Voltaire got into any great scrapes; but his father tried to break him off from such society by sending him first to Caen and then, in the suite of the marquis de Chateauneuf, the abb£'s brother, to the Hague. Here he met a certain Olympe Dunoyer (" Pimpette "), a girl apparently of respect- able character and not bad connexions, but a Protestant, penniless, and daughter of a literary lady whose literary reputa- tion was not spotless. The mother discouraged the affair, and, though Voltaire tried to avail himself of the mania for prosely- tizing which then distinguished France, his father stopped any idea of a match by procuring a letlre de cachet, which, however, he did not use. Voltaire, who had been sent home, submitted, and for a time pretended to work in a Parisian lawyer's office; but he again manifested a faculty for getting into trouble — this time in the still more dangerous way of writing libellous poems — so that his father was glad to send him to stay for nearly a year (1714-15) with Louis de Caumartin, marquis de Saint-Ange, in the country. Here he was still supposed to study law, but devoted himself in part to literary essays, in part to storing up his immense treasure of gossiping history . Almost exactly at the time of the death of Louis XIV. be returned to Paris, to fall once more into literary and Templar society, and to make the tragedy of CEdipe, which he had already written, privately known. He was now introduced to a less questionable and even more distinguished coterie than Venddme's, to the famous " court of Sceaux," the circle of the beautiful and ambitious duchesse du Maine. It seems that Voltaire lent himself to the duchess's frantic hatred of the regent Orleans, and helped to compose lampoons on that prince. At any rate, in May 1716 he was exiled, first to Tulle, then to Sully. Allowed to return, he again fell under suspicion of having been concerned in the composition of two violent libels— one in Latin and one in French — called from their first words the Puero Regnante and the J'ai vu, was inveigled by a spy named Beauregard into a real or burlesque confession, and on the i6th of May 1717 was sent to the Bastille. He there recast (Edipe, began the Henriade and determined to alter his name. Ever after his exit from the Bastille in April 1718 he was known as Arouet de Voltaire, or simply Voltaire, though legally he never abandoned his patronymic. The origin of the famous name has been much debated, and attempts have been made to show that it actually existed in the Daumart pedigree or in some territorial designation. Some are said to maintain that it was an abbreviation of a childish nickname, " le petit wlontaire." The balance of opinion has, however, always inclined to the hypothesis of an anagram on the name " Arouet le jeune," or " Arouet 1. j.," u being changed to t> and j to * according to the ordinary rules of the game. A further " exile " at Chatenay and elsewhere succeeded the imprisonment, and though Voltaire was admitted to an audience by the regent and treated graciously he was not trusted. (Edipe was acted at the Theatre Francais on the i8th of Novem- ber of the year of release, and was very well received, a rivalry between parties not dissimilar to that which not long before had helped Addison's Cato assisting its success. It had a run of forty-five nights, and brought the author not a little profit. With these gains Voltaire seems to have begun his long series of successful financial speculations. But in the spring of next year the production of Lagrange-Chancel's libels, entitled the Philippiques, again brought suspicion on him. He was in- formally exiled, and spent much time with Marshal Villars. again increasing his store of " reminiscences." He returned to Paris in the winter, and his second play, Arlimire, was pro- duced in February 1720. It was a failure, and though it was recast with some success Voltaire never published it as a whole, and used parts of it in other work. He again spent much of 200 VOLTAIRE his time with Villars, listening to the marshal's stories and making harmless love to the duchess. In December 1721 his father died, leaving him property (rather more than four thousand livres a year), which was soon increased by a pension of half the amount from the regent. In return for this, or in hopes of more, he offered himself as a spy — or at any rate as a secret diplomatist — to Dubcis. But meeting his old enemy Beauregard in one of the minister's rooms and making an offensive remark, he was waylaid by Beauregard some time after in a less privileged place and soundly beaten. His visiting espionage, as unkind critics put it — his secret diplomatic mission, as he would have liked to have it put himself — began in the summer of 1722, and he set out for it in company with a certain Madame de Rupelmonde, to whom he as usual made love, taught deism and served as an amusing travelling companion. He stayed at Cambrai for some time, where European diplomatists were still in full session, jour- neyed to Brussels, where he met and quarrelled with Jean Baptiste Rousseau, went on to the Hague, and then returned. The Henriade had got on considerably during the journey, and, according to his lifelong habit, the poet, with the help of his friend Thieriot and others, had been "working the oracle" of puffery. During the late autumn and winter of 1722-23 he abode chiefly in Paris, taking a kind of lodging in the town house of M. de Bernieres, a nobleman of Rouen, and endeavouring to procure a "privilege" for his poem. In this he was disappointed, but he had the work printed at Rouen nevertheless, and spent the summer of 1723 revising it. In November he caught smallpox and was very seriously ill, so that the book was not given to the world till the spring of 1724 (and then of course, as it had no privilege, appeared privately). Almost at the same time, the 4th of March, his third tragedy, Mariamne appeared, was well received at first, but underwent complete damnation before the curtain fell. The regent had died shortly before, not to Voltaire's advantage; for he had been a generous patron. Voltaire had made, however, a useful friend in another grand seigneur, as profligate and nearly as intelligent, the duke of Richelieu, and with him he passed 1724 and the next year chiefly, recasting Mariamne (which was now successful), writing the comedy of L'Indiscret, and courting the queen, the ministers, the favourites and everybody who seemed worth. The end of 1725 brought a disastrous close to this period of his life. He was insulted by the chevalier de Rohan, replied with his usual sharpness of tongue, and shortly afterwards, when dining with the duke of Sully, was called out and bastinadoed by the chavelier's hire- lings, Rohan himself looking on. Nobody would take his part, and at last, nearly three months after the outrage, he challenged Rohan, who accepted the challenge, but on the morning appointed for the duel Voltaire was arrested and sent. for the second time to the Bastille. He was kept in confinement a fortnight, and was then packed off to England in accordance with his own request. Voltaire revenged himself on the duke of Sully for his conduct towards his guest by cutting Maxi- milien de Bethune's name out of the Henriade. No competent judges have ever mistaken the importance of Voltaire's visit to England, and the influence it exercised on his future career. In the first place, the ridiculous and discreditable incident of the beating had time to blow over; in the second, England was a very favourable place for French- men of note to pick up guineas; in the third, and most im- portant of all, his contact with a people then far more different in every conceivable way from their neighbours than any two peoples of Europe are different now, acted as a sovereign tonic and stimulant on his intellect and literary faculty. Before the English visit Voltaire had been an elegant trifler, an adept in the forms of literature popular in French society, a sort of superior Dorat or Boufflers of earh'er growth. He returned from that visit one of the foremost literary men in Europe, with views, if not profound or accurate, yet wide and acute on all les grands sujets, and with a solid stock of money. The visit lasted about three years, from 1726 to 1729; and, as if to make the visitor's luck certain, George I. died and George II. succeeded soon after his arrival. The new king was not fond of " boetry," but Queen Caroline was, and international jealousy was pleased at the thought of welcoming a distin- guished exile from French illiberality. The Walpoles, Bubb Dodington, Bolingbroke, Congreve, Sarah, duchess of Marl- borough, Pope, were among his English friends. He made acquaintance with, and at least tried to appreciate, Shake- speare. He was much struck by English manners, was deeply penetrated by English toleration for personal freethought and eccentricity, and gained some thousands of pounds from an authorized English edition of the Henriade, dedicated to the queen. But he visited Paris now and then without permis- sion, and his mind, like the mind of every exiled Frenchman, was always set thereon. He gained full licence to return in the spring of 1729. He was full of literary projects, and immediately after his return he is said to have increased his fortune immensely by a lucky lottery speculation. The Henriade was at last licensed in France; Brutus, a play which he had printed in England, was accepted for performance, but kept back for a time by the author; and he began the celebrated poem of the Pucelle, the amusement and the torment of great part of his life. But he had great difficulties with two of his chief works which were ready to appear, Charles XII. and the Lettres sur les Anglais. With both he took all imaginable pains to avoid offending the censorship; for Voltaire had, more than any other man who ever lived, the ability and the willingness to stoop to conquer. At the end of 1730 Brutus did actually get acted. Then in the spring of the next year he went to Rouen to get Charles XII. surreptitiously printed, which he accomplished. In 1732 another tragedy, Eriphile, appeared, with the same kind of halting success which had distinguished the appearance of its elder sisters since (Edipe. But at last, on the I3th of August 1732, he produced Zaire, the best (with Mirope) of all his plays, and one of the ten or twelve best plays of the whole French classical school. Its motive was borrowed to some extent from Othello, but that matters little. In the following winter the death of the comtesse de Fontaine-Martel, whose guest he had been, turned him out of a comfortable abode. He then took lodgings with an agent of his, one Demoulin, in an out-of-the-way part of Paris, and was, for some time at least, as much occupied with contracts, specu- lation and all sorts of means of gaming money as with literature. In the middle of this period, however, in 1733, two important books, the Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais and the Temple du gout appeared. Both were likely to make bad blood, for the latter was, under the mask of easy verse, a satire on con- temporary French literature, especially on J. B. Rousseau, and the former was, in the guise of a criticism or rather panegyric of English ways, an attack on everything established in the church and state of France. It was published with certain " remarks " on Pascal, mere offensive to orthodoxy than itself, and no mercy was shown to it. The book was condemned (June loth, 1734), the copies seized and burnt, a warrant issued against the author and his dwelling searched. He himself was safe in the independent duchy of Lorraine with Emilie de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet,1 with whom he began to be intimate in 1733; he had now taken up his abode with her at the chateau of Cirey. If the English visit may be regarded as having finished 1 Gabrielle Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Ch&telet (1706-1749), was the daughter of the baron de Breteuil, and married the marquis du Chatelet-Lomont in 1725. She was an accom- plished linguist, musician and mathematician, and deeply interested in metaphysics. When she first became intimate with Voltaire she was practically separated from her husband, though he occasionally visited Cirey. She is only important from her connexion with Voltaire, though an attempt has been made to treat her as an original thinker; see F. Hamel, An Eighteenth Century Marquise (1910). She wrote Institutions de physique (1740), Dissertation sur la nature et la propagation du feu (1744), Doutes sur les religions reculees (1792), and in 1756 published a translation of Newton's Principia. VOLTAIRE 2OI Voltaire's education, the Cirey residence may be justly said to be the first stage of his literary manhood. He had written important and characteristic work before; but he had always been in a kind of literary Wanderjahre. He now obtained a settled home for many years, and, taught by his numerous brushes with the authorities, he began and successfully carried out that system of keeping out of personal harm's way, and of at once denying any awkward responsibility, which made him for nearly half a century at once the chief and the most pros- perous of Eurcpean heretics in regard to all established ideas. It was not till the summer of 1734 that Cirey, a half -dismantled country house on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, was fitted up with Voltaire's money and became the head- quarters of himself, of his hostess, and now and then of her accommodating husband. Many pictures of the life here, some of them not a little malicious, survive. It was not en- tirely a bed of roses, for the " respectable Emily's " temper was violent, and after a time she sought lovers who were not so much des certbraux as Voltaire. But it provided him with a safe and comfortable retreat, and with every opportunity for literary work. In March 1735 the ban was formally taken off him, and he was at liberty to return to Paris, a liberty of which he availed himself sparingly. At Cirey he wrote indefatigably and did not neglect business. The principal literary results of his early years here were the Discours en vers sur I'homme, the play of Alzire and L' Enfant prodigue (1736), and a long treatise on the Newtonian system which he and Madame du Chatelet wrote together. But, as usual, Voltaire's extraordinary literary industry was shown rather in a vast amount of fugitive writjngs than in substantive works, though for the whole space of his Cirey residence he was engaged in writing, adding to, and altering the Pucelle. In the very first days of his sojourn he had written a pamphlet with the imposing title of Treatise on Metaphysics. Of metaphysics proper Voltaire neither then nor at any other time understood anything, and the subject, like every other, merely served him as a pretext for laughing at religion with the usual reservation of a tolerably affirmative deism. In March 1736 he received his first letter from Frederick of Prussia, then crown prince only. He was soon again in trouble, this time for the poem of Le Mondain, and he at once crossed the frontier and then made for Brussels. He spent about three months in the Low Countries, and in March 1737 returned to Cirey, and continued writing, making experiments in physics (he had at this time a large laboratory), and busying himself with iron-founding, the chief industry of the district. The best-known accounts of Cirey life, those of Madame de Grafigny, date from the winter of 1738-39; they are somewhat spiteful but very amusing, depicting the frequent quarrels between Madame du Chatelet and Voltaire, his intense' suffering under criticism, his constant dread of the surreptitious publication of the Pucelle (which nevertheless he could not keep his hands from writing or his tongue from reciting to his visitors), and so forth. The chief and most galling of his critics at this time was the Abb£ Desfontaines, and the chief of Desfontaines's attacks was entitled La Voltairomanie, in reply to a libel of Voltaire's called Le Presenatif. Both combatants bad, accord- ing to the absurd habit of the time, to disown their works, Desfontaines's disavowal being formal and procured by the exertion of all Voltaire's own influence both at home and abroad. For he had as little notion of tolerance towards others as of dignity in himself. In April 1739 a journey was made to Brussels, to Paris, and then again to Brussels, which was the headquarters for a considerable time, owing to some law affairs, of the Du Chatelets. Frederick, now king of Prussia, made not a few efforts to get Voltaire away from Madame du Chatelet, but unsuccessfully, and the king earned the lady's cordial hatred by persistently refusing or omitting to invite her. At last, in September 1740, master and pupil met for the first time at Cleves, an interview followed three months later by a longer visit. Brussels wa.i again the headquarters in 1741, by which time Voltaire had fnished the best and the second or third best of his plays, Merope and Mahomet. Mahomet was played first at Lille in that year;, it did not appear in Paris till August next year, and Merope not till 1743. This last was, and deserved to be, the most successful of its author's whole theatre. It was in this same year that he received the singular diplomatic mission to Frederick which nobody seems to have taken seriously, and after his retuin the oscillation between Biussels, Cirey and Paris was resumed. During these years much of the Essai sur les mceurs and the Siecle de Louis XIV. was composed. He also returned, not too well- advisedly, to the business of courtiership, which he had given up since the death of the regent. He was much employed, owing to Richelieu's influence, in the ffites of the dauphin's marriage, and was rewarded through the influence of Madame de Pompadour on New Year's Day 1745 by the appointment to the post of historiographer-royal, once jointly held by Racine and Boileau. The situation itself and its accompanying privileges were what Voltaire chiefly aimed at, bat there was a salary of two thousand livres attached, and he had the year before come in for three times as much by the death of his brother. In the same year he wrote a poem on Fontenoy, he received medals from the pope and dedicated Mahomet to him, and he wrote court divertissements and other things to admira- tion. But he was not a thoroughly skilful courtier, and one of the best known of Voltairiana is the contempt or at least silence with which Louis XV. — a sensualist but no fool — received the maladroit and almost insolent inquiry Trajan est-il content? addressed in his hearing to Richelieu at the close of a piece in which the emperor had appeared with a transparent reference to the king. All this assentation had at least one effect. He, who had been for years admittedly the first writer in France, had been repeatedly passed over in elections to the Academy. He was at last elected in the spring of 1746, and received on the 9th of May. Then the tide began to turn. His favour at court had naturally exasperated his enemies; it had not secured him any real friends, and even a gentlen.anship of the chamber was no solid benefit, except from the money point of view. He did not indeed hold it very long, but was per- mitted to sell it for a large sum, retaining the rank and privileges. He had various proofs of the instability of his hold on tbe king during 1747 and in 1748. He once lay in hiding for two months with the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux, where were produced the comedietta of La Prude and the tragedy of Rome sawtte, and afterwards for i time lived chiefly at Luneville; here Madame du Chatelet had established herself at the court of King Stanislaus, and carried on a liaison with Saint-Lambert, an officer in the king's guard. In September 1749 she died after the birth of a child. The death of Madame du Chatelet is another turning-point in the history of Voltaire. He was fifty-five, but he had nearly thirty years more to live, and he had learnt much during what may be called his Cirey cohabitation. For some time, however, after Madame du Chatelet's death he was in a state of pitiable unsettlemtnt. At first, after removing his goods from Cirey, he hired the greater part of the Chatelet town house, and then the whole. He had some idea of settling down in Paris, and might perhaps have done so if mischief had not been the very breath of his nostrils. He went on writing satiric tales like Zadig. He engaged in a foolish and undigni- fied struggle with Cr£ billon pere (notfils), a rival set up against him by Madame de Pompadour, but a dramatist who, in part of one play, Rhadamiste et Zenobie, has struck a note of tragedy in the grand Cornelian strain, which Voltaire could never hope to echo. Semirame (1748), Oreste (1750) and Rome sauvfe itself were all products of this rivalry. He used the most extraordinary efforts to make himself more popular than he was, but he could not help being uncomfortable. All this time Frederick of Prussia had been continuing his invitations. Voltaire left Paris on the isth of June 1751, and reached Berlin on the loth of July. This Berlin visit is more or less familiar to English readers from the two great essays of Macaulay and Carlyle as well as from the Frederick of the 202 VOLTAIRE latter. But these two masters of English were not perhaps the best qualified to relate the story. Both were unjust to Voltaire, and Macaulay was unjust to Frederick as well. It is certain that at first the king behaved altogether like a king to his guest. He pressed him to remain; he gave him (the words are Voltaire's own) one of his orders, twenty thousand francs a year, and four thousand additional for his niece, Madame Denis, in case she would come and keep house for her uncle. But Voltaire's conduct was from the first Voltairian. He insisted on the consent of his own king, which was given without delay. But Frenchmen, always touchy on such a point, regarded Voltaire as something of a deserter; and it was not long before he bitterly repented his desertion, though his residence in Prussia lasted nearly three years. It was quite impossible that Voltaire and Frederick should get on together for long. Voltaire was not humble enough to be a mere butt, as many of Frederick's led poets were; he was not enough of a gentleman to hold his own place with dignity and discretion; he was constantly jealous both of his equals in age and reputation, such as Maupertuis, and of his juniors and inferiors, such as Baculard D'Arnaud. He was greedy, restless, and in a way Bohemian. Frederick, though his love of teasing for teasing's sake has been exaggerated by Macaulay, was a martinet of the first water, had a sharp though one-sided idea of justice, and had not the slightest intention of allowing Voltaire to insult or to tyrannize over his other guests and servants. If he is to be blamed in this particular matter, the blame must be chiefly confined to his imprudence in inviting Voltaire at the beginning and to the brutality of his conduct at the end. Within Voltaire there was always a mischievous and ill-behaved child; and he was never more mischievous, more ill-behaved and more childish than in these years. He tried to get D'Arnaud exiled, and succeeded. He got into a quite unnecessary quarrel with Lessing. He had not been in the country six months before he engaged in a discreditable piece of financial gambling with Hirsch, the Dresden Jew. He was accused of something like downright forgery — that is to say, of altering a paper signed by Hirsth after he had signed it. The king's disgust at this affair (which came to an open scandal before the tribunals) was so great that he was on the point of ordering Voltaire out of Prussia, and Darget the secretary had no small trouble in arranging the matter (February 1751). Then it was Voltaire's turn to be disgusted with an occupation he had undertaken himself — the occupation of " buckwashing " the king's French verses. However, he suc- ceeded in finishing and printing the Slide de Louis XIV., while the Dictionnaire philosophique is said to have been devised and begun at Potsdam. But Voltaire's restless temper was brewing up for another storm. In the early autumn of 1751 La Mettrie, one of the king's parasites, and a man of much more talent than is generally allowed, horrified Voltaire by telling him that Frederick had in conversation applied to him (Voltaire) a proverb about " sucking the orange and flinging away its skin," and about the same time the dispute with Maupertuis, which had more than anything else to do with his exclusion from Prussia, came to a head. Maupertuis got into a dispute with one Konig. The king took his president's part; Voltaire took Konig's. But Maupertuis must needs write his Letters, and thereupon (1752) appeared one of Voltaire's most famous, though perhaps not one of his most read works, the Diatribe du Docteur Akakia. Even Voltaire did not venture to publish this lampoon on a great official of a prince so touchy as the king of Prussia without some permission, and if all tales are true he obtained this by another piece of something like forgery — getting the king to endorse a totally different pamphlet on its last leaf, and affixing that last leaf to Akakia. Of this Frederick was not aware; but he did get some wind of the Diatribe itself, sent for the author, heard it read to his own great amusement, and either actually burned the MS. or be- lieved that it was burnt. In a few days printed copies appeared. Frederick did not like disobedience, but he. still less liked being made a fool of, and he put Voltaire under arrest. But again the affair blew over, the king believing that the edition Akakia confiscated in Prussia was the only one. Alas! Vol- taire had sent copies away; others had been printed, abroad; and the thing was irrecoverable. It could not be proved that he had ordered the printing, and all Frederick could do to have the pamphlet burnt by the hangman. Things wi now drawing to a crisis. One day Voltaire sent his on &c., back; the next Frederick returned them, but Voltaire had quite made up his mind to fly. A kind of reconciliation occurred in March, and after some days of good-fellowship Voltaire at last obtained the long-sought leave of absence and left Potsdam on the 26th of the month (1753). It was nearly three months afterwards that the famous, ludicrous and brutal arrest was made at Frankfort, on the persons of himself and his niece, who had met him meanwhile. There was some faint excuse for Frederick's wrath. In the first place, the poet chose to linger at Leipzig. In the second place, in direct dis- regard of a promise given to Frederick, a supplement to Akakia appeared, more offensive than the main text. From Leipzig, after a month's stay, Voltaire moved to Gotha. Once more, on the 25th of May, he moved on to Frankfort. Frankfort, nominally a free city, but with a Prussian resident who did very much what he pleased, was not like Gotha and Leipzig. An excuse was provided in the fact that the poet had a copy of some unpublished poems of Frederick's, and as soon as Voltaire arrived hands were laid on him, at first with courtesy enough. The resident, Freytag, was not a very wise person (though he probably did not, as Voltaire would have it, spell " poesie " "poeshie"); constant references to Frederick were necessary; and the affair was prolonged so that Madame Denis had time to join her uncle. At last Voltaire tried to steal away. He was followed, arrested, his niece seized separ- ately, and sent to join him in custody; and the two, with the secretary Collini, were kept close prisoners at an inn called the Goat. This situation was at last put an end to by the city authorities, who probably felt that they were not playing a very creditable part. Voltaire left Frankfort on the 7th of July, travelled safely to Mainz, and thence to Mannheim, Strassburg and Colmar. The last-named place he reached (after a leisurely journey and many honours at the little courts just mentioned) at the beginning of October, and here he pro- posed to stay the winter, finish his Annals of the Empire ai look about him. Voltaire's second stage was now over. Even now, howevi in his sixtieth year, it required some more external pressure to induce him to make himself independent. He had been, in the first blush of his Frankfort disaster, refused, or at least not granted, permission even to enter France proper. At Colmar he was not safe, especially when in January 1754 a pirated edition of the Essai sur les mceurs, written long before, appeared. Permission to establish himself in France was now absolutely refused. Nor did an extremely offensive per- formance of Voltaire's — the solemn partaking of the Eucharist at Colmar after due confession — at all mollify his enemies. His exclusion from France, however, was chiefly metaphorical, and really meant exclusion from Paris and its neighbourhood. In the summer he went to Plombieres, and after returning to Colmar for some time journeyed in the beginning of winter to Lyons, and thence in the middle of December to Geneva. Voltaire had no purpose of remaining in the cjty, and almost immediately bought a country house just outside the gates, to which he gave the name of Les Delices. He was here practically at the meeting-point of four distinct jurisdictions- Geneva, the canton Vaud, Sardinia and France, while other cantons were within easy reach; and he bought other houses dotted about these territories, so as never to be without a refuge close at hand in case of sudden storms. At Les Delices he set up a considerable establishment, which his great wealth made him able easily to afford. He kept open house for visitors; he had printers close at hand in Geneva; he fitted up a private theatre in which he could enjoy what was perhaps the greatest pleasure of his whcle life — acting in a play of VOLTAIRE 203 own, stage-managed by himself. His residence at Geneva brought him into correspondence (at first quite amicable) with the most famous of her citizens, J. J. Rousseau. His Orphelin de la Chine, performed at Paris in 1755, was very well received; the notorious La Pucelle appeared in the same year. The earthquake at Lisbon, which appalled other people, gave Voltaire an excellent opportunity for ridiculing the beliefs of the orthodox, first in verse (1756) and later in the (from a literary point of view) unsurpassable tale of Candide (1759). All was, however, not yet quite smooth with him. Geneva had a law expressly forbidding theatrical performances in any circumstances whatever. Voltaire had infringed this law already as far as private performances went, and he had thought of building a regular theatre, not indeed at Geneva but at Lausanne. In July 1755 a very polite and, as far as Voltaire was concerned, indirect resolution of the Consistory declared that in consequence of these proceedings of the Sieur de Voltaire the pastors should notify their flocks to abstain, and that the chief syndic should be informed of the Consistory's perfect confidence that the edicts would be carried out. Voltaire obeyed this hint as far as Les Delices was concerned, and consoled himself by having the performances in his Lausanne house. But he never was the man to take opposi- tion to his wishes either quietly or without retaliation. He undoubtedly instigated D'Alembert to include a censure of the prohibition in his Encyclopedic article on " Geneva," a proceeding which provoked Rousseau's celebrated Lettre d D'Alembert stir les spectacles. As for himself, he looked about for a place where he could combine the social liberty of France with the political liberty of Geneva, and he found one. At the end of 1758 he bought the considerable property of Ferney, on the shore of the lake, about four miles from Geneva, and on French soil. At Les Delices (which he sold in 1765) he had become a householder on no small scale; at Ferney (which he increased by other purchases and leases) he became a complete country gentleman, and was henceforward known to all Europe as squire of Ferney. Many of the most celebrated men of Europe visited him there, and large parts of his usual biographies are composed of extracts from their accounts of Ferney. His new occupations by no means quenched his literary activity. He did not make himself a slave to his visitors, but reserved much time for work and for his immense correspondence, which had for a long time once more included Frederick, the two getting on very well when they were not in contact. Above all, he now, being comparatively secure in position, engaged much more strongly in public controversies, and resorted less to his old labyrinthine tricks of disavowal, garbled publication and private libel. The suppression of the Encyclopedic, to which he had been a considerable con- tributor, and whose conductors were his intimate friends, drew from him a shower of lampoons directed now at " 1'infame " (see infra) generally, now at literary victims, such as Le Franc de Pompignan (who had written one piece of verse so much better than anything serious of Voltaire's that he could not be forgiven), or Palissot (who in his play Les Philosophes had boldly gibbeted most of the persons so termed, but had not included Voltaire), now at Freron, an excellent critic and a' dangerous writer, who had attacked Voltaire from the con- servative side, and at whom the patriarch of Ferney, as he now began to be called, levelled in return the very inferior farce-lampoon of L'Ecossaise, of the first night of which Fr6ron himself did an admirably humorous'criticism. How he built a church and got into trouble in so doing at Ferney, how he put " Deo erexit Voltaire " on it (1760-61) and obtained a relic from the pope for his new building, how he entertained a grand-niece of Corneille, and for her benefit wrote his well-known " commentary " on that poet, are matters of interest, but to be passed over briefly. Here, too, he began that series of interferences on behalf of the oppressed and the ill-treated which, whatever mixture of motives may have prompted it, is an honour to his memory. Volumes and almost libraries have been written on the Galas affair, and we can but refer here to the only less famous cases of Sirven (very similar to that of Calas, though no judicial murder was actually committed), Espinasse (who had been sentenced to the galleys for harbouring a Protestant minister), Lally (the son of the unjustly treated but not blameless Irish-French commander in India), D'Etalonde (the companion of La Barre), Montbailli and others. In 1768 he entered into controversy with the bishop of the diocese; he had differences with the superior landlord of part of his estate, the president De Brasses; and he engaged in a long and tedious return match with the republic of Geneva. But the general events of this Ferney life are somewhat of that happy kind which are no events. In this way Voltaire, who had been an old man when he established himself at Ferney, became a very old one almost without noticing it. The death of Louis XV. and the accession of Louis XVI. excited even in his aged breast the hope of re-entering Paris, but he did not at once receive any encourage- ment, despite the reforming ministry of Turgot. A much more solid gain to his happiness was the adoption, or practical adoption, in 1776 of Reine Philiberte de Varicourt, a young girl of noble but poor family, whom Voltaire rescued from the convent, installed in his house as an adopted daughter, and married to the marquis de Villette. Her pet name was " Belle et Bonne," and nobody had more to do with the happiness of the last years of the " patriarch " than she had. It is doubtful whether his last and fatal visit to Paris was due to his own wish or to the instigation of his niece, Madame Denis; but this lady — a woman of disagreeable temper, especially to her inferiors — appears to have been rather hardly treated by Voltaire's earlier, and sometimes by his later, biographers. The suggestion which has been made that the success of Beaumarchais piqued him has nothing impossible in it. At any rate he had, at the end of 1777 and the beginning of 1778, been carefully finishing a new tragedy — Irene — for production in the capital. He started on the 5th of February, and five days later arrived at the city which he had not seen for eight- and-twenty years. He was received with immense rejoicings, not indeed directly by the court, but by the Academy, by society and by all the more important foreign visitors. Abcut a fortnight after his arrival, age and fatigue made him seriously ill, and a confessor was sent for. But he recovered, scoffed at himself as usual, and prepared more eagerly than ever for the first performance of Irene, on the i6th of March. At the end of the month he was able to attend a performance of it, which was a kind of apotheosis. He was crowned with laurel in his box, amid the plaudits of the audience, and did not seem to be the worse for it. He even began or proceeded with another tragedy — Agathocle — and attended several Academic meetings. But such proceedings in the case of a man of eighty-four were impossible. To keep himself up, he exceeded even his usual excess in coffee, and about the middle of May he became very ill. On the 3oth of May the priests were once more sent for — to wit, his nephew, the abb6 Mignot, the abb6 Gaultier, who had officiated on the former occasion, and the parish priest, the cure of St Sulpice. He was, however, in a state of half- insensibility, and petulantly motioned them away, dying in the course of the night. The legends about his death in a state of terror and despair are certainly false; but it must be regarded as singular and unfortunate that he, who had more than once gone out of his way to conform ostentatiously and with his tongue in his cheek, should have neglected or missed this last opportunity. The result was a difficulty as to burial, which was compromised by hurried interment at the abbey of Scellieres in Champagne, anticipating the interdict of the bishop of the diocese by an hour or two. On the loth of July 1791 the body was transferred to the Pantheon, but during the Hundred Days it was once more, it is said, disentombed, and stowed away in a piece of waste ground. His heart, taken from the body when it was embalmed, and given to Madame Denis and by her to Madame de Villette, was preserved in a silver case, and when it was proposed (in 1864) to restore it to 204 VOLTAIRE the other remains, the sarcophagus at Sainte Genevieve (the Pantheon) was opened and found to be empty. In person Voltaire was not engaging, even as a young man. His extraordinary thinness is commemorated, among other things, by the very poor but well-known epigram attributed to Young, and identifying him at once with " Satan, Death and Sin." In old age he was a mere skeleton, with a long nose and eyes of preternatural brilliancy peering out of his wig. He never seems to have been addicted to any manly sport, and took little exercise. He was sober enough (for his day and society) in eating and drinking generally; but drank coffee, as his contemporary, counterpart and enemy, Johnson, drank tea, in a hardened and inveterate manner. It may be presumed with some certainty that his attentions to women were for the most part platonic; indeed, both on the good and the bad side of him, he was all brain. He appears to have had no great sense of natural beauty, in which point he resembled his generation (though one remarkable story is told of his being deeply affected by Alpine scenery); and, except in his passion for the stage, he does not seem to have cared much for any of the arts. Conversation and literature were, again as in Johnson's case, the sole gods of his idolatry. As for his moral character, the wholly intellectual cast of mind just referred to makes it difficult to judge that. His beliefs or absence of beliefs eman- cipated him from conventional scruples; and he is not a good subject for those who maintain that a nice morality may exist independently of religion. He was good-natured when not crossed, generous to dependents who made themselves useful to him, and indefatigable in defending the cause of those who were oppressed by the systems with which he was at war. But he was inordinately vain, and totally unscrupulous in gaining money, in attacking an enemy, or in protecting himself when he was threatened with danger. His peculiar fashion of attack- ing the popular beliefs of his time has also failed to secure the approval of some who had very little sympathy with those beliefs. The only excuse made for the alternate cringing and insult, the alternate abuse and lying, which marked his course in this matter, has been the very weak plea that a man cannot fight with a system — a plea which is sufficiently answered by the retort that a great many men have so fought and have won. Voltaire's works, and especially his private letters, constantly contain the word " 1'infame " and the expression (in full or abbreviated) " ecrasez 1'infame." This has been misunderstood in many ways — the mistake going so far as in some cases to suppose that Voltaire meant Christ by this opprobrious expression. No careful and competent student of his works has ever failed to correct this gross misapprehension. " L'in- fame " is not God; it is not Christ; it is not Christianity; it is not even Catholicism. Its briefest equivalent may be given as " persecuting and privileged orthodoxy " in general, and, more particularly, it is the particular system which Voltaire saw around him, of which he had felt the effects in his own exiles and the confiscations of his books, and of which he saw the still worse effects in the hideous sufferings of Calas and La Barre. Vast and various as the work of Voltaire is, itsvastness and variety are of the essence of its writer's peculiar quality. The divisions of it have long been recognized, and may be treated regularly. The first of these divisions in order, not the least in bulk, and, though not the first in merit, inferior to none in the amount of congenial labour spent on it, is the theatre. Between fifty and sixty different pieces (including a few which exist only in fragments or sketches) are included in his writings, and they cover his literary life. It is at first sight remarkable that Voltaire, whose comic power was undoubtedly far in excess of his tragic, should have written many tragedies of no small excellence in their way, but only one fair second-class comedy, Nanine. His other efforts in this latter direction are either slight and almosj: insignificant in scope, or, as in the case of the somewhat famous Ecossaise, deriving all their interest from being personal libels. His tragedies, on the other hand, are works of extraordinary merit in their own way. Although Voltaire had neither the perfect versification of Ra_cine nor the noble poetry of Cprneille, he surpassed the latter certainly, and the former in the opinion of some not incompetent judges, in playing the difficult and artificial game of the French tragedy. Zaire, among those where love is admitted as a principal motive', and Merope, among those where this motive is excluded and kept in subordination, yield to no plays of their classe in such interest as is possible on the model, in stage effect and in uniform literary merit. Voltaire knew that the public opinion of his time reserved its highest prizes for a capable and successful dramatist, and he was deter- mined to win these prizes. He therefore set all his wonderful cleverness to the task, going so far as to adopt a little even of that Romantic disobedience to the strict classical theory which he con- demned, and no doubt sincerely, in Shakespeare. As regards his poems proper, of which there are two long ones, the Henriade and the Pucelle, besides smaller pieces, of which a bare catalogue fills fourteen royal octavo columns, their value is very unequal. The Henriade has by universal consent been relegated to the position of a school reading book. Constructed and written in almost slavish imitation of Virgil, employing for medium a very unsuitable vehicle — the Alexandrine couplet (as reformed and rendered monotonous for dramatic purposes) — and animated neither by enthusiasm for the subject nor by real under- standing thereof, it could not but be an unsatisfactory performance. The Pucette, if morally inferior, is from a literary point of view of far more value. It is desultory to a degree; it is a base libel on religion and history; it differs from its model Ariosto in being, not, as Ariosto is, a mixture of romance and burlesque, but a sometimes tedious tissue of burlesque pure and simple; and it is exposed to the objection — often and justly urged — that much of its fun depends simply on the fact that there were and are many people who believe enough in Christianity to make its jokes give pain tb them and to make their disgust at such jokes piquant to others. Nevertheless, with all the Pucclle's faults, it is amusing. The minor poems are as much above the Pucelle as the Pucelle is above the Henriade. It is true that there is nothing, or hardly anything, that properly deserves the name of poetry in them — no passion, no sense of the beauty of nature, only a narrow " criticism of life, " only a conven- tional and restricted choice of language, a cramped and monotonous prosody, and none of that indefinite suggestion which has been rightly said to be of the poetic essence. But there is immense wit, a wonderful command of such metre and language as the taste of the time allowed to the poet, occasionally a singular if somewhat artificial grace, and a curious felicity of diction and manner. The third division of Voltaire's works in a rational order consists of his prose romances or tales. These productions — incomparably the most remarkable and most absolutely good fruit of his genius — were usually composed as pamphlets, with a purpose of polemic in religion, politics, or what not. Thus Candide attacks religious and philosophical optimism, L'Homme aux quarante ecus certain social and political ways of the time, Zadig and others the received forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy, while some are mere lampoons on the Bible, the unfailing source of Voltaire's wit. But (as always happens in the case of literary work where the form exactly suits the author's genius) the purpose in all the best of them disappears almost entirely. It is in these works more than in any others that the peculiar quality of Voltaire^— ironic style without exaggeration— ^appears. That he learned it partly from Saint Evremond, still more from Anthony Hamilton, partly even from his own enemy Le Sage, is perfectly true, but he gave it perfection and completion. If one especial peculiarity can be singled out, it is the extreme restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment. Voltaire never dwells too long on this point, stays to laugh at what he has said, elucidates or comments on his own jokes, guffaws over them or exaggerates their form. The famous " pour encourager les autres " (that the shooting of Byng did " encourage the others " very much is not to the point) is a typical example, and indeed the whole of Candide shows the style at its perfection. The fourth division of Voltaire's work, the historical, is the bulkiest of all except his correspondence, and some parts of it are or have been among the most read, but it is far from being even among the best. The small treatises on Charles XII. and Peter Great are indeed models of clear narrative and ingenious if soi what superficial grasp and arrangement. The so-called Siecle Louis XI V. and Siecle de Louis X V. (the latter inferior to the foi but still valuable) contain a great miscellany of interesting mat treated by a man of great acuteness and unsurpassed power writing, who had also had access to much important private inforr tion. But even in these books defects are present, which appear much more strongly in the singular olla podrida entitled Essai svr les mceurs, in the Annales de I' empire and in the minor historical works. These defects are an almost total absence of any compre- hension of what has since been called the philosophy of history, the constant presence of gross prejudice, frequent inaccuracy of detail, and, above all, a complete incapacity to look at anything except from the narrow standpoint of a half-pessimist and half self-satisfied philosophe of the i8th century. His work in physics concerns us less than any other here; it is, however, not inconsiderable in bulk, and is said by experts to give proof of aptitude. To his own age Voltaire was pre-eminently a poet and a pluto sopher; the unkindness of succeeding ages has sometimes questioned VOLTERRA 205 whether he had any title to either name, and especially to the latter. His largest philosophical work, at least so called, is the curious medley entitled Dtctionnaire philosophique, which is compounded ,( the articles contributed by him to the great Encydoptdu and of .,1 minor pieces. No one of Voltaire's works shows his anti- religious or at least anti-ecclesiastical animus more strongly. The various title- words of the several articles are of ten the merest stalking- horses, under cover of which to shoot at the Bible or the church, the target 'being now and then shifted to the political institutions of the writer's country, his personal foes, &c., and the whole being largely • ml with that acute, rather superficial, common-sense, but also commonplace, ethical and social criticism which the i8th century called philosophy. The book ranks perhaps second only to the novels as showing the character, literary and personal, of Voltaire; and despite its form it is nearly as readable. The minor philosophical works are of no very different character. In the brief Traiti de melaphysique the author makes his grand effort, but scarcely succeeds in doing more than show that he had no real conception of what metaphysic is. In general criticism and miscellaneous writing Voltaire is not inferior to himself in any of his other functions. Almost all his more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his own light pungent causerie; and in a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets and writings he shows himself a perfect journalist. In literary criticism pure and simple his principal work is the Commenlaire sur Corneule, though he wrote a good deal more of the same kind — y.iiu'times (as in his Life and notices of Moliere) independently limes as part of his Sieclts. Nowhere, perhaps, except when dealing with religion, are Voltaire's defects felt more than IHTC. He was quite unacquainted with the history of his own language and literature, and more here than anywhere else he showed thi' extraordinarily limited and conventional spirit which accom- panied the revolt of the French i8th century against limits and conventions in theological, ethical and political matters. There remains only the huge division of his correspondence, which is constantly being augmented by fresh discoveries, and which, according to Georges Bengesco, has never been fully or correctly printed, even in some of the parts longest known. In this great mass Voltaire's personality is of course best shown, and perhaps his literary qualities not worst. His immense energy and versatility, his adroit and unhesitating flattery when he chose to flatter, his ruthless sarcasm when he chose to be sarcastic, his rather un- scrupulous business faculty, his more than rather unscrupulous resolve to double and twist in any fashion so as to escape his enemies, — all these things appear throughout the whole mass of letters. Most judgmentsjof Voltaire have been unduly coloured by sympathy with or dislike of what may be briefly called his polemical side. When sympathy and dislike are both discarded or allowed for, he remains one of the most astonishing, if not exactly one of the most admirable, figures of letters. That he never, as Carlyle complains, gave utterance to one great thought is strictly true. That his characteristic is for the most part an almost superhuman cleverness rather than positive genius is also true. But that he was merely a mocker, which Carlyle and others have also said, is not strictly true or fair. In politics proper he seems indeed to have had few or no constructive ideas, and to have been entirely ignorant or quite reckless of the fact that his attacks were destroying a state of things for which as a whole he neither had nor apparently wished to have any substitute. In religion he protested stoutly, and no doubt sincerely, that his own attitude was not purely negative; but here also he seems to have failed altogether to distinguish between pruning and cutting down. Both here and elsewhere his great fault was an inveterate superficiality. But this superficiajity was accompanied by such wonderful acuteness within a certain range, by such an absolutely unsurpassed literary aptitude and sense of style in all the lighter and some of the graver modes of literature, by such untiring energy and versatility in enterprise, that he has no parallel among; ready writers anywhere. Not the most elaborate work of Voltaire is of much value for matter; but not the very slightest work of Voltaire is devoid of value in form. In literary craftsmanship, at once versatile and accomplished, he has no superior and scarcely a rival. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The bibliography of Voltaire is a very large subject, and it has been the special occupation of a Rumanian diplomatist of much erudition and judgment, Georges Bengesco, Bibliographic de Voltaire (4 vols., Paris, 1882-90). The best edi- tion of the works is that by Louis Moland in 52 volumes (Paris, Gamier) ; the handiest and most compact is that issued in 13 volumes royal octavo by Fume, and kept in print by the house of Didot. 3f the earlier editions, though their bulk is an objection, several are interesting and valuable. Especially may be noticed the so-called edition of Kehl, in which Voltaire himself, and later Beaumarchais, were concerned (70 vols., 1785-89) ; those of Dalibon and Baudouin. each in 97 volumes (from which " the hundred volumes of Voltaire " have become a not infrequent figure of speech); and the excellent edition of Beuchot (1829) in 72 volumes. Editions of separate or selected works are innumerable, and so are books upon Voltaire. There is no really good detailed life of him, with complete examina- tion of his work, in any language, though the works containing materials for such are numerous (the first of importance being that jf T. J. Du/ernet in 1797), a°d sometimes (especially in the case of M. Desnoiresterres, Voltaire et la socUtt franchise, 1867 and others) excellent. In English the essays of Carlyle and Viscount Morley (1872) are both in their way invaluable, and to a great extent correct one another. The principal detailed life in English is that of an American writer, James Parton (1881), which gives the facts with very considerable detail and fair accuracy, but with little power of criticism. That of Mr S. G. Tallentyre (London, 1903, 2 vols.) is jossiping and popular. Francis Espinasse's Voltaire (.1882), which :ontains a useful bibliography, J. Churton Collins's Voltaire in England (1886), and J. R. Lounsbury's Shakespeare and Voltaire (1902) may also be specified. (G. SA.) VOLTERRA (anc. Volaterrae), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Pisa, from which it is 51 m. by rail S.E., and 35 by road W.N.W. from Siena. Pop. (1901) 5522 (town); 14,207 (commune). It stands on a commanding olive-clad eminence 1785 ft. above sea-level, with a magnificent view over mountains and sea (the latter some 20 m. distant), and is surrounded by the massive remains of its ancient walls of large, roughly-rectangular blocks of stone, some 4$ m. in circuit, enclosing an area which must have been larger than was actually needed for habitation. Tombs of the pre-Etruscan or Villanova period have been found within its circuit, but only at the north-west extremity near S. Giusto. Here the clay of which the hill is formed is gradually giving way, causing landslips and the collapse of buildings, notably of the abbey church of S. Salvatore (1030). The medieval town occupies only the southern portion of this area. The most important relic of its Etruscan period is the Porta dell' Arco, an archway of dark greystone, about 20 ft. high, the corbels of which are adorned with almost obliterated heads, probably representing the guardian deities of the city. There are remains of baths and a cistern of Roman date. Volterra preserves its medi- eval character, having suffered little modification since the 1 6th century. The town contains many picturesque medieval towers and houses. The Palazzo dei Priori (1208-54), now the municipal palace, is especially fine, and the piazza in which it stands most picturesque. The museum contains a very valuable collection of Etruscan antiquities, especially cinerary urns from the ancient tombs N. and E. of the town. The urns themselves are of alabaster, with the figure of the deceased on the lid, and reliefs from Greek myths on the front. They belong to the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C. A tomb outside the town of the 6th century B.C., discovered in 1898, consisted of a round underground chamber, roofed with gradually projecting slabs of stone. The roof was supported in the centre by a massive square pillar (E. Petersen in Romische Mitteilungen, 1898, 409; cf. id. ibid., 1904, 244 for a similar one near Florence). There are also in the museum Romanesque sculptures from the old church of S. Giusto, &c. The cathedral, consecrated in 1 1 20 (?), but enlarged and adorned by Niccolo Pisano (?) in 1254, has a fine pulpit of that period, and on the high altar are sculptures by Mino da Fiesole ; it contains several good pictures — the best is an " Annunciation " by Luca Signorelli. The sacristy has fine carvings. The baptistery belongs to the I3th century; the font is by Andrea Sansovino, and the ciborium by Mino da Fiesole. Both these buildings are in black and white marble. S. Francesco has frescoes of 1410, and S. Girolamo terra-cottas and pictures. The citadel, now a house of correc- tion, consists of two portions, the Rocca Vecchia, built in J343 by Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, and the Rocca Nuova, built by the Florentines (1472). The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture of vases and other orna- ments from alabaster, of good quality, found in the vicinity. There are also in the neighbourhood rock-salt works and mines, as well as boracic acid works. This acid is exhaled in volcanic gas, which is passed through water tanks. The acid is deposited in the water and afterwards evaporated. It is sent to England, and used largely in the manufacture of pottery glaze. Volaterrae (Etruscan Velathrf) was one of the most powerful of the twelve confederate cities of Etruria. During the war between Marius and Sulla it withstood the lattcr's troops for two years in 2o6 VOLTMETER 82-80 B.C. As a result of its resistance Sulla carried a law for the confiscation of the land of those inhabitants of Volaterrae who had had the privileges of Roman citizenship. This, however, does not seem to have been carried out until Caesar as dictator divided some of the territory of Volaterrae among his veterans. Among its noble families the chief was that of the Caecinae, who took their name from the river which runs close to Volaterrae and still retains the name Cecilia. Cicero defended one of its members in an extant speech. It is included by Pliny among the municipal towns of Etruria. In the lath and I3th centuries it enjoyed free institutions; in 1361 it fell under the power of Florence. It rebelled, but was retaken and pillaged in 1472. Persius the satirist and the painter Daniele da Volterra were both natives of the town. Several works of the latter are preserved there. See C. Ricci, Volterra (Bergamo, 1905); E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Latin, xi. (Berlin, 1888), p. 324; G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), ii. 136. (T. As.) VOLTMETER, an instrument for measuring difference of electric potential (see ELECTROSTATICS) in terms of the unit called a volt. The volt (so called after A. Volta) is defined to be difference of potential which acting between the terminals of a resistance of one ohm sends through it a continuous current of one ampere. A voltmeter is therefore one form of electro- meter (q.v.), but the term is generally employed to describe the instrument which indicates on a scale, not merely in arbitrary units but directly in volts, the potential difference of its terminals. Voltmeters may be divided into two classes, (a) electrostatic, (b) electrokinetic. Electrostatic voltmeters are based on the principle that when two conductors are at different potentials they attract one another with a force which varies as the square of the potential difference (P. D.) between them. This mechanical stress may be made the measure of the P. D. between them, if one of the conductors is fixed while the other is movable, this last being subject to a constraint due to a spring or to gravity, means being also provided for measur- ing either the displacement of the movable conductor against the constraint or the force required to hold it in a fixed position relatively to the fixed conductor. One large class of electrostatic voltmeters consists of a fixed metal plate or plates and a movable plate or plates, the two sets of plates forming a condenser (see LEYDEN JAR). The movable system is suspended or pivoted, and when a P. D. is created between the fixed and movable plates, the latter are drawn into a new position which is resisted by the torque of a wire or by the force due to a weight. Utilizing this principle many inventors have devised forms of electrostatic voltmeter. One of the best known of these is Lord Kelvin's multicellular voltmeter. In this instru- ment (fig. i) there are two sets of fixed metal plates, connected FIG. I. — Lord Kelvin's Multicellular Electrostatic Voltmeter. together and having a quadrantal shape, that is, approximately the shape of a quarter of a circular disk. In the space between them is suspended a " needle " which consists of a light aluminium axis, to which are affixed a number of paddle-shaped aluminium blades. This needle is suspended by a fine platinum silver wire, and its normal position is such that the aluminium paddle blades are just outside the quadrantal-shaped plates. If the needle is connected to one terminal of a circuit, and the fixed plates or cells to the other member of the circuit, and a difference of potential is created between them, then the movable needle is drawn in so that the aluminium blades are more included between the fixed plates. This movement is resisted by the torsional elasticity of the suspending wire, and hence a fixed indicating needle attached to the movable system can be made to indicate directly on a scale the difference of potential between the terminals of the instrument in volts. Instruments of this kind have been constructed not only by Lord Kelvin, but also by W. E. Ayrton and others, for measuring voltages from 10,000 volts down to I volt. In other types of electrostatic instruments the movable system rotates round a horizontal axis or rests upon knife edges like a scale beam ; in others again the movable system is suspended by a wire. In the former case the control is generally due to gravity, the plates being so balanced on the knife edge that they tend to take up a certain fixed position from which they are constrained when the electric forces come into play, their displacement relatively to the fixed plates being shown on a scale and thus indicating the P. D. between them. In the case of high tension voltmeters, the movable plate takes the form of a single plate of paddle shape, and for extra high tensions it may simply be suspended from the end of a balanced arm; or the movable system may take the form of a cylinder which is suspended within, but not touching, another fixed cylinder, the relative position being such that the electric forces draw the suspended cylinder more into the fixed one. Electrostatic volt- meters are now almost entirely used for the measurement of high voltages from 2000 to 50,000 volts employed in electrotechnics. For such purposes the whole of the working parts are contained in a metal case, the indicating needle moving over a divided scale which is calibrated to show directly the potential difference in volts of the terminals of the instrument. One much-used electrostatic voltmeter of this type is the Kelvin multicellular vertical pattern voltmeter (fig. 2). For use at the switch-boards of electric supply stations the instrument takes another form known as the " edge- wise " pattern. Another class of voltmeters comprises the electrokinetic volt- meters. In these instruments the potential difference between two points is measured by the electric current produced in a wire connecting to two points. In any case of potential differ- ence measurement it is essential not to disturb the potential difference being measured ; hence it follows that in electro- kinetic voltmeters the wire con- necting the two points of which the potential difference is to be FIG. 2. — Round Dial Kelvin Multi- measured must be of very cellular Electrostatic Voltmeter, high resistance. The instrument 5-in. scale. For high pressure, then simply becomes an am- meter of high resistance, and may take any of the forms of prac- tically used ammeters (see AMPEREMETER). Electromagnetic voltmeters may therefore be thermal, electromagnetic or electro- dynamic. As a rule, electromagnetic voltmeters are only suitable for the measurement of relatively small potentials — o to 200 or 300 volts. Numerous forms of hot-wire or thermal voltmeter have been devised. In that known as the Cardew voltmeter, a fine platinum-silver wire, having a resistance of about 300 ohms, is stretched in a tube or upon a frame contained in a tube. This frame or tube is so constructed of iron and brass (one-third iron and twc-thirds brass) that its tempera- ture coefficient of linear expansion is the same as that of the platinum- silver alloy. The fine wire is fixed to one end of the tube or frame by an insulated support and the other end is attached to a motion- multiplying gear. As the frame has the same linear expansion as the wire, external changes of the temperature will not affect their relative length, but if the fine wire is heated by the passage of an electric current, its expansion will move the indicating needle over the scale, the motion being multiplied by the gear. In the Hartmann and Braun form of hot-wire voltmeter, the fine wire is fixed between two supports and the expansion produced when a current is passed through it causes the wire to sag down, the sag being multiplied by a gear and made to move an indicating needle over a scale. In this case, the actual working wire, being short, must be placed in series with an additional high resistance. Hot wire voltmeters, like electrostatic voltmeters, are suitable for use with alternating currents of any frequency as well as with continuous currents, since their indications depend upon the heating power of the current, which is proportional to the square of the current and therefore to the square of the difference of potential between the terminals. Electromagnetic voltmeters consist of a coil of fine wire connected to the terminals of the instrument, and the current produced in that wire by a difference of potential between the terminals creates a magnetic field proportional at any point to the strength of the current. This magnetic field may be made to cause a displacement VOLTURNO— VOLUINSKY 207 in a small piece of soft iron, as in the case of the corresponding ammeters, and this in turn may be made to displace an indicating ^^•e over a scale so that corresponding to every given potential ^^Eence between the terminals of the instrument there is a corre- . iing fixed position of the needle on the scale. One of the most ! forms of electromagnetic voltmeter is that generally known ,3 a movable coil voltmeter (fig. 3). In this instrument there is a fixed permanent magnet, produc- ing a constant magnetic field, and in the interspace between the poles is fixed a delicately pivoted coil of wire carried in jewelled bear- ings. The normal position of this coil is with its plane parallel to the lines of force of the field. The current is got in and out of the movable coil by means of fine flexible wires. The movable coil has attached to it an index needle moving over a scale, and a fixed coil of high-resistance wire is included in series with the movable coil between the terminals of the instrument. When a difference i. — Round Dial Voltmeter of potential is made between the of 'Kelvin Siphon Recorder, terminals, a current passes through 1 beat moving coil type, the movable coil, which then tends with front removed. to place itself with its plane more at right angles to the lines of force of the field. This motion is resisted by the torsion of a spiral spring resembling the hair-spring of a watch having one end fixed to the coil axis, and there is therefore a definite position of the needle on the scale corresponding to each potential difference between the termin.il>, provided it is within the range of the control. These instruments are only adapted for the measurement of continuous potential difference, that is to say, unidirectional potential differ- but not for alternating voltages. Like the corresponding ammeters, they have the great advantage that the scale? are equi- divisional and that there is no dead part in the scale, whereas both the electrostatic and electrothermal voltmeters, above described, labour under the disadvantage that the scale divisions are not equal but increase with rise of voltages, hence there is generally a portion of the scale near the zero point where the divisions are so close as to be useless for reading purposes and are therefore omitted. For the measurement of voltages in continuous current generating stations, movable coil voltmeters are much employed, generally constructed then in the " edgewise " pattern (fig. 4)- Electrodynamic Voltmeters. — A high-resistance electrodynamo- meter may be employed as a volt- meter. In this case both the fixed and movable circuits consist of fine wires, and the instrument is constructed and used in a manner similar to the Siemens dynamo- meter employed for measuring con- tinuous alternating current (see AMPEREMETER). Another much- used method of measuring con- tinuous current voltages or unidirectional potential difference employs the principle of potentiometer (g.v.). In this case a high- ' ,mce wire is connected between the points of which the potential difference is required, and from some known fraction of this resist- ance wires are brought to an electrostatic voltmeter, or to a mov- able coil electromagnetic voltmeter, according as the voltage to be measured is alternating or continuous. This measurement is applicable to the measurement of high potentials, either alternating or continuous, provided that in the case of alternating currents the high resistance employed is wound non-inductively and an electro- voltmeter is used. The high-resistance wire should, moreover, be one having a negligible change of resistance with temperature. For this purpose it must be an alloy such as manganin or constant an. It is always an advantage, if possible, to employ an electrostatic voltmeter for measuring potential difference if it is necessary to keep the voltmeter permanently connected to the two points. Any form of electrokinetic voltmeter which involves the passage of a current through the wire necessitates the expenditure of energy to maintain this current and therefore involves cost of production. This amount may not by any means be an insignificant quantity. Consider, for instance, a hot-wire instrument, such as a Cardew's voltmeter. If the wire has a resistance of 300 ohms and is connected to two points differing in potential by 100 volts, the instrument passes a current of one-third of an ampere and takes up 33 watts in power. Since there are 8760 hours in a year, if such an instrument were connected continuously to the circuit it would take up energy equal to 263,000 watt-hours, or 260 Board of Trade units per annum. If the cost of production of this energy was only one penny per unit, FIG. 4. — Edgewise Voltmeter. Stanley D'Arsonval type. the working expenses of keeping such a voltmeter in connexion with a circuit would therefore be more than £1 per annum, representing a capitalized value of, say, £10. Electrostatic instruments, however, take up no power and hence cost nothing for maintenance other than wear and tear of the instrument. The qualities required in a good voltmeter are: — (i.) It should be quick in action, that is to say, the needle should come quickly to a position giving immediately the P.D. of the terminals of the instru- ment, (li.) The instrument should give the same reading for the same P.D. whether this has been arrived at by increasing from a lower value or decreasing from a larger varue; in other words, there should be no instrumental hysteresis, ^iii.) The instrument should have no temperature correction; this is a good quality of electrostatic instruments, but in all voltmeters of the electrokinetic type which are wound with copper wire an increase of one degree centigrade in the average temperature of that wire alters the resistance by 0-4%, and therefore to the same extent alters the correctness of the indications, (iv.) It should, if possible, be available both for alternating and continuous currents, (v.) It should be portable and work in any position, (vi.) It should not be disturbed easily by external electric or magnetic fields. This last point is important in connexion with voltmeters used on the switchboards of electric generating stations, where relatively strong electric or magnetic fields may be present, due to strong currents passing through con- ductors near or on the board. It is therefore always necessary to check the readings of such an instrument in situ. Electrostatic voltmeters are also liable to have their indications disturbed by electrification of the glass cover of the instrument; this can be avoided by varnishing the glass with a semi-conducting varnish so as to prevent the location of electrostatic charges on the glass. See J. A. Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing-Room (London, 1903); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineer- ing Measuring Instruments (London, 1903); K. Edgecumbe and F. Punga, " On Direct Reading Measuring Instruments for Switch- board Use," Jo-urn. Inst. Elec. Eng. (London, 1904), 33, 620. 0- A. F.) VOLTURNO (anc. Volturnus, from where, to roll), a river of central Italy, which rises in the neighbourhood of Alfedena in the central Apennines of Samnium, runs S. as far as Venafro, and then S.E. After a course of some 75 m. it receives, about 5 m. E. of Caiazzo, the Galore, only 3 m. less in length.which runs first N. and then W., and after 37 m. reaches Benevento, near which it receives several tributaries; then curves round the mountain mass to the N. of the Caudine Forks, and so beyond Telese joins the Volturno. The united stream now flows W.S.W. past Capua (anc. Casiiinum) , where the Via Appia and Latina joined just to the N. of the bridge over it, and so through the Campanian plain, with many windings, into the sea. The direct length of the lower course is about 31 m., so that the whole is slightly longer than that of the Liri, and its basin far larger. The river has always had con- siderable military importance, and the colony of Volturnum (no doubt preceded by an older port of Capua) was founded in 194 B.C. at its mouth on the S. bank by the Romans; it is now about one mile inland. A fort had already been placed there during the Roman siege of Capua, in order, with Puteoli, to serve for the provisioning of the army. Augustus placed a colony of veterans here. The Via Domitiana from Sinuessa to Puteoli crossed the river at this point, and some remains of the bridge are visible. The river was navigable as far as Capua. On [the ist of October 1860 the Neapolitan forces were defeated on the S. bank of the Volturno, near S. Maria di Capua Vetere, by the Piedmontese and Garibaldi's troops, a defeat which led to the fall of Capua. (T. As.) VOLUINSKY, ARTEMY PETROVICH (1689-1740), Russian general and statesman, son of Peter Voluinsky, one of the dignitaries at the court of. Theodore III., came of an ancient family. He entered a dragoon regiment in 1704 and rose to the rank of captain; then, exchanging the military service for diplomacy, he was attached to the suite of Vice- Chancellor Shafirov. He was present during the campaign of the Pruth, shared Shafirov's captivity in the Seven Towers and in 1715 was sent by Peter the Great to Persia to promote Russian influence there, and if possible to find an outlet to India. In 1718 Peter made him one of his six adjutant-generals, and governor of Astrakhan. In this post Voluinsky displayed dis- tinguished administrative and financial talents. In 1723 he married Alexandra Naruishkina, Peter's cousin. The same 208 VOLUNTEERS year he was accused of peculation and other offences to the emperor, who caned him severely and deprived him of his plenipotentiary powers, despite his undeniable services in Persia, but for which Peter could never have emerged so tri- umphantly from the difficult Persian war of 1722-23. Cath- erine I. made Voluinsky governor of Kazan for a short time, and he held the same post for two years (1728-30) under Peter II. But his incurable corruption and unbridled temper so discredited the government that he was deprived of the post shortly after the accession of Anne. From 1730 to 1736 Voluinsky served in the army under Miinnich. In 1737 he was appointed the second Russian plenipotentiary at the abortive congress of Nemirov held for the conclusion of peace with the Porte. In 1738 he was introduced into the Russian cabinet by Biren as a counterpoise against Andrei Osterman. Voluinsky, however, now thought himself strong enough to attempt to supersede Biren himself, and openly opposed the favourite in the Council of State in the debates as to the in- demnity due to Poland for the violations of her territory during the war of the Polish Succession, Biren advising that a liberal indemnity should be given, whereas Voluinsky objected to any indemnity at all. Biren thereupon forced Anne to order an inquiry into Voluinsky's past career, with the result that he was tried before a tribunal of Biren's creatures and condemned to be broken on the wheel and then beheaded. On the scaffold, " by the clemency of the empress," his punishment was miti- gated to the severing of his right hand followed by decapitation. The whole business seems to have been purely a piece of vindictiveness on the part of Biren. See R. N. Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897) ; D. A. Korsakov, From the Lives of Russian Statesmen of the X Vlllth Century (Rus.) (Kazan, 1891). (R. N. B.) VOLUNTEERS, a general term for soldiers who are not pro- fessionals nor permanently embodied under arms in peace. Although it would be difficult to say when the principle of volunteer organization for national defence was first adopted in England, it is certain that voluntary military societies existed in various parts of the country in the reign of Henry VIII., who in fact granted a charter in 1537 to the " Fraternity or Guylde of Saint George: Maisters and Rulars of the said Science of Artillary as aforesaid rehearsed for long-bowes Cros-bowes and Hand-Gonnes." This ancient corps is now the Honourable Artillery Company of London. Although the Honourable Artillery Company has always been a distinct association, it was at one time (notably during the Great Rebellion) a centre of instruction for the City-trained bands, and in later times the H.A.C., divided into artillery and infantry units, has been assimilated as regards training and obligations to the Volunteer or Territorial Forces. Charters of a similar kind were granted to a Colchester society in 1619 and to one at Bury St Edmunds in 1628. In the i6th and 1 7th centuries also various temporary corps outside the militia or trained-band organization were called volunteers. At Boston, Massachusetts, there is established a corps bearing the name of the " Antient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts." This company was formed in 1638 after its London prototype. The notion of a large organized Volunteer Force, however, seems to have originated hi England at the time of the Militia Bill of 1757, which was amended hi 1758 so as to allow the militia captains to accept volunteers instead of the ordinary militiamen who were compulsorily furnished pro rat a by each parish. In 1778 the volunteers were still voluntary substitutes for militiamen, though formed in separate companies of the militia unit, but volunteer corps soon began to form themselves independently of the militia. In the meantime a large volunteer force had sprung up in Ireland. In 1 7 79, Ireland being threatened with foreign invasion, a levy of 20,000 Protestants was made by the gentry in the north. The 20,000 Protestants had grown in 1782 to 100,000 of all arms and both creeds, and they used their strength effectively for political purposes. After the establish- ment of the parliament at Dublin, and the general peace of 1783, attempts were made to use this army for party purposes, and the moderate men in parliament therefore hastened to disband it. But this military coup d'etat was not forgotten in England. Ireland indeed supplied 70,000 volunteers during the Napoleonic wars, practically in place of her militia quota. But the rebellion of 1798 kept alive the memory of 1782, and about 1804 the government disarmed and disbanded them. The English and Scottish volunteers, disbanded in 1783, were promptly revived when the French Revolutionary Wars pro- duced a new and more formidable enemy. Volunteer corps, some dependent as companies upon the militia, others inde- pendent units, were raised in 1794, volunteer service counting as militia service for the purposes of raising the county, town or parish quota. This was followed in 1798 by the formation, for purely local defence, of the Armed Associations, the equivalent of the modern " rifle clubs." At the peace of Amiens the 340,000 volunteers then serving were nearly all disbanded, but one or two crops passed into the regular army as entire regiments, and some others managed to avoid disbandment until the renewal of the war revived the whole force. The danger of invasion was then at its height, and in a few months the force numbered 380,000 men, or 35% of a population which already kept up a regular army and a militia. But the training of this mass was very unequal; the numbers fell off as the likelihood of invasion decreased, and in the reaction from the first enthusiasm it began to be questioned whether the volunteers could be of much value under the easy conditions of service prevailing. In 1808, therefore, the Local Militia was formed, in which the terms of enlistment and training liabilities were both stricter and better defined. The greater part of the volunteers transferred them- selves to the Local Militia, which by 1812 (aided by the ballot) had reached a strength of 215,000 as against the 70,000 of the remaining volunteers. With the general peace of 1814 all these forces except the H.A.C. and the Yeomanry (q.v.) disappeared. After an interval of nearly half a century the warlike attitude of France caused British citizens once more to arm for the protection of their country. The British army and navy had declined in strength and efficiency; France, on the other hand, by the energetic development of her military and naval power and the early application of steam to ships of war, brought the possibilities of the invasion of England in 1846 within measurable distance. England at this time was awakened to the gravity of the situation by the publication of a letter from Wellington to Sir John Burgoyne,1 followed by a well- timed pamphlet by Sir Charles Napier, entitled The Defence of England by Volunteer Corps and Militia. The French danger, in abeyance during the Crimean War, was revived in 1857, when the tone of the French press became more and more menacing. The war in China, the Indian Mutiny and diffi- culties with the United States taxed the regular army to the utmost; while at home, besides the actual garrisons, there were barely 36,000 militia. This threatening condition of affairs tended to aggravate, if not to produce, a serious commercial panic. It was then that the volunteer movement began, and the Orsini episode and the openly expressed threats of French officers were all that was necessary to free the pent-up enthusiasm. A few rifle clubs were already in existence, and two of these, working as military bodies from the outset (1852-53), became the two senior volunteer battalions — ist V.B. (now 4th Bn.) Devonshire Regt., and Victoria Rifles (now gth Bn. London Regt.). But it was not until the situation became acute that the War Office took the step of raising the " Volunteer Force." A circular letter, dated i2th May 1859, from the secretary for war to the lords-lieutenant of counties in Great Britain authorized the formation of volunteer corps. The general enrolment took place at first under the old statute (44 Geo. III.). The main provisions of that act, however, were found inapplicable to the altered conditions under which invasion was now possible, and they failed also to provide for the maintenance of the volunteer force on a permanent footing in peace. A new act (Volunteer Act 1863) was therefore passed, the most important provision of which was that apprehended invasion should constitute a 1 See Life and Letters of Field- Marshal Sir John Burgoyne. VOLUSENUS 209 sufficient reason for the sovereign to call out the volunteers, in lieu of the old condition which required the actual appearance of the enemy. The volunteers were, when called out, bound to serve in Great Britain until released by a proclamation declaring the sion to have passed. This was modified in 1900 during the South African War, a new enactment allowing the authorities to call them out at times of " imminent national danger and great emergency." In 1871 the volunteers were removed from the control of the lords-lieutenant and placed under the War Office. In 1 88 1 the infantry battalions were affiliated to the various line regiments. The force thus brought into existence was composed of corps of light horse, mounted rifles, garrison and heavy artillery, engineers and rifle volunteers.1 Later there existed also in connexion with the admiralty a corps of " Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers " for the coast defences. The terms of service and training liabilities underwent no alteration of principle during the forty-eight years of the force's existence. The property belonging to the corps was vested in the commanding officer and administered by a com- mittee of officers under the rules of the corps. These rules were in the first instance agreed on at a general meeting of officers and men, and, having received the queen's approval, became legal, and could be enforced. The commanding officer could dis- miss a man from the corps, and a volunteer not on actual service could terminate his engagement at fourteen days' notice. But, as it became the almost universal practice for the government or the regimental commander to issue clothing and equipment free, the volunteers contracted in return to serve for three, four or five years, and, if they exercised their statutory rights, were obliged to refund part of the cost. Further, when capitation grants were given for the maintenance of the corps, the volunteer had either to earn this by continued service or repay the sum lost to the corps by his resignation. These conditions materially modified the statute law in practice, and in fact the term of four years exacted from the Territorial to-day differs in little more than name from the requirements of the former " corps rules." Military law was appli cable to officers and men when training with regulars. The formation of volunteer corps was so rapid that in the course of a few months in 1850-60 a force of 119,000 was created. More, however, remained to be done to put an end to the ever- recurring commercial panics. The government, which in the beginning had tolerated rather than encouraged the movement, and had required the volunteer to serve and to equip himself entirely at his own expense, now followed the lead of public opinion, and decided on maintaining the volunteer force as a part of the regular defensive system. The personnel of the volunteer corps (with a few exceptions) thereupon underwent a change. The wealthy and professional classes, who had at first joined the ranks in anticipation of war, cared no longer to bear arms. Their places were taken by the artisan class, which added materially to the number and permanence of the force. But, as contributions and subscriptions now flagged, it became evident that public grants would have to be voted for its maintenance, and a scale of capitation allowances, subject to regulation, was fixed, on the recommendation of a Royal Commission. This capitation allowance per efficient volunteer was thenceforward the basis of all regimental finance and administration. The turning-point in the history of the volunteers was the South African War. In January 1900, and on several subse- quent occasions, the volunteers were invited to supply service companies for South Africa, to be incorporated in the regular battalions to which the volunteer battalions were affiliated. About one-third of the whole force volunteered for service in South Africa, and some 20,000 served in the volunteer com- panies with the line and in the " City Imperial Volunteers," besides a great number of volunteers whom the higher pay, 1 The light horse and mounted rifles disappeared in the end, or else were converted into yeomanry. The " rifles " title was main- tained even after the infantry had been assimilated in drill, uniform and other respects to the fine battalions. For this reason even scarlet-clothed battalions had no colours, pouch-belts instead of sashes, &c. easier conditions and better prospects of active employment in the mounted guerrilla warfare tempted into the ranks of the yeomanry. The return of these companies infused into the force a leaven of officers and men who had been through an experience of constant small skirmishes and prolonged marching and bivouacking. Meantime the force as a whole had been subjected to a more earnest and vigorous training than it had ever had before. The establishment was greatly increased, and 24 battalions were selected for special training and included with the regular home army in the field force. Various partial reorganizations followed in 1902-5, and at last, in 1907-8, the whole force was re-cast, re-enlisted upon somewhat different terms, and organized along with the yeomanry into the new Territorial Force (see UNITED KINGDOM: Army). STRENGTH OF THE VOLUNTEER FORCE (From the Territorial Year Book /pop),, Year. .Establishment. Strength. Classed as Efficient. 1861 211,961 161,239 140,100 1870 244,966 '93,893 170,671 1880 243,546 206,537 196,938 1885 250,967 224,012 218,207 1890 260,310 221,048 212,293 1895 260,968 231,704 224,962 1809 263,416 229,854 223,921 1900 339-5" 277,628 270,369 1901 342,003 288,476 281,062 1 002 345,547 268,550 256,451 1903 346,171 253,281 242,104 1904 343,246 253,909 244,537 1905 341.283 249,611 241.549 1906 338,452 255,854 246,654 1907 335,849 252,791 244,212 VOLUSENUS, FLORENTIUS [FLORENCE WOLSON, or WOLSEY, in later writers WILSON, though in letters in the vernacular he writes himself VOLUSENE](C. iso4-c. 1547), Scottish humanist, was born near Elgin about 1504. He studied philosophy at Aberdeen, and in the dialogue De Animi Tranquiilitate says that the description of the abode of tranquillity was based on a dream that came to him after a conversation with a fellow- student on the banks of his native Lossie. He was then a student of philosophy of four years' standing. Proceeding to Paris, he became tutor to Thomas Wynter, reputed son of Cardinal Wolsey. He paid repeated visits to England, where he was well received by the king, and, after Wolsey's fall, he acted as one of Cromwell's agents in Paris. He was in England as late as 1534, and appears to have been rector of Speldhurst in Kent. In Paris he knew George Buchanan, and found patrons in the cardinal Jean de Lorraine and Jean du Bellay. He was to have gone with du Bellay on his mission to Italy in 1535, but illness kept him in Paris. As soon as he recovered he set out on his journey, but at Avignon, by the advice of his friend Antonio Bonvisi (d. 1558), he sought the patronage of the bishop of the diocese, the learned and pious Paul Sadolet, who made him master in the school at Carpentras, with a saiary of seventy crowns. Volusenus paid frequent visits to Lyons (where Conrad Gesner saw him, still a young man, in 1540), probably also to Italy, where he had many friends, perhaps even to Spain. A letter addressed to him by Sadolet from Rome in 1546 shows that he had then resolved to return to Scotland, and had asked advice on the attitude he should adopt in the religious dissensions of the time. He died on the journey, however, at Vienne in Dauphinc, in 1546, or early in the next year. Volusenus's linguistic studies embraced Hebrew as well as Greek and Latin. His reputation, however, rests on the beautiful dia- logue, De Animi Tranquillitate, first printed by S. Gryphius at Lyons in 1543. From internal evidence it appears to have been composed about that time, but the subject had exercised the writer for many years. The dialogue shows us Christian humanism at its best. Volusenus is a great admirer of Erasmus, but he criticizes the purity of his Latin and also his philosophy. His own philo- sophy is Christian and Biblical rather than classical or scholastic. He takes a fresh and independent view of Christian ethics, and ha ultimately reaches a doctrine as to the witness of the Spirit and the 2IO VOLUTE— VONNOH assurance of grace which breaks with the traditional Christianity of his time and is based on ethical motives akin to those of the German Reformers. The verses which occur in the dialogue, and the poem which concludes it, give Volusenus a place among Scottish Latin poets, but it is as a Christian philosopher that he attains distinction. The dialogue was reissued at Leiden in 1637 by the Scots writer David Echlin, whose poems, with a selection of three poems from the dialogue of Volusenus, appear, with others, in the famous Amsterdam collection Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum hujus aevi, printed by Blaev in 2 vols. in 1637. Later editions of the dialogue appeared at Edinburgh in 1707 and 1751 (the latter edited by G. Wishart). All the reissues contain a snort life of the author by Thomas Wilson, advocate, son-in-law and biographer of Arch- bishop Patrick Adamson. Supplementary facts are found in the letters and state papers of the period, and in Sadolet's Letters. VOLUTE (Lat. volutum, volvere, to roll up), in architecture, the spiral scroll of the capital of the Ionic order. As in the earliest example known, that of the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus, the width of the abacus is twice that of the depth, constituting therefore a bracket-capital; it is probable that at first it consisted of an oblong block of timber, which, raised on a vertical post or column, lessened the bearing of the architrave or beam, and the first volutes or scrolls were painted on. In votive columns carrying a sphinx, as at Delphi, or statues, the oblong form of capital with largely developed volutes was long retained, but in the porticoes of the Greek temples the abacus was made square and the volute diminished in projection on each side. In the side elevation the portion of the capital which joins the two volutes is known as the cushion, and when the Ionic column was used in porticoes in the capitals of the angle columns the volute was brought out on the diagonal, so as to present the same design on front and side; this, however, at the back led to a very awkward arrange- ment with two half volutes at right angles to one another, which was not of much importance under the portico, but when, in the open peristyle of the Pompeian house, it faced the open court, another design was necessary, and the angle volute was employed on all four sides. A similar arrangement was devised by Ictinus for the capitals in the interior of the temple at Bassae (430 B.C.), and was employed in the semi- detached columns of the raised stage at Epidaurus. The Romans adopted the angle volute in the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome, but, except in their porticoes and as semi- detached between arches, the Ionic order was rarely employed by them, and few Roman examples are known. The architects of the Revival in the l6th century entirely mis- understood the origin and meaning of the volutes (the upper fillet of which was always carried horizontally across under the abacus in Greek and Roman work), and mistook them for horns, which they turned down into the echinus moulding. VONDEL, JOOST VAN DEN (1587-1679), Dutch poet, was born at Cologne on the i7tb of November 1587. His father, a hatter, was an exile from Antwerp on account of his Ana- baptist opinions; but he returned to Holland when Joost was about ten years old, and settled in Amsterdam, where he carried on a hosiery business. Joost was the eldest son, and was expected to succeed to his father's shop. He was early intro- duced to the chamber of the Eglantine, however, and devoted most of his time to poetry and study. When the elder Vondel died he married Maria de Wolff, and seems to have left the management of his affairs in her capable hands. He read the French contemporary poets, and was especially influenced by the Divine Sepmaine of Du Bartas; he made some translations from the German ; he was soon introduced to the circle gathered in the house of Roemer Visscher, and with these friends began to make a close study of classical writers. His first play, Het Pascha, was printed in 1612, and proved to be the beginning of a long and brilliant literary career (see DUTCH LITERATURE). After the production of his political drama of Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence (1625), which expressed his indignation at the judicial murder of Oldenbarneveldt in 1619, Vondel had to go into hiding, but the Amsterdam magistrates eventually satisfied themselves with exacting a small fine. In the follow- ing years he issued a number of stinging satires against the extreme Calvinists, and he entered into close relationship with Hugo Grotius, another sufferer for his liberal opinions. Vondel had long been attracted by the aesthetic side of the Roman Catholic Church, and this inclination was perhaps strengthened by his friendship with Marie Tesselschade Visscher, for the Visscher household had been Catholic and liberal." Tesselschade's husband died in 1634; Vondel's wife died in 1635; and the ties between the two were strengthened by time. Vondel eventually showed his revolt against the Calvinist tyranny by formally embracing the Roman Catholic faith in 1640. The step was ill-received by many of his friends, and Hooft forbade him the hospitality of his castle at Muiden. In 1657 his only surviving son, who was entrusted with the hosiery business, mismanaged affairs to such an extent that he had to take ship for the East Indies, leaving his father to face the creditors. Vondel had to sacrifice the whole of his small fortune, and became a government clerk. He was pensioned after ten years' service, and died on the sth of February 1679. The more important of his thirty-two dramas are: Hierusalem Verwoest ("Jerusalem laid desolate") (1620); Palamedes, of Ver- moorde onnooselheyd (" Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence ") (1625); Gijsbreght van Aemstel (1637); De Cebroeders (1640), the subject of which is the ruin of the sons of Saul; Joseph in Egypten (1640), Maria Stuart, of gemartelde majesteit (1646); the pastoral of De Samson (1660) ; Batavische Cebroeders, the subject of which is the story of Claudius Civilis (1663); Adam in battingschap (" Adam in exile ") (1664), after the Latin tragedy of Hugo Grotius. He also wrote translations from the tragedies of Seneca, Euripides and Sophocles; didactic poems, and much lyrical poetry beside what is to be found in the choruses of his dramas. His complete works were edited by van Lennep (12 vols., 1850- 1869). A bibliography (1888) was published by J. H. W. Unger, who revised van Lennep's edition in 1888-94. Lucifer was trans- lated into English verse by L. C. van Noppen (New York, 1898). See also E. Gosse, Studies in Northern Literature (1879); G. Edmundson, Milton and Vondel (1885), where Milton's supposed indebtedness to Vondel is discussed; and critical studies by A. Baumgartner, S. J. (Freiburg, 1882); C. Looten (Lille, 1889), by J. A. Alberdingk Thijm (Portretten van Joost van den Vondel, 1876); and especially the chapters on Vondel (pp. 133-325) in W. J. A. Jonckbloet's Geschiedenis der nederlandsche letterkunde (vol. iv. 1890). VON HOLST, HERMANN EDUARD (1841-1904), German- American historian, was born at Fellin in the province of Livonia, on the igth of June 1841. He was educated at the universities of Dorpat and Heidelberg, receiving his doctor's degree from the latter in 1865. He emigrated to America in 1867, remaining there until 1872. He was professor of history in the newly reorganized university of Strassburg from 1872 to 1874, and at Freiburg in Baden from 1874 to 1892, and for ten years he was a member of the Baden Herrenhaus, and vice-president for four. He revisited the United States in 1878-79 and in 1884, and in 1892 he became head of the department of history at the university of Chicago. Retiring on account of ill-health in 1900, he returned to Germany and died at Freiburg on the 20th of January 1904. Both through his books and through his lectures at the university of Chicago, Von Hoist exerted a powerful influence in encouraging American students to follow more closely the German methods of historical research. His principal work is his Constitutional and Political History of the United States (German ed., 5 vols., 1873-91; English trans, by Lalor and Mason, 8 vols , 1877-92), which covers the period from 1783 to 1861, though more than half of it is devoted to the decade 1850-60; it is written from a strongly anti-slavery point of view. Among his other writings are The Consti- tutional Law of the United Stales of America (German ed., 1885; English trans., 1887); JohnC. Calhoun (1882), in the American Statesmen Series; John Brown (1888), and The French Revolution Tested by Mirabeau's Career (1894). See the Political Science Quarterly, v. 677-78; the Nation, Ixxviii. 65-67. VONNOH, ROBERT WILLIAM (1858- ), American portrait and landscape painter, was born in Hartford, Connec- ticut, on the 1 7th of September 1858. He was a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris; became an instructor at the Cowles Art School, Boston (1884-85), at the Boston VONONES— VORONEZH 211 Museum of Fine Art Schools (1885-87), and in the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia (1891-96), and a member of the National Academy of Design, New York (1906), and of the Secessionists, Munich. His wife, Bessie Potter Vonnoh (b. 1872), a sculptor, was a pupil of the Art Institute, Chicago, and became a member of the National Sculpture Society. VONONES (on coins ONONES), the name of two Parthian kings. (1) VONONES I., eldest son of Phraates IV. After the assassina- tion of Orodes II. (c. A.D. 7), the Parthians applied to Augustus for a new king from the house of Arsaces. Augustus sent them Yonones (Man. Anc. 5, 9; Tac. Ann. ii. i f.; Joseph. Ant. xviii. 3, 4), who was living as a hostage in Rome. But Vonones could not maintain himself; he had been educated as a Roman, and was despised as a slave of the Romans. Another member of the Arsacid house, Artabanus II,, who was living among the Dahan nomads, was invited to the throne, and defeated and expelled Vonones. The coins of Vonones (who always uses his proper name) date from A.D. 8-12, those of Artabanus II. begin in A.D. 10. Vonones fled into Armenia and became king here. But Artabanus demanded his deposition, and as Augustus did not wish to begin a war with the Parthians he removed Vonones into Syria, where he was kept in custody (Tac. Ann. ii. 4.). When he tried to escape, A.D. 19, he was killed by his guards (Tac. Ann. ii. 58, 68). (2) VONONES II., governor of Media, was raised to the throne after the death of Gotarzes in A.D. 51 (perhaps he was his brother, cf. Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). But he died after a few months, and was succeeded by his son Vologaeses I. (Tac. Ann. xii. 14). (Eo. M.) VOODOO or VAUDOUX (Creole Fr. -eaudoux, a negro sorcerer, probably originally a dialectic form of Fr. Vaudois, a Walden- sian), the name given to certain magical practices, superstitions and secret rites prevalent among the negroes of the West Indies, and more particularly in the Republic of Haiti. VOORHEES, DANIEL WOLSEY (1827-1897), American lawyer and political leader, was born in Butler county, Ohio, on the 26th of September 1827, of Dutch and Irish descent. During his infancy his parents removed to Fountain county, Indiana, near Veedersburg. He graduated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Indiana, in 1849; was admitted to the bar in 1850, and began to practise in Covington, Indiana, whence in 1857 he removed to Terre Haute. In 1858-60 he was U.S. district-attorney for Indiana; in 1861-66 and in 1869-73 he was a Democratic repre- sentative in Congress; and in 1877-97 he was a member of the U.S. Senate. During the Civil War he seems to have been affiliated with the Knights of the Golden Circle, but he was not so radical as Vallandigham and others. He was a member of the committee on finance throughout his service in the Senate, and his first speech in that body was a defence of the free coinage of silver and a plea for the preservation of the full legal tender value of greenback currency, though in 1893 he voted to repeal the silver purchase clause of the Sherman Act. He had an active part in bringing about the building of the new Congressional Library. He was widely known as an effective advocate, especially in jury trials. In allusion to his unusual stature he was called " the Tall Sycamore of the Wabash." He died in Washington, D.C., on the loth of April 1897. Some of his speeches were published under the title, Forty Years of Oratory (2 vols., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1898), edited by his three sons and his daughter, Harriet C. Voorhees, and with a biographical sketch by T. B. Long. VORARLEERG, the most westerly province of the Austrian empire, extending S. of the Lake of Constance along the right bank of the Rhine valley. It consists of three districts, Bregenz, Bludenz and Feldkirch, which are under the administrative authority of the Statthalter (or prefect) at Innsbruck, but possess a governor and a diet of their own (twenty-one members), and send four members to the imperial parliament. Vorarl- berg is composed of the hilly region of the Bregenzerwald, and, to its south, of the mountain. valley of Montafon or of the upper 111, through which an easy pass, the Zeinisjoch (6076 ft.), leads to the Tirolese valley of Paznaun, and so to Landeck. Near Bludenz the Kloster glen parts from the 111 valley, through the latter runs the Arlberg railway (1884) — beneath the pass of that name (5912 ft.) — to Landeck and Innsbruck. The 111 valley is bounded south by the snowy chain of the Rhatikon (highest point, the Scesaplana, 9741 ft., a famous view-point), and of the Silvretta (highest point, Gross Piz Buin, 10,880 ft.), both dividing Vorarlberg from Switzerland; slightly to the north-east of Piz Buin is the Dreilanderspitze (10,539 ft.), where the Vorarlberg, Tirolese and Swiss frontiers unite. The total area of Vorarlberg is 1004-3 SQ- m- Of this 88J%, or about 886 sq. m., is reckoned " productive," 30% of this limited area being occupied by forests, while 118 sq. m. rank as " unproductive." In 1900 the total population was 129,237, all but wholly German-speaking and Romanist. The largest town is Dornbirn (pop. 13,052), but Bregenz (pop. 7595) is the political capital; Feldkirch has about 4000 inhabitants, while Bludenz has rather more (see the separate articles on the three former). In the hilly districts the inhabitants mainly follow pastoral pursuits, possessing much cattle of all kinds. In the towns the spinning and weaving of cotton (introduced towards the end of the i8th century) is very flourishing. Forests cover about one-sixth of the district, and form one of the principal sources of its riches. But the Vorarlberg is predominantly an Alpine region, though its mountains rarely surpass the snow- level. Ecclesiastically it is in the diocese of Brixen, whose vicar-general (a suffragan bishop) resides at Feldkirch. The name of the district means the " land that is beyond the Arlberg Pass," that is, as it seems to one looking at it from the Tirol. This name is modern and is a collective appellation for the various counties or lordships in the region which the Habsburgs (after they secured Tirol in 1363) succeeded in pur- chasing or acquiring — Feldkirch (1375, but Hohenems in 1765 only), Bludenz with the Montafon valley (1394), Bregenz (in two parts, 1451 and 1523) and Sonnenberg (i4SS)- After the annexation of Hohenems (its lords having become extinct in 1759), Maria Theresa united all these lordships into an administrative district of Hither Austria, under the name Vorarlberg, the governor residing at. Bregenz. In 1782 Joseph II. transferred the region to the province of Tirol. The lordship of Blumenegg was added in 1804, but in 1805 all these lands were handed over, by virtue of the peace of Press- burg, to Bavaria, which in 1814 gave them all back, save Hoheneck. In 1815 the present administrative arrangements were made. See A. Achleitner and E. Ubl, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Leipzig, 1895) ; . R. von Bergmar.n, Landeskunde v. Vorarlberg (Innsbruck, 1868); flax Haushofer, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1890); k. C. Heer, Vorarlberg und Liech'enstein — Land und Leute (Feld- irch, 1906); O. von Pfister, Das Afontavon (Augsburg, 1884); J. Staffler, Tirol und Vorarlberg (5 vols., Innsbruck, 1839-46); A. Steinkzer, Geschichtliche und Kulturgeschichtliche Wanderungen durch Tirol und Vorarlberg (Innsbruck, 1905); A. Waltenberger, Algdu, Vorarlbero und Westtirol (loth edition, Innsbruck, 1906). See also the list of books at the end of TIROL, and especially vol. xiii. (" Tirol u. Vorarlberg ") (Vienna, 1893) of the great official work entitled Die oesterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort *nd Bud. (W. A. B. C.) VORONEZH, a government of southern Russia, bounded N. by the government of Tambov, E. by Saratov and the Don Cossacks, S. by Kharkov and W. by Kursk and Orel; area, 25.435 sq. m. It occupies the southern slopes of the middle- Russian plateau, and its average elevation is from 450 to 700 ft. The surface is hilly, and intersected by ravines in the west (where two ranges of chalk hills separated by a broad valley run north and south), but flat and low east of the Don. Devonian sandstones crop out in the north; further south these are covered with Cretaceous deposits. Glacial clays with northern erratic boulders extend as far south as Voronezh, and extensive areas are covered with Lacustrine days and sands. The soil is very fertile, owing to the prevalence of black earth; it becomes, however, sandy towards the east. 212 VORONEZH— VORONTSOV Voronezh lies on the border between the forest and meadow region of middle Russia and the southern steppes; the forests disappear rapidly towards the south, and those which in the time of Peter the Great stood on the upper tributaries of the Don, and were used for shipbuilding, have now been almost entirely destroyed. Less than one-tenth of the entire area is under wood. The Don traverses Voronezh from N. to S.E., draining it for more than 400 m.; it is an important channel for the export of corn, tallow and other raw produce, as well as for the import of wood, floated down from the north. Its tributary the Voronezh is also navigated, and the Bityug and Khoper, both left-hand affluents of the Don, flow in part through the government. Many other small streams flowing into the Don intersect the territory, but the influence of the dry steppes begins to make itself felt; there are no lakes, and marshes persist only in the valleys. The climate is continental, and although the mean temperature at the town of Voronezh is 42-7° F., that of January is as low as 8-3°, and that of July as high as 74- 2°. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,097,700. The inhabitants consist in nearly equal parts of Great Russians in the north and Little Russians in the south, but there are a few Poles, Germans and Jews, both Orthodox and Karaites. The govern- ment is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Voronezh, Biryuch, Bobrov, Boguchar, Korotoyak, Nizhne- Dyevitsk, Novo-Khopersk, Ostrogozhsk, Pavlovsk,- Valuiki, Zadonsk and Zemlyansk. Agriculture is the chief occupation, and grain is exported to a considerable amount. The peasants own 67% of the land, the crown and the imperial domains 3% and private owners 30%. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Aniseed, sunflowers, tobacco and beetroot are extensively culti- vated, and much attention is paid to the growth of the pineapple. There are large tracts of excellent pasture land, on which cattle are bred; good breeds of cart-horses and trotting-hprses are obtained. There are nearly two hundred breeding establishments, those at Hrenovoye and Chesmenka being the most important. In many villages the inhabitants are engaged in the making of wooden wares. There are flour-mills, distilleries, oil, sugar and woollen mills, iron works and tobacco factories. VORONEZH, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the river Voronezh, 5 m. above its confluence with the Don and 367 m. by rail S.S.E. of Moscow. Pop. (1901) 84,146. It is one of the best-built and most picturesque provincial towns of Russia, and is situated on the steep bank of the river, surrounded by three large suburbs — Troitskaya, Yamskaya and Chizhovka. It has a military school of cadets, two museums, a monument (1860) to Peter the Great, a railway college, a pilgrimage church, and a theatre which figures in the history of the Russian stage. It was the birthplace of two peasant poets, who wrote some of the finest examples of Russian poetry — A. V. Koltsov (1800-1842) and I. S. Nikitin (1824-1861). A memorial to the former was erected in 1868. There are factories for cleansing wool and for the preparation of linens, woollens, bells, tallow and oil, as well as some distilleries. Voronezh is an important entrep6t for corn, flax, tallow, hides, sugar, wood and coal from the Don. The city was founded in 1586, as a fort against Tatar raids, on a site which had been occupied from the nth century by a Khazar town, but had been deserted during the i4th and isth centuries. Four years afterwards it was burned by the Tatars, but again rebuilt, and soon became an important trading place. Peter the Great recognized its importance, and in 1695 built here a flotilla of boats for the conquest of Azov. The town was almost completely destroyed by fire in 1703, 1748 and 1773. but was always rebuilt. VORONTSOV (or WORONZOFF), the name of a Russian family, various members of which are distinguished in Russian history. MIKHAIL ILLARIONOVICH VORONTSOV (1714-1767), Russian imperial chancellor, was the first to become prominent. At the age of fourteen he was appointed a Kammer junker at the court of the cesarevna Elizabeth Petrovna, whom he £ dis- llor materially assisted during the famous coup d'ttat of the 6th of December 1741, when she mounted the Russian throne on the shoulders of the Preobrazhensky Grenadiers. On the 3rd of January 1742 he married Anna Skavronskaya, the empress's cousin; and in 1744 was created a count and vice-chancellor. His jealousy of Alexis Bestuzhev induced him to participate in Lestocq's conspiracy against that statesman. The empress's affection for him (she owed much to his skilful pen and still more to the liberality of his rich kinsfolk) saved him from the fate of his accomplices, but he lived in a state of semi-ecli] during the domination of Bestuzhev (1744-1758). On the dis- grace of Bestuzhev, Vorontsov was made imperial chancellor in his stead. Though well-meaning and perfectly honest, Vorontsov as a politician was singularly timorous and irre- solute, and always took his cue from the court. Thus, under Elizabeth he was an avowed enemy of Prussia and a warm friend of Austria and France; yet he made no effort to prevent Peter III. from reversing the policy of his predecessor. Yet he did not lack personal courage, and endured torture after the Revolution of the 9th of July 1762 rather than betray his late master. He greatly disliked Catherine II., and at first refused to serve under her, though she reinstated him in the dignity of chancellor. When he found that the real control of foreign affairs was in the hands of Nikita Panin, he resigned his office (1763). Vorontsov was a generous protector of the nascent Russian literature, and, to judge from his letters, was a highly cultivated man. ALEXANDER ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV (1741-1805), Russian imperial chancellor, nephew of the preceding and son of Count Roman Vorontsov, began his career at the age of fifteen in the Izmailovsky regiment of the Guards. In 1759, his kinsman, the grand chancellor Mikhail Illarionovich, sent him to Strass- burg, Paris and Madrid to train him in diplomacy. Under Peter III. he represented Russia for a short time at the court of St James's. Catherine II. created him a senator and president of the Board of Trade; but she never liked him, and ultimately (1791) compelled him to retire from public life. In 1802 Alexander I. summoned him back to office and ap- pointed him imperial chancellor. This was the period of the triumph of the Vorontsovs, who had always insisted on the necessity of a close union with Austria and Great Britain, in opposition to Panin and his followers, who had leaned on France or Prussia till the outbreak of the Revolution made friendship with France impossible. Vorontsov was also an implacable opponent of Napoleon, whose " topsy-turvyness " he was never weary of denouncing. The rupture with Napoleon in 1803 is mainly attributable to him. He also took a leading part in the internal administration and was in favour of a thorough reform of the senate and the ministries. He retired in 1804. He possessed an extraordinary memory and a firm and wide grasp of history. His " Memoirs of my Own times " (Rus.) is printed in vol. vii. of the Vorontsov Archives. SEMEN ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV (1744-1832), Russian diplomatist, brother of Alexander Romano vich, distinguished himself during the first Turkish War of Catherine II. at Larga and Kagula in 1770. In 1783 he was appointed Russian minister at Vienna, but in 1785 was transferred to London, where he lived for the rest of his life. Vorontsov enjoyed great influence and authority in Great Britain. Quickly acquainting himself with the genius of English institutions, their ways and methods, he was able to render important services to his country. Thus during Catherine's second Turkish War he contributed to bring about the disarmament of the auxiliary British fleet which had been fitted out to assist the Turks, and in 1793 obtained a renewal of the commercial treaty between Great Britain and Russia. Subsequently, his extreme ad- vocacy of the exiled Bourbons, his sharp criticism of the Armed Neutrality of the North, which he considered dis- advantageous to Russia, and his denunciation of the partitions of Poland as contrary to the first principles of equity and a shock to the conscience of western Europe, profoundly irritated VOROSMARTY— VORTIGERN 213 the empress. On the accession of Paul he was raised to the rank of ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, and received immense estates in Finland. Neither Vorontsov's detention of the Russian squadron under Makarov in British ports nor his refusal, after the death of Bezborodko, to accept the dignity of imperial chancellor could alienate the favour of Paul. It was only when the emperor himself began to draw nearer to France that he began to consider Vorontsov as incompetent to serve Russia in England, and in February 1800 all the count's estates were confiscated. Alexander I. on his accession at once reinstated him, but ill-health and family affairs induced him to resign his post in 1806. From that time till his death in 1832 he continued to live in London. Besides his valuable Note on the Russian War (Rus.) and numerous letters, Vorontsov was the author of an autobiography (in Russky Arkhiv, Petersburg, 1881) and " Notes on the Internal Government of Russia " (Rus.) (in Russky Arkhiv, 1881). MIKHAIL SEMENOVICH VORONTSOV (1782-1856), Russian prince and field-marshal, son of the preceding, spent his childhood and youth with his father in London, where he received a brilliant education. During 1803-4 he served in the Caucasus under Tsitsianov and Gulyakov, and was nearly killed in the Zakatahko disaster (January 15, 1804). From 1805 to 1807 he served in the Napoleonic wars, and was present at the battles of Pultusk and Friedland. From 1809 to 1811 he participated in the Turkish 'War and distinguished himself in nearly every important action. He was attached to Bagration's army during the war of 1812, was seriously wounded at Borodino, sufficiently recovering, however, to re- join the army in 1813. In 1814, at Craonne, he brilliantly withstood Napoleon in person. He was the commander of the corps of occupation in France from 1815 to 1818. On the 7th of May 1823 he was appointed governor-general of New Russia, as the southern provinces of the empire were then called, which under his administration developed marvellously. He may be said to have been the creator of Odessa and the benefactor of the Crimea. He was the first to start steam- boats on the Black Sea (1828). The same year he succeeded the wounded Menshikov as commander of the forces besieging Varna, which he captured on the 28th of September. In the campaign of 1829 it was through his energetic efforts that the plague, which had broken out in Turkey, did not penetrate into Russia. In 1844 Vorontsov was appointed commander- in-chief and governor of the Caucasus with plenipotentiary powers. For his brilliant campaign against Shamyl, and especially for his difficult march through the dangerous forests of Ichkerinia, he was raised to the dignity of prince, with the title of Serene Highness. By 1848 he had captured two-thirds of Daghestan, and the situation of the Russians in the Caucasus, so long almost desperate, was steadily improving. In the be- ginning of 1853 Vorontsov was allowed to retire because of his increasing infirmities. He was made a field-marshal in 1856, and died the same year at Odessa. Statues have been erected to him both there and at Tiflis. See V. V. Ogarkov, The Vorontsovs (Rus.) (Petersburg, 1892); Vorontsov Archives (Rus. and Fr.) (Moscow, 1870, &c.); M. P. Shelverbinin, Biography of Prince M. S. Vorontsov (Rus.) (Peters- burg, 1858). (R. N. B.) VflRflSMARTY, MIHALY (1800-1855), Hungarian poet, was born at Puszta-Nyek on the ist of December 1800, of a noble Roman Catholic family. His father was a steward of the Nadasdys. Mihaly was educated at Szekesfejervar by the Cistercians and at Pest by the Piarists. The death of the elder V6rosmarty in 1811 left his widow and numerous family extremely poor. As tutor to the Perczel family, however, Voros- marty contrived to pay his own way and go through his aca- demical course at Pest. The doings of the diet of 1825 first enkindled his patriotism and gave a new direction to his poetical genius (he had already begun a drama entitled Salomon), and he flung himself the more recklessly into public life as he was consumed by a hopeless passion for Etelka Perczel, who socially was far above him. To his unrequited love we owe a whole host of exquisite lyrics, while his patriotism found expression in the heroic epos Zalan fut&sa (1824), gorgeous in colouring, exquisite in style, one of the gems of Magyar literature. This new epic marked a transition from the classical to the romantic school. Henceforth Vorosmarty was hailed by Kisfaludy and the Hungarian romanticists as one of themselves. All this time he was living from hand to mouth. He had forsaken the law for literature, but his contributions to newspapers and reviews were miserably paid. Between 1823 and 1831 he composed four dramas and eight smaller epics, partly historical, partly fanciful. Of these epics he always regarded Cserhalom (1825) as the best, but modern criticism has given the pre- ference to Ket szomsld vdr (1831), a terrible story of hatred and revenge. When the Hungarian Academy was finally established (November 17, 1830) he was elected a member of the philological section, and ultimately succeeded Kar61y Kis- faludy as director with an annual pension of 500 florins. He was one of the founders of the Kisfaludy Society, and in 1837 started the Athenaeum and the Figyelmezo, the first the chief bellettristic, the second the best critical periodical of Hungary. From 1830 to 1843 he devoted himself mainly to the drama, the best of his plays, perhaps, being Vernasz (1833), which won the Academy's ico-gulden prize. He also published sftveral volumes of poetry, containing some of his best work. Szozat (1836), which became a national hymn, Az dhagyott anya (1837) and Az Uri holgyhoz (1841) are all inspired by a burning patriotism. His marriage in 1843 to Laura Csajaghy inspired him to compose a new cycle of erotics. In 1848, in conjunction with Arany and Petofi, he set on foot an excellent translation of Shakespeare's works. He himself was responsible for Julius Caesar and King Lear. He represented Jankovics at the diet of 1848, and in 1849 was made one of the judges of the high court. The national catastrophe profoundly affected him. For a short time he was an exile, and when he returned to Hungary in 1850 he was already an old man. A profound melancholy crippled him for the rest of his life. In 1854 he wrote his last great poem, the touching A v£n cig&ny. He died at Pest in 1855 in the same house where Kar61y Kisfaludy had died twenty-five years before. His funeral, on the 2ist of November, was a day of national mourning. His penniless children were provided for by a national subscription collected by Ferencz Deak, who acted as their guardian. The best edition of Vorosmarty's collected works is by P41 Gyulai (Budapest, 1884). Some of them have been translated into German, e.g. Gedichte (Pest, 1857); Ban Marot, by Mihaly Ring (Pest, 1879); Ausgewahlte Dichte, by Paul Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1895). See P41 Gyulai, The Life of Vorosmarty (Hung.) (3rd ed., Budapest, 1890), one of the noblest biographies in the language; Brajjer, Vdrdsmarty, sein Leben und seine Werke (Nagy-Becskerek, 1882). (R. N. B) VORTICELLA, the Bell-Animalcule, a genus of Peritrichous Infusoria (q.v.) characterized by the bell-shaped body, with short oral disk and collar, attached by a hollow stalk, inside and around which passes, attached spirally, a contractile bundle of myonemes. By their contraction the stalk is brought into the form of a corkscrew, the thread being now on the shorter, i.e. the inner, side of the turns; and the animal is jerked back near to the base of the stalk. As soon as the contraction of the thread ceases, the elasticity of the stalk ex- tends the animal to its previous position. On fission, one of the two animals swims off by the development of the temporary posterior girdle of membranelles, the disk being retracted and closed over by the collar, so that the cell is ovoid: on its attachment the posterior girdle of cilia disappears and a stalk forms. The other cell remains attached to the old stalk. In the allied genera Carchesium and Zoothamnium the two produced by fission remain united, so that a branching colony is ultimately produced. The genus is a large one, and many species are epizoic on various water animals. VORTIOERN (GUORTHIGIRNUS, WYRTGEORN), king of the Britons at the time of the arrival of the Ssxons under Hengest and Horsa. The records do not agree as to the date of the arrival of these chieftains or the motives which led them to come to Britain. It seems clear, however, that Vortigern VOSGES— VOSMAER made use of them to protect his kingdom against the Picts and Scots, and rewarded them for their services with a grant of land. Later we find the Britons at war with the new-comers, now established in Kent, and four battles are fought, in the last of which, according to the Historia Brittonum, the king's son Vortemir, their leading opponent, is slain. The Historia Brittonum is our only authority for the marriage of Vortigern with the daughter of Hengest before the war. It also records the massacre of the British nobles after the death of Vortemir and the subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex to the invaders by Vortigern. See Historia Brittonum, ed. Th. Mommsen in Man. Hist. Germ. xiii. ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899) ; Bede, Hist. Eccl., ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896). VOSGES, a frontier department of eastern France, formed in 1790 chiefly of territory previously belonging to Lorraine, together with portions of Franche-Comte and Champagne, and bounded N. by the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, E. by Alsace, S.E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by the department of Haute-Sa6ne, W. by Haute-Marne and N.W, by Meuse. Pop. (1906) 429,812; area, 2279 sq. m. The Vosges mountains (see below) form a natural boundary on the east, their highest French eminence, the Hohneck, attaining 4482 ft. The Monts Faucilles traverse the south of the depart- ment in a broad curve declining on the north into elevated plateaus, on the south encircling the upper basin of the Saone. This chain, dividing the basins cf the Rhone and the Rhine, forms part of the European watershed between the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The Moselle and the Meuse, tributaries of the Rhine, have the largest drainage areas in the department; a small district in the N.W. sends its waters to the Seine, the rest belongs to the basin of the Rhone. The Moselle rises in the Col de Bussang in the extreme south-east, and in a N.N.W. course of about 70 m. in the department receives the Moselotte and the Vologne on the right; the Mortagne and Meurthe on the right and the Madon on the left bank also belong to this department though they join the Moselle outside its borders. The source of the Sa6ne is on the southern slope of the Faucilles. On the shore of Lake Gerardmer lies the beautifully situated town of Gerardmer, a well-known centre for mountain excursions. The elevation and the northward exposure of the valleys make the climate severe, and a constant dampness prevails, owing both to the abundance of the rainfall and to the imper- meability of the subsoil. The average temperature at Epinal (1070 ft.) is 49° F. The annual rainfall at Epinal is 28 in., at St Di6 32 in. and in the mountains more. Arable farming flourishes in the western districts where wheat, oats and potatoes are largely grown. The vine is cultivated on the river banks, to best advantage on those of the Moselle. Pasture is abundant in the mountainous region, where cheese-making is carried on to some extent, but the best grazing is in the central valleys. Forests, which occupy large tracts on the flanks of the Vosges, cover about one-third of the department, and are a principal source of its wealth. Sawmills are numerous in the Vosges and the manufacture of furniture, sabots, brushes and wood- working in general are prominent industries. The department has mines of lignite and stone quarries of various kinds. There are numerous mineral springs, of which those of Contrex6- ville, Plombieres, Vittel, Bains-les-Bains, Martigny-les-Bains and Bussang may be named. The manufacture of textiles is the chief industry, comprising the spinning and weaving of cotton, wool, silk, hemp and flax, and the manufacture of hosiery and of embroidery and lace, Mirecourt (pop. 5092) being an important centre for the two last. The department forms the diocese of St Die (province of Besancon), has its court of appeal and educational centre at Nancy, and belongs to the district of the XX. Army Corps. It is divided into the arrondisse- ments of Epinal, Mirecourt, Neufchateau, Remiremont and St Di6, with 29 cantons and 530 communes. VOSGES (Lat. Vogesus or Vosagus, Ger. Wasgau or Vogeseri), a mountain range of central Europe, stretching along the west side of the Rhine valley in a N.N.E. direction, from Basel to Mainz, for a distance of 150 m. Since 1871 the southern portion, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon, has been the frontier between France and Germany. There is a remarkable similarity between the Vosges and the corresponding range of the Black Forest on the other side of the Rhine: both lie within the same degrees of latitude and have the same geological formation; both are characterized by fine forests on their lower slopes, above which are open pasturages and rounded summits of a uniform altitude; both have a steep fall to the Rhine and a gradual descent on the other side. The Vosges in their southern portion are mainly of granite, with some porphyritic masses, and of a kind of red sandstone (occasionally 1640 ft. in thickness) which on the western versant bears the name of " gres Vosgien." Geographically the range is divided south to north into four sections: the Grandes Vosges (62 m.), extending from Belfort to the valley of the Bruche; the Central Vosges (31 m.), between the Bruche and the Col de Saverne; the Lower Vosges (30 m.), between the Col de Saverne and the source of the Lauter; and the Hardt (q.v.). The rounded summits, of the Grandes Vosges are called " ballons." The departments of Vosges and Haute Sa6ne are divided from Alsace and the territory of Belfort by the Ballon d'Alsace or St Maurice (4100 ft.). Thence northwards the average height of the range is 3000 ft., the highest point, the Ballon de Guebwiller (Gebweiler), or Soultz, rising to the east of the main chain to 4680 ft. The Col de Saales, between the Grandes Vosges and the central section, is nearly 1900 ft. high; the latter is both lower and narrower than the Grandes Vosges, the Mont Donon (3307 ft.) being the highest summit. The railway from Paris to Strassburg and the Rhine and Marne Canal traverse the Col de Saverne. No railway crosses the Vosges between Saverne and Belfort, but there are carriage roads over the passes of Bussang from Remiremont to Thann, the Schlucht (3766 ft.) from Gerardmer to Munster, the Bonhomme from St Did to Colmar, and the pass from St Did to Ste Marie-aux-Mines. The Lower Vosges are a sandstone plateau ranging from 1000 to 1850 ft. high, and are crossed by the railway from Hagenau to Sarre- guemines, defended by the fort of Bitche. Meteorologically the difference between the eastern and western versants of the range is very marked, the annual rainfall being much higher and the mean temperature being much lower in the latter than in the former. On the eastern slope the vine ripens to a height of 1300 ft.; on the other hand, its only rivers are the 111 and other shorter streams. The Moselle, Meurthe and Sarre all rise on the Lorraine side. Moraines, boulders and polished rocks testify the existence of the glaciers which formerly covered the Vosges. The lakes, surrounded by pines, beeches and maples, the green meadows which provide pasture for large herds of cows, and the fine views of the Rhine valley, Black Forest and snow-covered Swiss moun- tains combine to make the district picturesque. On the lower heights and buttresses of the main chain on the Alsatian side are numerous castles, generally in ruins. At several points on the main ridge, especially at St Odile above Ribeauville (Rappoltsweiler), are the remains 01 a wall of unmortared stone with tenons of wood, 6 to 7 ft. thick and 4 to 5 ft. high, called the pagan wall (Mur Payen). It was used for defence in the middle ages, and archaeologists are divided as to whether it was built for this purpose by the Romans, or before their arrival. VOSMAER, CAREL (1826-1888), Dutch poet and art-critic, was born at the Hague on the 2cth of March 1826. He was trained to the law, and held various judiciary posts, but in 1873 withdrew entirely from legal practice. His first volume of poems, 1860, did not contain much that was remarkable. His temperament was starved in the very thin air of the intellectual Holland of those days, and it was not until after the sensational appearance of Multatuli (Edward Douwes- Dekker) that Vosmaer, at the age of forty, woke up to a con- sciousness of his own talent. In 1869 he produced an exhaustive monograph on Rembrandt, which was issued in French. Vosmaer became a contributor to, and then the leading spirit and editor of, a journal which played an immense part in the awakening of Dutch literature; this was the Nederlandsche Spectator, in which a great many of his own works, in prose and verse, originally appeared. The remarkable miscellanies of Vosmaer, called Birds of Diverse Plumage, appeared in three volumes, in 1872, 1874 and 1876. In 1879 he selected from these all the pieces in verse, and added other poems to them. In 1 88 1 he published an archaeological novel called Amazone, the scene of which was laid in Naples and Rome, and which described the raptures of a Dutch antiquary in love. Vosmaer VOSS, J. H.— VOSSIUS 215 undertook the gigantic task of translating Homer into Dutch hexameters, and he lived just long enough to see this completed and revised. In 1873 he came to London to visit his lifelong friend, Sir (then Mr) Lawrence Alma-Tadema, and on his return published Londinias, an exceedingly brilliant mock- heroic poem in hexameters. His last poem was Nanno, an idyll on the Greek model. Vosmaer died, while travelling in Switzerland, on the I2th of June 1888. He was unique in his fine sense of plastic expression; he was eminently tasteful, lettered, refined. Without being a genius, he possessed immense ulent, just of the order to be useful- in combating the worn- out rhetoric of Dutch poetry. His verse was modelled on Heine and still more on the Greeks; it is sober, without colour, stately and a little cold. He was a curious student in versifica- tion, and it is due to him that hexameters were introduced and the sonnet reintroduced into Holland. He was the first to repudiate the traditional, wooden alexandrine. In prose he greatly influenced by Multatuli, in praise of whom he wrote an eloquent treatise, Een Zaaier (A Sower). He was also some- what under the influence of English prose models. (E. .G.) VOSS. JOHANN HEINRICH (1751-1826), German poet and translator, was born at Sommersdorf in Mecklenburg-Strelitz on the 20th of February 1751, the son of a farmer. After attending (1766-69) the gymnasium at Neubrandenburg, he was obliged to accept a private tutorship in order to earn money to enable him to study at a university. At the invitation of H. C. Boie, whose attention he had attracted by poems con- tributed to the Gottingen Musenalmanach, he went to Gottingen in 1772. Here he studied philology and became one of the leading spirits in the famous Hain or Dichterbund. In 1775 Boie made over to him the editorship of the Musenalmanach, which he continued to issue for several years. He married Boie's sister Ernestine in 1777 and in 1778 was appointed rector of the school at Otterndorf in Hanover. In 1782 he accepted the rectorship of the gymnasium at Eutin, where he remained until 1802. Retiring in this year with a pension of 600 thalers he settled at Jena, and in 1805, although Goethe used his utmost endeavours to persuade him to stay, accepted a call to a pro- fessorship at Heidelberg. Here, in the enjoyment of a consider- able salary, he devoted himself entirely to his literary labours, translations and antiquarian research until his death on the 29th of March 1826. Voss was a man of a remarkably independent and vigorous character. In 1785-95 he published in two volumes a collection of original poems, to which he afterwards made many additions. The best of these works is his idyllic poem Luise (1795), in which he sought, with much success, to apply the style and methods of classical poetry to the expression of modern German thought and sentiment. In his Mythologische Briefe (2 vols., 1794), in which he attacked the ideas of Christian Gottlob Heyne, in his Antisymbolik (2 vols., 1824-26), written in opposition to Georg Friedrich Creuzer (1771-1858), and in other writings he made important contributions to the study of mythology. He was also prominent as an advocate of the right of free judgment in religion, and at the time when some members of the Romantic school were being converted to the Roman Catholic church he produced a strong impression by a powerful article, in Sophronizon, on his friend Friedrich von Stol- berg's repudiation of Protestantism (1819). It is, however, as a translator that Voss chiefly owes his place in German literature. His translations indicate not only sound scholarship but a thorough mastery of the laws of German diction and rhythm. The most famous of his translations are those of Homer. Of these the best is the translation of the Odyssey, as originally issued in I78i._ He also translated Hesiod, Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, Virgil, Horace, Tibullus, Prppertius and other classical poets, and he prepared a critical edition of Tibullus. In 1818-29 wa.s published, in 9 vols., a translation of Shakespeare's plays, which he com- pleted with the help of his sons Heinrich and Abraham, both of whom were scholars and writers of considerable ability. J. H. Voss's Sdmtliche poelische Werkc were published by his son Abraham in 1835; new ed. 1850. A good selection is in A. Sauer, Der Gdttinger Dtchterbund, vol. i. (Kurschner's Deutsche National- literatur, vol. 49, 1887). His Letters were also published by his son in 4 vols. (1829-33). Voss left a short autobiography, Abriss meines Lebens (1818). See also W. Herbst, /. H. Voss (3, vols., 1872-76); A. Heussner, 7. H. Voss als Schulmann in Eutin (1882). VOSS, RICHARD (1851- ), German dramatist and novelist, was born at Neugrape, in Pomerania, on the 2nd of September 1851, the son of a country squire. Though intended for the life of a country gentleman, he showed no inclination for outdoor life, and on his return from the war of 1870-71, in which he was wounded, he studied philosophy at Jena and Munich, and then settled at Berchtesgaden. In 1884 Voss was appointed by the grand duke of Weimar librarian of the Wartbarg, but, in consequence of illness, he resigned the post. Chief among his dramas are Savonarola (1878); Magda (1879); Die Patricierin (1880); Der Mohr des Zaren (1883); Unehrlich Volk (1885); Alexandra (1888); Eva (1889); Wehe dem Besiegten (1889); Die neue Zeil (1891); Schuldig (1892). Among his novels may be mentioned San Sebastian (1883); Der Sohn der Volskerin (1885); Die Sabinerin (1888); Der Monch von Berchtesgaden (1891); Der neue GoU (1898); Die Rdcherin (1899); Allerlei ErUbtes (1902); and Die Leute von Valdarb (1902). See M. Goldmann, Richard Voss, ein literarisches Charaklerbild (1900). VOSSEVANGEN, or Voss, a village and favourite tourist- centre of Norway, in South Bergenhus ami (county), 67 m. N.W. of Bergen by rail. It was the terminus of the finely engineered Bergen & Vossevangen railway, which, however, forms part of the projected trunk line between Christiania and Bergen. Vossevangen is pleasantly situated on the Vangsvand, in fertile upland, and has a stone church of the I3th century, and a.finneloft or two-storeyed timber house of the I4th century, with an outside stair. Driving roads run N.E. and S.E. from Vossevangen. The former, passing Stalheim, descends into the sombre Naerodal, a precipitous valley terminating in the Naero Fjord, a head-branch of the Sogne Fjord. The latter route follows the deep but gentler valley of the Skjerve, whence from Ovre Vasenden roads continue to Eide (18 m.) and to Ulvik (32 m.), both on branches of the Hardanger Fjord. VOSSIUS [Voss], GERHARD JOHANN (1577-1649), German classical scholar and theologian, was the son of Johannes Voss, a Protestant of the Netherlands, who fled from persecution into the Palatinate and became pastor in the village near Heidelberg where Gerhard was born. Johannes was a Calvinist, however, and the strict Lutherans of the Palatinate caused him once more to become a wanderer; in 1578 he settled at Leiden as student of theology, and finally became pastor at Dort, where he died in 1585. Here the son received his educa- tion, until in 1595 he entered the university of Leiden, where he became the lifelong friend of Hugo Grotius, and studied classics, Hebrew, church history and theology. In 1600 he was made rector of the high school at Dort, and devoted himself to philology and historical theology. From 1614 to 1619 he was director of the theological college at Leiden. Meantime he was gaining a great reputation as a scholar, not only in the Netherlands, but also in France and England. But in spite of the moderation of his views and his abstention from controversy, he came under suspicion of heresy, and escaped expulsion from his office only by resignation (1619). The year before he had published his valuable history of Pelagian controversies, which his enemies considered favoured the views of the Arminians or Remonstrants. In 1622, however, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and chronology, and subsequently of Greek, in the university. He declined invita- tions from Cambridge, but accepted from Archbishop Laud a prebend in. Canterbury cathedral without residence, and went to England to be installed in 1629, when he was made LL.D. at Oxford. In 1632 he left Leiden to take the post of professor of history in the newly founded Athenaeum at Amsterdam, which he held till his death on the igth of March 1649. His son ISAAK (1618-1689), after a brilliant career of scholar- ship in Sweden, became residentiary canon at Windsor in 1673. He was the author of De septuaginta inter prctibus (1661), De poematum canlu et viribus rhythmi (1673), and Variarum obsenationum liber (1685). Vossius was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the heathen religions from the historical point of view. His principal works are Hisloria Pelagiana sine Historiae de controversiis guas Pclagius ejusque reliquiae movcrunt (1618); Aristarchus, site de arte grammatica (1635 and 1695; new ed. in 2 vols., 1833-35); Etymo- logifum linguae Latinae (1662; new ed. in two vols., 1762-63); 2l6 VOTE Commentariorum Rhetoricorum oratoriarum institutionum Libri VI. (1606 and often); De Historicis Graecis Libri III. (1624.); De Historicis Latinis Libri III. (1627); De Theologia Gentili (1642); Dissertationes Tres de Tribus Symbolis, Apostolico, Athanasiano et Constantinopolitano (1642). Collected works published at Amster- dam (6 vols., 1695-1701). See P. Niceron, Memoires pour sernr a Ihistmre des hommes illustres, vol. xiii. (Paris, 1730); Herzog's Realencyklopadie, art. " Vossius"; and the article in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. VOTE and VOTING. The Latin votum, derived from vovere, to vow, meant a solemn promise, hence a wish, desire or prayer, in whic.h senses the doublet " vow," derived through French, is used now chiefly. " Vote " is specially employed in the sense of a registering of one's choice in elections or on matters of debate, and the political meaning is the only one which requires comment. Ancient. — In ancient Greece and Italy the institution of suffrage already existed in a rudimentary form at the outset of the historical period. In the primitive monarchies it was customary for the king to invite pronouncements of his folk on matters in which it was prudent to secure its assent before- hand. In these assemblies the people recorded their opinion by clamouring (a method which survived in Sparta as late as the 4th century B.C.), or by the clashing of spears on shields. This latter practice may be inferred to have obtained originally in Rome, the word su/ragium meaning literally a responsive crash. Owing to the lack of routine in the early monarchies and aristocracies of Greece and Italy the vote as yet lacked importance as an instrument of government. But in the days of their full political development the communities of these countries had firmly established the principle of government according to the will of majorities, and their constitutions required almost every important act to be directed by a formal vote. This rule applied equally to the decisions of general assemblies, administrative councils and law courts, and obtained alike in states where suffrage was universal and where it was restricted. In every case the taking of votes was effected in the form of a poll. The practice of the Athenians, which is shown by inscriptions to have been widely followed in the other states of Greece, was to hold a show of hands (xttporovla), except on questions affecting the status of individuals: these latter, which included all lawsuits and proposals of ostracism (?.».), were determined by secret ballot (^<£w/wi, so called from the \frt)(f>oL or pebbles with which the votes were cast). At Rome the method which prevailed up to the and century B.C. was that of division (discessio). But the economic and social depend- ence of many voters on the nobility caused the system of open suffrage to be vitiated by intimidation and corruption. Hence 'a series of laws enacted between 139 and 107 B.C. prescribed the use of the ballot (" tabella," a slip of wood coated with wax) for all business done in the assemblies of the people. For the purpose of carrying resolutions a simple majority of votes was deemed sufficient. Regulations about a quorum seem to have been unusual, though a notable exception occurs in the case of motions for ostracism at Athens. As a general rule equal value was made to attach to each vote; but hi the popular assemblies at Rome a system of voting by groups was in force until the middle of the 3rd century B.C. by which the richer classes secured a decisive preponderance (see COMITIA). As compared with modern practice the function of voting was restricted in some notable ways, (i) In the democracies of Greece the use of the lot largely supplanted polling for the election o magistrates: at Athens voting was limited to the choice of officers with special technical qualifications. (2) In accordance with the theory which required residence at the seat of government as i condition of franchise, the suffrage could as a rule only be exerciset in the capital town. The only known exception under a centralizet government was a short-lived experiment under the empero Augustus, who arranged for polling stations to be opened at election time in the country towns of Italy. In federal governments thi election of deputies to a central legislature seems to be attestec by the practice of the Achaean League, where the federal Counci was probably elected in the several constituent towns. But littlt is known as to ancient methods of electing delegates to representa tive institutions, and in general it may be said that the function f suffrage in Greece and Italy throws no light upon contemporary .iroblems, such as the use of single-area constituencies and pro- wrtional representation. Modern. — The modern method of obtaining a collective expression of opinion of any body of persons may be either ' open " or secret. An open expression of opinion may be by some word of assent or negation, or by some visible sign, as the lolding up of a hand. Indeed any method of voting which does not expressly make provision for concealing the identity of the >erson registering the vote is " open." Some methods of voting still employed (as- in the case of parliamentary elections 'or some of the English universities, where votes may be sent sy post) must necessarily reveal the manner in which the elector las recorded his vote. It is in connexion with the election of members of representative bodies — especially legislative jodies — that the qualifications for and methods of voting jecome especially important. Practically every civilized country has accepted and put in force some form of representa- ion, which may be denned as the theory and principles on which, the obtaining of a vote is founded. These are dealt with in the article REPRESENTATION, and it will be sufficient to give here the various qualifications which are considered by different countries as sufficient to give effect to the principle of representation and the methods of recording votes. In detail these are given for the United Kingdom and the United States in the articles REGISTRATION of Voters and ELECTIONS, and for other countries under their respective titles in the sections dealing with the Constitution. The first consideration is the age at which a person should be qualified for a vote. This in a large number of countries is fixed at the age of manhood, namely, twenty-one years of age, but in Hungary the age is fixed at twenty years, in Austria twenty-four years, while in Belgium, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Prussia, Saxony, Japan, the Netherlands and Norway the age is twenty-five years, and in Denmark thirty years. Some countries (e.g. Austria, Germany, France) have adopted the principle of what is often termed " manhood or universal suffrage," i.e. every male adult, not a criminal or a lunatic, being entitled to a vote, but in all cases some further qualifications than mere manhood are required, as in Austria a year's residence in the place of election, or in France a six months' residence. A common qualification is that the elector should be able to read and write. This is required in Italy and Portugal and some of the smaller European states, in some states of the United States (see ELECTIONS) and in many of the South American republics. But the most universal qualification of all is some outward visible sign of a substantial interest in the state. The word " substantial " is used here in a comparative sense, as opposed to that form of suffrage which requires nothing more for its exercise than attainment of manhood and perhaps a certain qualifying period of residence. This tangible sign of interest in the state may take the form of possession of property, however small in amount, or the payment of some amount of direct taxation, indeed in some cases, as will be seen, this is rewarded by the conferring of extra votes. In the United Kingdom possession of freehold or leasehold property of a certain value or occupation of premises of a certain annual value gives a vote. This qualification of property may be said to be included in what is termed the " lodger " vote, given to the occupier of lodgings of the yearly value unfur- nished of not less than £10. In Hungary, the payment of a small direct tax on house property or land or on an income varying with occupation is necessary. So in Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, Italy (unless a certain standard in elementary education has been reached), Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal (unless the elector is able to read and write) and Russia. Some of the states in the United States also require the payment of a poll tax. On the other hand, in Russia, students, soldiers, governors of provinces and police officers are disqualified from voting; in Portugal, bankrupts, beggars, domestic servants, workmen in government service and non-commissioned officers are not electors; it must be noted, however, that the government N VOTING MACHINES 217 of the new Portuguese republic promised in 1910 a drastic revision of the existing franchise. Italy disfranchises non- commissioned officers and men in the army while under arms, as do France and Brazil. The United Kingdom and Denmark disqualify those in actual receipt of parish relief, while in Norway, apparently, receipt of parish relief at any time is a disqualification, which, however, may be removed by the >ient paying back the sums so received. In some countries, e.g. Brazil, the suffrage is refused to members of monastic orders, &c., under vows of obedience. Apart from those countries where a modicum of education is necessary as a test of right to the franchise, there are others where education is specially favoured in granting the franchise. In the United Kingdom the members of eight universities (Oxford, Cambridge, London, Dublin University, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and St Andrews) send nine members to parliament; in Hungary members of the professional, scientific, learned and other classes (over 80,000) are entitled to vote without any other qualification; in Brunswick the scientific classes elect three members to the legislative chamber; iu Saxony, members of scientific or artistic professions have extra votes; in Italy, members of academies and professors are qualified to vote by their position; while in the Netherlands legal qualifications for any profession or employment give a vote. Many objections have been urged of late years to the prin- ciple of according a plurality of votes to one individual on account of superior qualifications over others which he may be considered to possess. In the United Kingdom, where, roughly speaking, the principle of representation is that of taxation, the possession of qualifying property in any number of electoral districts will give a vote in each of those districts. Whether those votes can be actually registered will of course depend on certain circumstances, such as the distance of the districts apart and whether the elections are held on the same day or not. The Radical party in the United Kingdom have of late years been hostile to any system of plurality of votes (whether gained by educational, property or other qualifications), though it may be said that the tendency of some recent electoral systems has been to introduce a steadying principle of this nature. In 1906 a bill was introduced for reducing the system of plural voting in the United Kingdom; it passed through the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. The most remarkable system of plural voting was that intro- duced in Belgium by the electoral law of 1894. Under it, every citizen over thirty-five years of age with legitimate issue, and paying at least 5 francs a year in house tax, has a supple- mental vote, as has every citizen over twenty-five owning immovable property to the value of 2000 francs, or having a corresponding income from such property, or who for two years has derived at least 100 francs a year from Belgian funds either directly or through the savings bank. Two supple- mentary votes are given to citizens over twenty-five who have received a diploma of higher instruction, or a certificate of higher secondary instruction, or who fill or have filled offices, or engaged in private professional instruction, implying at least average higher instruction. Three votes is the highest number allowed, while failure to vote Is punishable as a mis- demeanour. In 1008-9 the number of electors in Belgium was 1,651,647, of whom 981,866 had one vote, 378,264 two votes and 291,517 three votes. In some other countries weight is given to special qualifications. In the town of Bremen the government is in the hands of a senate of 16 members and a Convent of Burgesses (Biirgerschaft) of 150 members. These latter are elected by the votes of all the citizens divided into classes. University men return 14 members, merchants 40 members, mechanics and manufacturers 20 members, and the other inhabitants the remainder. So in Brunswick and in Hamburg legislators are returned by voters representing various interests. In Prussia, representatives are chosen by direct electors who in their turn are elected by indirect electors. One direct elector is elected from every complete number of 250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes, the first class comprising those who pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-third of the whole; the second, of those who pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the second third; the third, of all the lowest taxed. In Italy electors must either have attained a certain standard of elementary education, or pay a certain amount of direct taxation, or if peasant farmers pay a certain amount of rent, or if occupants of lodgings, shops, &c., in towns, pay an annual rent according to the population of the commune. In Japan, voters must pay either land tax of a certain amount for not less than a year or direct taxes other than land tax for more than two years. In the Netherlands, householders, or those who have paid the rent of houses or lodgings for a certain period, are qualified for the franchise, as are owners or tenants of boats of not less than 24 tons capacity, as well as those who have been for a certain period in employment with an annual wage of not less than £22, 183. 4d., have a certificate of state interest of not less than TOO florins or a savings bank deposit of not less than 50 florins. The method now adopted in most countries of recording votes is that of secret voting or ballot (q.v.). This is carried out sometimes by a machine (see VOTING MACHINES). The method of determining the successful candidate varies greatly in different countries. In the United Kingdom the candidate who obtains a relative majority is elected, i.e. it is necessary only to obtain more votes than any other candidate (see REPRESENTATION) . VOTING MACHINES. The complications in the voting at American elections have resulted in the invention of various machines for registering and counting the ballots. These machines are in fact mechanical Australian ballots. The necessity for them has been emphasized by election practice in many parts of the United States, where in a single election there have been from five to ten parties on the ballot, with an aggregate of four hundred or five hundred candidates, making the paper ballots large and difficult to handle. The objections to the paper ballot are further emphasized in the results ob- tained. The number of void and blank ballots is seldom less than 5% of the number of voters voting, and is often as high as 40%. This lost vote is often greater than the majority of the successful candidate. In close elections there is an endless dispute as to whether the disputed ballots do or do not comply with the law. The election contest and recount expenses frequently exceed the cost of holding the election, and the title of the candidates to the office is frequently held in abeyance by a protracted contest until after the term of office has expired. A number of ways have been devised for marking the Australian ballot for identification without destroying its legality. The X is a very simple and well-known mark, yet in the case of Coulehan v. White, before the Supreme Court of Maryland, twenty-seven different ways of making the mark " X " were shown in the ballots in controversy, and all of them were a subject for judicial consideration, on which the judges pf even the highest court could, find room for disagreement. Wigmore in his book on the Australian ballot system points out thirteen ways of wrongly placing the mark, and forty-four errors in the style of the mark, besides many other errors tending to invalidate the ballot, all of them having frequently occurred in actual practice. These errors are not confined to the illiter- ates, but are just as common among the best-educated people. The ballots can and have frequently been altered or miscounted by unscrupulous election officers, and the detection of the fraud is frequently difficult and always expensive. Voting machines were devised first by English, and later with more success by American inventors. The earlier machines of Vassie, Chamberlain, Sydserff (1869) and Davie (1870) were practically all directed toward voting for the candidates of a single office by a ball, the ball going into one compart- ment or the other according to the choice of the voter. The use of the ball is in accordance with the original idea of ballot, which means " a little ball "; and because of the requirement of many of the constitutions of the states of the United States, that " elections shall be by ballot," many American inventors 2l8 VOTING MACHINES follow this idea of using balls to indicate their votes. Others, however, maintaining that secrecy was the essential idea of voting by ballot, and that the form of the ballot was immaterial, worked on the idea of using a key and a counter for each candi- date, the counter registering the successive impulses given to it by the key, the machine preventing the voter from giving the key more than one impulse, and preventing the voter from operating more keys than he is entitled to vote. The highest courts of four different American states have ruled that any form of voting machine that secured secrecy would be con- stitutional. The first voting machine used in an election was the Myers Ballot Machine used at Lockport, New York, in 1892. This machine had a vertical keyboard with columns of push keys thereon, each column representing a party, and each key belonging to a candidate of that party, the keys of each horizontal line belonging to the candi- dates of the various parties for a particular office. The voter pushed one of the knobs in each office line, which knob operated its counter and locked all other possible votes for the same office until the voter left the booth. The operated keys were released by the operation of the second booth door as the voter left the machine, and they were then reset by springs. The doors were so arranged that the voter must first pass through one and lock it behind him before he could open the second one to get out. This both preserved secrecy and prevented repeating. Some sixty-five or more of these machines were used in the election in the city of Rochester. N.Y., in November 1896, and with marked success. The McTammany Machine, operated by keys which punched holes in a web of paper. On this web the votes of each candidate were all punched in a single column, each separate column representing a separate candidate. The voter does not see the web, which is removed from the machine by the election officers after the election is over, and the vote thereon is canvassed by passing the web through a pneumatic counting machine. The paper web makes a separate record of each man's ballot that can be identified by a person skilled in the use of the machine. The machine is also slow in giving returns, due to the fact that the vote has to be counted after the election. In other types of machines each candidate had a separate recep- tacle, into which the machine dropped a ball for each vote that was cast for the candidate. These machines have so far not been successful. The whole development of practical voting machines has been limited to those machines in which a separate counter is provided for each candidate, the counter being operated either directly or indirectly by the voter. Of this type is the Myers machine, as well as the other machines mentioned here. The Bardwell Votometer had a separate counter for each candi- date, with a single key for operating all the counters on the machine. A keyhole was provided in each counter, in which the key could be inserted, and by turning it 180° the counter was operated and the key could be removed for use in another counter. The voter could operate but one counter at a time, and could not operate the counters in very rapid succession. The limited use of this machine can be attributed principally to the slowness with which it can be worked. The voter enters this machine by raising a bar at one end, which unlocks the counters for voting operation. Raising a similar bar at the other end as the voter passes out resets the machine for the next voter and locks it. The Abbott Machine has attained considerable use in the state of Michigan. In this machine the counters for each office are carried on a separate slide, and the voter moves these slides for the various offices from left to right, until the counter carrying the name of the candidate of his choice in each office row is lined up with the operat- ing bar. The vertical movement of the operating bar counts the vote on each of these slides, rings a bell, which notifies the election officer that a vote has been cast, and locks the machine against further voting. The election officer then moves a slide which resets the machine for the next voter. The machine is limited in its application because two or more candidates on the same office line cannot be voted for by the same voter, although the voter may be entitled to vote for more than one candidate. The U.S. Standard Voting Machine has had the most extensive use of any. A separate key is provided for each candidate, which keys are arranged on the keyboard of the machine in horizontal party rows and vertical office lines. Each key is shaped like a small pointer, which extends to the right from its pivot, and passes through the keyboard. The key swings downward from horizontal position and points to the name of the candidate below it. I he keys are lettered consecutively by party rows, and numbered by office rows, so that each key bears a number and a letter distinguish- ing it from all others. At the left of each party row is a party lever, by the movement of which all of the keys in that party row are simultaneously placed in voted position. In states that do not have party circles on the ballot these levers are omitted. Extending outward from the top of the machine is a rail, from which is suspended a curtain. Pivoted in the middle of the top of the machine is a lever, which extends outwardly and has a loose connexion with a curtain. The operation of the lever by a convenient handle enables the voter to close the curtain and unlock the machine for voting, after which the voter cannot retire from the machine until he has voted on the machine to a certain extent. The operation of any one of the party levers rings a bell to show that he has voted, and permits the reverse movement of the curtain lever, which counts the vote, resets the machine for the next voter and opens the curtain. Before opening the curtain the vote is not counted, and the voter can take back or change his vote. Repeating is prevented by a knob on the end of the machine, which locks the curtain lever against a second movement until it is released by the election officer. At the top of the machine is a paper roll on which the voter can write the names of candidates whose names dp not appear on the machine in con- nexion with keys. This roll is concealed by slides, one for each office line of keys, which slides must be lifted to expose the paper. An interlocking mechanism controls all the voting devices so that the voter cannot vote more than he is entitled to vote. These machines have been built large enough to provide for seven parties of sixty candidates each, and for thirty questions and amendments, a machine of such size carrying 480 counters, besides the total vote and protective counters. Ths Dean Machine has its keyboard placed horizontally, the keys being push buttons, which are arranged in party columns and transverse office rows. Party levers are provided by which the keys of the party are moved to voted position. Considerable strc-s is laid on the small keyboard of this machine, the peculiar type of counter used on it, and the separate card ballot for voting for unnominated candidates. Each state that adopts voting machines first enacts a law specifying the requirements that must be met in the construc- tion of the machines. These requirements are substantially the same in all the states, the laws being copied largely from the New York Voting Machine Law. The laws require in general that the machine shall give the voter all the facilities for expressing his choice which the Australian ballot gives him, and further require that the machine shall prevent those mistakes or frauds, which if made on an Australian ballot would invalidate it. Many of the states have special requirements, to meet which many ingenious features have been provided on the various machines. Among these is the group of 1 8 supervisors in San Francisco, for which office as many as 108 candidates have appeared upon one ballot, out of which the machine must permit the voter to vote any 1 8 and no more, regardless of the sequence in which they are selected, or the position in which they occur. Another of these local features is the primary election feature required by Minnesota, in which state the various parties must hold their primary election at the same time and on the same machine. The voter announcing the party of his preference finds the voting devices on the machine of all other parties locked against him, but the voting devices of his own party are open to his use. Still another is the lockout, by which the voter of limited voting franchises is prevented from voting for the candidates of certain offices. Another is the endorsed candidate in a group. Here the same candidate's name is provided with two or more voting devices in a group wherein the voter is allowed to vote for two or more candidates. Special provision must then be made to keep voters from voting twice for the same candidate. As to the important benefits attending the use of machines, there can be mentioned accuracy both in the casting and the counting of the vote, speed in getting in returns, and economy in holding elections. The improvement in accuracy is shown by the fact that the vote for each office usually runs 99% or more of the highest possible vote that could be registered by the number of voters that have voted. Speed is shown by the fact that in the city of Buffalo, with 60,000 voters voting on election day, the complete returns, including the vote on over 100 candidates for the whole city, have been collected, tabulated and announced within 75 minutes from the closing of the polls, Economy is shown by the fact that although these machines are used but one or two days in each year, election expenses are reduced to such an extent that the machines pay for them- selves in five or six elections. This is partly due to the smaller number of precincts necessary and the smaller number of election officers in each precinct and the shorter hours that they must work. The city of Buffalo has a dozen or more precincts, in each of which 800 voters or more are voted in an election day of ten hours, and in that city as many as 1041 voters have voted in one election day on one machine (F. KE.) VOTKINSK— VOW 219 VOTKINSK, a town and iron-works, in the Russian govern- ment of Vyatka, 40 m. N. of Sarapul and 8 m. W. from the Kama, founded in 1756. Pop. 21,000. Votkinsk was formerly one of the chief government establishments for the construc- tion of steamers for the Caspian, as well as of locomotives ihe Siberian railway, and it has long been renowned for its excellent tarantasses (driving vehicles) and other smaller iron-wares, as well as for its knitted goods. Its agricultural machinery is known throughout Russia. VOUCHER (from " to vouch," to warrant, answer for, O. Fr. her, to cite, call in aid, Lat. vocare, to call, summon), any document in writing which confirms the truth of accounts or estab- lishes other facts, more particularly a receipt or other evidence in writing which establishes the fact of the payment of money. VOUET, SIMON (1590-1649), French painter, was born at Paris on the gth of January 1500. He passed many years in Italy, where he married, and established himself at Rome, \ing there a high reputation as a portrait painter. Louis XIII. recalled him to France and lodged him in the Louvre with the title of First Painter to the Crown. All royal work for the palaces of the Louvre and the Luxembourg was placed in his hands; the king became his pupil; he formed a large .•I, and renewed the traditions of that of Fcntainebleau. Among his scholars was the famous Le Brun. Vouet was an exceedingly skilful painter, especially in decoration, and executed important works of this class for Cardinal Richelieu (Rueil and Palais Royal) and other great nobles. His better easel pictures bear a curious resemblance to those of Sassoferrato. Almost everything he did was engraved by his sons-in-law Tortebat and Dorigny. VOUSSOIR (Ger. Wolbeslein), the French term used by architects for the wedge-shaped stones or other material with which the arch (q.v.) is constructed; the lowest stone on each side is termed, the springer (Fr. coussinet sommier) and the upper one at the crown of the arch the keystone (Fr. daveau). VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE), a transaction between a man and a god. whereby the former undertakes in the future to render some service or gift to the god or devotes something valuable now and here to his use. The god on his part is reckoned to be going to grant or to have granted already some special favour to his votary in return for the promise made or service declared. Different formalities and ceremonies may in different religions attend the taking of a vow, but in all the wrath of heaven or of hell is visited upon one who breaks it. A vow has to be distinguished, firstly, from other and lower ways of persuading or constraining supernatural powers to give what man desires and to help him in time of need; and secondly, from the ordered ritual and regularly recurring ceremonies of religion. These two distinctions must be examined a little more at length. It would be an abuse of language to apply the term vow to the uses of imitative magic, e.g. to the action of a barren woman among the Battas of Sumatra, who in order to become a mother makes a wooden image of a child and holds it in her Up. For in such rites no prominence is given to the idea — even if it exists — of a personal relation between the petitioner and the supernatural power. The latter is, so to speak, mechanically constrained to act by the spell or magical rite; the forces liberated in fulfilment, not of a petition, but of a are not those of a conscious will, and therefore no thanks arc due from the wisher in case he is successful. The deities, however, to whom vows are made or discharged are already personal beings, capable of entering into contracts or covenants with man, of understanding the claims which his vow establishes on their benevolence, and of valuing his gratitude; conversely, in the taking of a vow the petitioner's piety and spiritual attitude have begun to outweigh those merely ritual details of the ceremony which in magical rites are all-important. Sometimes the old magical usage survives side by side with the more developed idea of a personal power to be approached in prayer. For example, in the Maghrib (in North Africa), in time of drought the maidens of Mazouna carry every evening in pro- cession through the streets a doll called gkonja, really a dressed- up wooden spoon, symbolizing a pre-Islamic rain-spirit. Often one of the girls carries on her shoulders a sheep, and her com- panions sing the following words: — " Rain, fall, and I will give you my kid. He has a black head; he neither bleats Nor complains; he says not, ' I am cold.' Rain, who fillest the skins, Wet our raiment. Rain, who feedest the rivers, Overturn the doors of our houses." Here we have a sympathetic rain charm, combined with a prayer to the rain viewed as a personal goddess and with a promise or vow to give her the animal. The point of the promise lies of course in the fact that water is in that country stored and carried in sheep-skins.1 Secondly, the vow is quite apart from established cults, and is not provided for in the religious calendar. The Roman vow (votum), as W. W. Fowler observes in his work The Roman Festivals (London, 1899), p. 346, " was the exception, not the rule; it was a promise made by an individual at some critical moment, not the ordered and recurring ritual of the family or the State." The vow, however, contained so large an element of ordinary prayer that in the Greek language one and the same word (evxij) expressed both. The characteristic mark of the vow, as Suidas in his lexicon and the Greek Church fathers remark, was that it was a promise either of things to be offered to God in the future and at once consecrated to Him in view of their being so offered, or of austerities to be undergone. For offering and austerity, sacrifice and suffering, are equally calculated to appease an offended deity's wrath or win his goodwill. The Bible affords many examples of vows. Thus in Judges xi. Jephthah " vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, If thou wilt indeed deliver the children of Ammon into my hand, then it shall be that whosoever cometh forth out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, it shall be the Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt-offering." In the sequel it is his own daughter who so meets him, and he sacrifices her after a respite of two months granted her in order to " bewail her virginity upon the mountains." A thing or person thus vowed to the deity became holy or taboo; and for it, as the above story indicates, nothing could be substituted. It belonged to once to the sanctuary or to the priests who re- presented the god. In the Jewish religion, the latter, under certain conditions, denned in Leviticus xxvii., could permit it to be redeemed. But to substitute an unclean for a clean beast which had been vowed, or an imperfect victim for a flawless one, was to court with certainty the divine displeasure. It is often difficult to distinguish a vow from an oath. Thus in Acts xxiii. 21, over forty Jews, enemies of Paul, bound themselves, under a curse, neither to eat nor to drink till they had slain him. In the Christian Fathers we hear of vows to abstain from flesh diet and wine. But of the abstentions observed by votaries, those which had relation to the barber's art were the commonest. Wherever individuals were concerned to create or confirm a tie connecting them with a god, a shrine or a particular religious circle, a hair-offering was in some form or other imperative. They began by polling their locks at the shrine and left them as a soul-token in charge of the god, and never polled them afresh until the vow was fulfilled. So Achilles consecrated his hair to the river Spercheus and vowed not to cut it till he should return safe from Troy; and the Hebrew Nazarite, whose strength resided in his flowing locks, only cut them off and burned them on the altar when the days of his vow were ended, and he could return to ordinary life, having achieved his mission. So in Acts xviii. 18 Paul " had shorn his head in Cenchreae, for he had a vow." In Acts xxi. 23 we hear of four Jews who, having a vow on them, had their heads shaved at Paul's expense. Among the ancient Chatti, as Tacitus relates (Germanic, 31) , young men allowed their hair and beards to grow, and vowed to court danger in that guise 1 Professor A. Be\ in paper Quflque riles pour obtenir la pluie, in xrr™* Congrts des Orienlaiistes (Alger, 1905). 220 VOZNESENSK— VRIENDT until they each had slain an enemy. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, ed. 1001, p. 483) with much probability explains such usages from the widespread primitive belief that a man's life lurks in his hair, so that the devotee being consecrated or taboo to a god, his hair must be retained during the period of taboo or purification (as it is called in Acts xxi. 26) lest it be dissipated and profaned. The hair being part and parcel of the votary, its profanation would profane him and break the taboo. The same author remarks that this is why, when the hair of a Maori chief was cut, it was, being like the rest of his person sacred or taboo, collected and buried in a sacred place or hung on a tree. And we meet with the same scruple in the initiation rite, called axJJMa, of Eastern monks. First, the novice is care- fully denuded of the clothes, shoes and headgear, which he wore in the world, and which, being profane or unclean, would violate the taboo about to be set on him. His hair is then polled cross- wise by way of consecrating it; and in some forms of the rite the presiding monk, called " the father of the hair," collects the shorn locks and deposits them under the altar or in some other safe and sacred place. Greek nuns used to keep the hair thus shorn off, weave it into girdles, and wear it for the rest of their lives round their waists, where close to their holy persons there was no risk of its being defiled by alien contact. The rest of this rite of Cheremisses 5 %, and Tatars 31 %, the remainder being Bashkirs, Teptyars and Permyaks. The Votyaks (Otyaks), a Finnish tribe, call themselves Ot, Ut or Ud, and the Tatars call them Ar, so that they may possibly be akin to the Ars of the Yenisei. They are middle-sized, with fair hair and eyes, often red-haired; and the general structure of the face and skull is Finnish. By their dialect they belong to the same branch as the Permyaks. The government is divided into eleven districts, the chief towns of which are Vyatka, Elabuga, Glazov, Kotelnich, Malmyzh, Nolinsk, Orlov, Sarapul, Slobodsk, Urzhum and Yaransk. Izhevsk and Votkinsk, or Kamsko-Votkinsk, have important ironworks. Some 55% of the surface is covered with forests, two-thirds of which belong to the crown, and hunting (especially squirrel-hunting) and fishing are of commercial importance. The peasants, who form 89% cf the population, own 44% of the whole government, the crown 53 % and private persons 2 %. The soil is fertile, especially in the valleys of the south. Vyatka is one of the chief grain- producing governments of Russia. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Flax and hemp are extensively cultivated, and large numbers of cattle are kept, but they are mostly of inferior breed. The government has a race of good ponies that are widely exported. Domestic industries occupy large numbers of the inhabitants. The principal manufacturing establishments are tanneries, distilleries, ironworks, chemical works, glass factories, cotton and steam flour-mills, and hardware, machinery, paper and fur-dressing works. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.) VYATKA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the Vyatka river, 304 m. by rail W.N.W. of Perm. Pop. 24,782. It is built on the steep hills which rise above the river and at their base. Its old walls have been demolished, and its old churches built anew. It is an episcopal see and has a fine cathedral. Its manufactures include silver and copper wares, and ecclesiastical ornaments, and it has an important trade in corn, leather, tallow, candles, soap, wax, paper and furs (exported), and in manufactured and grocery wares (imported). Vyatka was founded in 1181 by the Novgorodians, as Khlynov. In 1391 it was plundered by the Tatars, and again in 1477. . Moscow annexed Khlynov in 1489. It received the name of Vyatka in 1 780. VYAZMA, a town of Russia, in the government of Smolensk, 109 m. by rail E.N.E. of the town of Smolensk. Pop. 15,676. It was a populous place as early as the nth century, and carried on a lively trade with Narva on the Gulf of Finland. In the isth century it fell under the dominion of Lithuania, but was retaken by the Russians. The Poles took it again in 1611, and kept it till the peace of 1634. It is now an important centre for trade. It has a cathedral, dating from 1596. VYERNYI (formerly ALMATY), a town and fort of Asiatic Russia, capital of the province of Semiryechensk, 50 m. N. of Lake Issyk-kul, at the northern foot of the Trans-Hi Ala-tau Mountains, at an altitude of 2440 ft. Pop. 24,798. Founded in 1854, it is well-built, provided with boulevards and sur- rounded by luxuriant gardens. It has a cathedral, being an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, a school of gardening and sericulture, a public library, and a few distilleries, tanneries and oil works. Situated at the intersection of two roads — from Kulja to Tashkent, and from Semipalatinsk to Kashgar — Vyernyi carries on an active trade in wheat, rice, corn, tea, oil and tobacco. It was the centre of a remarkable earthquake on the 9th of June 1887. VYRNWY (Fyrnuiy), an artificial lake or reservoir in the north- west of Montgomeryshire, N. Wales, constructed for the Liver- pool water-supply. It was formed by damming the river Vyrnwy, which runs through Montgomeryshire and joins the Severn above Shrewsbury (see WATER-SUPPLY). VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, 74 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tver. Pop. 16,722. The place owes its importance to its situation in the centre of the Vyshne-Volotsk navigation system (540 m. long, constructed by Peter the Great in 1703-9), which connects the upper Volga with the Neva. The portage (volok) is less than 17 m. between the Tvertsa, a tributary of the Volga, and the Tsna, which flows into the Msta and the Volkhov (Lake Ladoga) ; but boats now prefer the Mariinsk system. W— WAAGEN, G. F. 223 Wthe twenty-third letter of the English alphabet, shows its origin in its name; it is but VV, and, as the name shows, V had the vowel value of u, while the " double u " was employed for the consonant value. In German the same symbol w is called Vey, because in that language it has the value of the English », while the German v ( Vau, fow in pronunciation) is used with the same value as/. In the English of the gth century the MM of the old texts (and the u of the Northern) was found not to repre- sent the English w satisfactorily, and a symbol /» was adopted from the Runic alphabet. This survived sporadically as late as the end of the 1 3th century, but long before that had been generally again replaced by MM (w only in Early Middle English) and by w. For to the earliest English printers had a type, but French printers had not; hence a book like the Roman Catholic version of the \ew Testament printed at Rheims in 1582 prints w with two »'s ide by side. Throughout the history of English the sound s to have remained the same — the consonantal u. For this value as well as for u Latin always used only V; in Greek, except in a few dialects, the consonant value was early lost (see under F). W is produced by leaving a very small opening between the slightly protruded lips while the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate and the nasal passage closed. The ordinary w is voiced, but according to some authorities the w in the combination wh (really hw) is not, in -when, what, &c., even when the h is no longer audible. The combination VVH (hw) represents the Indo-European q* when changed according to Grimm's law from a stop to a spirant. Thus what corresponds philologically to the Latin quod and the first syllable of the Greek jro$-cnr6s. In Southern English the h sound has now been generally dropped. In Scotland, along the line of former contact with Gaelic, it changes into /: fite=white, forl= whorl; but before i (ee) it remains in wheel. In Early English w appeared not only before r as in write, but also before / in wlisp (lisp). In write, wring, &c., the w is now silent, though dialectically, e.g. in Aberdcenshire, it has changed to v and is still pronounced, vreei, vring, &c. In English and in other languages there is considerable difficulty in pronouncing w before long « sounds: hence it has disappeared in pronunciation in two (lu) , but survives in Scotch two, though otherwise the difficulty is more noticeable in Scottish dialects than in literary English, as in " oo " =wool and in the Scottish pronunciation of English words like wood as 'ood. (P. Gi.) WA, a wild tribe inhabiting the north-east frontier of Upper Burma. Their country lies to the east of the Northern Shan States, between the Salween river and the state of Keng-Tflng, extending for about 100 m. along the Salween and for consider- ably less than half that distance inland to the watershed between that river and the Mekong. The boundaries may be roughly said to be the Salween on the W., the ridge over the Namting valley on the N., the hills E. of the Nam Hka on the eastern and southern sides, while the country ends in a point formed by the junction of the Nam Hka with the Salween. The Was claim to have inhabited the country where they now are since the beginning of time; but it appears more probable that they were the aborigines of the greater part of northern Siam at least, if not of Indo-China, since old records and travellers (e.g. Captain McLeod in 1837) speak of their having been the original inhabitants with small communities left behind from Kfng Tung down to Chiengmai; while the state of Keng Tung, just S.E. of the Wa country, has still scattered villages of Was and traditions that they were once spread all over the country. Their fortified village sites too are still to be found covered over with jungle. The people are short and dark-featured, with negritic features, and some believe that they are allied to the Andamanese and the Selungs inhabiting the islands of the Mergui archipelago, who have been driven back, or retreated, northwards to tbe wild country they now inhabit; but their language proves them to belong to the M&n-Khmer family. They are popularly divided into Wild Was and Tame Was. The Wild Was are remarkable as the best authenticated instance of head-hunters in the British Empire. They were formerly supposed to be also cannibals; but it is now known that they are not habitual cannibals, though it is possible that human flesh may be eaten as a religious function at the annual harvest feast. Their head-hunting habits have an animistic basis. In the opinion of the Wa the ghost of a dead man goes with his skull and hangs about its neighbourhood, and so many skulls posted up outside his village gate mean so many watch- dog umbrae attached to the village, jealous of their own preserves and intolerant of interlopers from the invisible world. Thus every addition to the collection of skulls is an additional safe- guard against ill-affected demons, and a head-hunting expedition is not undertaken, as was once thought, from motives of cannibal- ism or revenge, but solely to secure the very latest thing in charms as a protection against the powers of darkness. Outside every village is an avenue of human skulls, amid groves con- spicuous from long distances. These consist of strips of the primeval jungle, huge forest trees left standing where all the remaining country is cleared for cultivation. The undergrowth is usually cut away, and these avenues are commonly but not always in deep shade. Along one side (which side apparently does not matter) is a line of posts with skulls fitted into niches facing towards the path. The niche is cut sometimes in front, sometimes in the back of the post. In the latter case there is a round hole in front, through which sometimes only the teeth and empty eye-sockets, sometimes the whole skull, grins a ghastly smile. Most villages count their heads by tens or twenties, but some of them have hundreds, especially when the grove lies between several large villages, who combine or run their collections into one another. The largest known avenue is that between Hsiing Ramang and Hsan Htung. Here there must be a couple of hundred or more skulls; but it is not certain that even this is the largest. It is thought necessary to add some skulls to this pathway every year if the crops are to be good. The heads of distinguished and pious men and of strangers are the most efficacious. The head-hunting season lasts through March and April, and it is when the Wa hill fields are being got ready for planting that the roads in the vicinity become dangerous to the neighbouring Shans. The little that is known of the practice seems to hint at the fact that the victim selected was primarily a harvest victim. A Wild Wa village is a very formid- able place to attack, except for civilized weapons of offence. All the villages are perched high up on the slope of the hills, usually on a knoll or spine-like spur, or on a narrow ravine near the crest of the ridge. The only entrance is through a long tunnel. There is sometimes only one, though usually there are two, at opposite sides of the village. This tunnelled way is a few inches over 5 ft. high and not quite so wide, so that two persons cannot pass freely in it, and it sometimes winds slightly, so that a gun cannot be fired up it; moreover, the path is frequently studded with pegs in a sort of dice arrangement, to prevent a rush. None of the tunnels is less than 30 yds. long, and some are as much as 100 yds. Round each village is carried an earthen rampart, 6 to 8 ft. high and as many thick, and this is overgrown with a dense covering of shrubs, thin bushes and cactuses, so as to be quite impenetrable. Outside this is a deep ditch which would effectually stop a rush. These preparations indicate the character of the inhabitants, which is so savage and suspicious that the Wa country is still unadministered and naturally does not appear in the 1901 census returns. The total number of the Wa race is estimated at more than 50,000. 0- G. Sc.) WAAOEN, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH (1794-1868), German art historian, was born in Hamburg, the son of a painter and nephew of the poet Ludwig Tieck. Having passed through the college 224 WAAGEN, W. H.— WACHSMUTH of Hirschberg, he volunteered for service in the Napoleonic campaign of 1813-1814, and on his return attended the lectures at Breslau University. He devoted himself to the study pf art, which he pursued in the great European galleries, first in Ger- many, then in Holland and Italy. A pamphlet on the brothers Van Eyck led to his appointment to the directorship of the newly founded Berlin Museum in 1832. The result of a journey to London and Paris was an important publication in three volumes, Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in England und Paris (Berlin, 1837- 1839), which became the basis for his more important The Treasures of Art in Great Britain (London, 1854 and 1857). In 1844 he was appointed professor of art history at the Berlin University, and in 1 86 1 he was called to St Petersburg as adviser in the arranging and naming of the pictures in the imperial collection. On his return he published a book on the Hermitage collection (Munich, 1864). Among his other publications are some essays on Rubens, Mantegna and Signorelli; Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in Deutschland and Die vornehmsten Kunstdenkmaler in Wien. He died on a visit to Copenhagen in 1868. In the light of more recent research his writings are not of much value as regards trustworthy criticism, though they are useful as catalogues of art treasures in private collections at the time when they were compiled. His opinions were greatly respected in England, where he was invited to give evidence before the royal commission inquiring into the condition and future of the National Gallery. WAAGEN, WILHELM HEINRICH (1841-1900), German palaeontologist, was born at Munich on the 23rd of June 1841. He was educated at Munich and Zurich, and through the influence of A. Oppel he commenced to study the rocks and fossils of the Jurassic system, and published an essay in 1865, Versuch einer Attgemeinen Classification der Schichten des oberen Jura. In 1870 he joined the staff of the Geological Survey of India, and was appointed palaeontologist in 1874, but was obliged to retire through ill-health in 1 87 5. He published important monographs in the Palaeontologia Indica on the palaeontology of Cutch (1873- 1876) and the Salt Range (1879-1883), dealing in the last-named work -vjth fossils from the Lower Cambrian to the Trias. In 1879 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology in the German technical high school at Prague, and he became a contributor to the continuation of Barrande's great work on the Systeme Silurien de Boheme. In 1890 he became professor of palaeontology at the university of Vienna, and in 1898 the LyeU medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. He died in Vienna on the 24th of March 1900. WABASK, a city and the county-seat of Wabash county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 42 m. S.W. of Fort Wayne. Pop. (1890) 5105, (1900) 8618, of whom 498 were foreign-born and 134 negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 8687. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway (which has extensive shops here), by the Wabash railway, and by interurban electric lines. It has a public library, a Memorial Hall (1897), erected to the memory of Federal soldiers in the Civil War and occupied by the local " camp " of the Grand Army of the Republic, a Masonic temple, a county hospital and two parks. The city is in a fertile agricultural region, and has a considerable trade in grain and produce. Among its manufactures are furniture, agricultural implements and foundry and machine-shop products. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,202,932 (31-2 % more than in 1900). Wabash was settled about 1834, in- corporated as a village in 1854, and first chartered as a city in 1866. It was one of the first cities in the world to be lighted with electricity, a lighting plant being established hi February r88o. WAGE, HENRY (1836- ), English divine, was born in London on the loth of December 1836, and educated at Marl- borough, Rugby, King's College, London, and Brasenose College, Oxford. He was ordained in the Church of England in 1861, and held various curacies in London, being chaplain at Lincoln's Inn in 1872 and preacher in 1880. From 1875 to 1896 he was prominently connected with King's College, London, where he was professor of ecclesiastical history, and subsequently (1883) principal. Both as preacher and writer Dr Wace, who took his D.D. degree in 1883, became conspicuous in the theological world. He was Boyle lecturer in 1874 and 1875, and Bampton lecturer in 1879; and besides publishing several volumes of sermons, he was co-editor of the Dictionary of Christian Biography (1877-1887), and editor of The Speaker's Commentary on the Apocrypha. He took a leading part as the champion of historic orthodoxy in the controversies with contemporary Rationalism in all its forms, and firmly upheld the importance of denomi- national education and of the religious test at King's College; and when the test was abolished in 1902 be resigned his seat on the council. In 1881 he was given a prebendal stall at St Paul's, and in 1889 was appointed a chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria. When he resigned the principalship of King's College in 1896 he was made rector of St Michael's, Cornhill; and in 1903 he became dean of Canterbury, in succession to Dr Farrar. WACE, (?) ROBERT (noo?-ii7S?), Anglo-Norman chronicler, was born in Jersey. He studied at Caen ; he became personally known to Henry I., Henry II., and the latter's eldest son, Prince Henry; from Henry II. he received a prebend at Bayeux and other gifts. Except for these facts he is known to us only as the author of two metrical chronicles in the Norman-French lan- guage. Of these the earlier in date is the Roman de Brut, com- pleted hi 1155, which is said to have been dedicated to Eleanor of Aquitaine (ed. A. J. V. Le Roux de Lincy, 2 vols., Rouen, 1836-1838). This is a free version of the Latin Historia Britonum by Geoffrey of Monmouth, in rhyming octosyllables; it was rendered into English, shortly after 1 200, by Layamon, a mass- priest of Worcestershire, and is also largely used in the rhymed English chronicle of Robert Mannyng. Wace's second work, the Roman de Rou, written between 1160 and 1174, has a less fabulous character than the Brut, being a chronicle of the Norman dukes from Rollo to Robert Curthose. It has been ably dissected by Gustav Korting (Uber die Quetten des Roman de Rou, Leipzig, 1867), who shows that it is mainly based upon Dudo and William of Jumieges. There is also reason for thinking that Wace used the Gesta regum of William of Malmesbury. Where Wace follows no ascertainable source he must be used with caution. Un- doubtedly he used oral tradition; but he also seems to have given free play to his imagination. The Roman de Rou is written in rhyming octosyllables, varied by assonanced alexandrines. It has been edited by F. Pluquet (2 vols. and supplement, Rouen, 1827-1829) and more completely by H. Andresen (2 vols., Heilbronn, 1877-1879). (H. W. C. D.) WACHSMUTH, CHARLES (1820-1896), American palaeonto- logist, was born in Hanover, Germany, on the I3th of September 1829. Educated as a lawyer hi his native city, he abandoned the profession on account of ill-health, and in 1852 went to New York as agent for a Hamburg shipping house. Two years later, for reasons of health, he removed to Burlington, Iowa, U.S.A., where he settled. Here he was attracted by the fossils, and especially the crinoids, of the Burlington Limestone, and in a few years possessed a fine collection. In 1864 he made acquaint- ance with L. Agassiz, and in the following year paid a visit to Europe, where he studied the crinoids in the British Museum and other famous collections. He now decided to devote all his energies to the elucidation of the crinoidea, and with signal success. He made further extensive collections, and supplied specimens to the Agassiz museum at Cambridge, U.S.A., and the British Museum. Becoming acquainted with Frank Springer ( 1 848- ) , a lawyer at Burlington, he stirred up his enthusiasm in the subject, and together they continued the study of crinoids and published a series of important papers. These include " Discovery of the Ventral Structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and Conse- quent Modifications in the Classification of the Crinoidea " (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1889); " The Perisomic Plates of the Crinoids " (Ibid., 1891); and a monograph on " The North American Crinoidea Camerata," published, after the death of Wachsmuth, in the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard (1897). Of this last-named work a detailed WACO— WADAI 225 review and analysis was published by F. A. Bather, of the British Museum, in the Geol. Mag. for 1898-1899. Wachsmuth died on the 7th of February 1896. Obituary (with portrait) by F. A. Bather, Geol. Mag. (April 1896). WACO, a city and the county-seat of McLennan county, Texas, nearly in the centre of the state, on both sides of the Brazos river, about 100 m. S. by W. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 14,445; (1900) 20,686, of whom 5826 were negroes; (1910 census) 26,425. Waco is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and by other railways. Waco is the seat of Baylor University (co-educational) and of the Texas Christian University (Christian; co-educational). Baylor University was founded at Independence, Texas, by the Texas Union Baptist Association, in 1845, and was consolidated in 1886 with Waco University (Baptist, 1861, founded by Dr Rufus C. Burleson, a former president of Baylor University). It was named in honour of Robert E. B. Baylor (1793-1874), a representative in Congress from Alabama in 1830-1831, and one of its founders. In 1908- 1909 it had 40 instructors and 1296 students (664 women), of whom 647 were in the college. The Texas Christian University was founded in 1873 at Thorp's Springs as a private school, chartered as Add Ran College, transferred to the Christian Churches of Texas in 1889, and removed to Waco in 1895. Its present name was adopted in 1902, the name Add Ran College being retained for the college of arts and sciences. In 1908-1909 the university had 26 instructors and 379 students (279 in the college of arts and sciences). Waco is situated in a fertile farming region. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,979,800. The city was named after the Waco (or Hueco) Indians (Caddoan stock), who had a large village here until 1830, when they were nearly exterminated by the Cherokees; in 1855 they removed to a reservation, and after 1859 became incor- porated with the Wichita. The first white settlement was made in 1849. Waco was incorporated as a town in 1856; in 1909 the administration was entrusted to a mayor and four commissioners. WAD, a black, earthy mineral consisting mainly of hydrated manganese dioxide; of importance as an ore. Being an amor- phous substance, it varies considerably in chemical composi- tion, and contains different impurities often in large amount. A variety containing much cobalt oxide is called " asbolite," while " lampadite " is a cupriferous variety. It is very soft, readily soiling the fingers, and may be considered as an earthy form of psilomelane (q.v.). It results from the decomposition of other manganese minerals, and is often deposited in marshes (" bog mangan-ese ") or by springs. The name wad is of uncertain origin, and has been applied also to graphite. (L. J. S.) WADAI, a country of north central Africa, bounded N. by Borku and Enndi, S. by the Ubangi sultanates, W. and S.W. by Kanem and Bagirmi, and E. by Darfur. Formerly an independent Mahommedan sultanate, it was in 1909 annexed to French Equatorial Africa (French Congo). Wadai has an area estimated at 150,000 sq. m., and a population of 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. The general level of the country is about isooft. North, north-east, south-west and in the centre are ranges of hills rising another 1000 ft. West and north-west the fall to the Sahara is gradual. Here occur remarkable sand-ridges of fantastic shape^— hollow mounds, pyra- mids, crosses, &c. — which are characteristic of the Libyan desert. There are also sandstone rocks of varying colours — red, blue, white, black, &c. — presenting the aspect of ruined castles, ramparts and churches. North-west is a wide district of dreary plain — part of the clay zone which stretches from the middle Niger to the Nile — covered with thorn bush and dum palms. The central and eastern regions are the most fertile, and contain large forest areas. The country belongs to the Chad drainage area, though it is possible that the Bahr-el-Ghazal (of the Chad system) may afford a connexion with the Nile (see SHARI). The streams which rise in the north-eastern districts, of which the Batha (over 300 m. long) is the largest, flow west, the Batha ending in a depression, some 200 m. E. of Lake Chad, called Fittri. Another stream, the Wadi Rime, with a more northerly course than the Batha, goes in the direction of Chad, but ends in swamps in the clayey soil. These rivers are intermittent, and after seasons of drought Fittri is completely dry. In the dry season water is obtained from wells 250 to 300 ft. deep. The rivers of Dar Runga flow westward towards the Shari, but, save the Bahr Salamat, none reaches it. They only contain water in the rainy season. About loo m. above the' Salamat-Shari confluence is Lake Iro, joined to the Salamat by a short channel. In the forests xxvm. 8 are large herds of elephants, and hippopotami abound along the river-beds. In the north are the camel and the ostrich. Among the trees is a species of wild coffee which reaches 50 to 60 ft. and yields berries of excellent quality. The cotton plant is indigenous. Inhabitants and Trade. — The inhabitants consist of negroid and negro tribes, Arabs, Fula, Tibbu and half-castes. The Maba, the dominant race, are said to be of Nubian origin; they are believed not to number more than 750,000, and live chiefly in the north-eastern district. They are in political alliance with the Arab tribes, known in Wadai as Zoruk (dark) and Homr (red). The Maba have a reputation for pride, valour, cruelty, drunken- ness and barbaric splendour. The capital, Abeshr, is in the N.E., in about 21° E., 13° 50' N. Thence a caravan route crosses the Sahara via the Kufra oases to Benghazi in Barca. Another trade route goes east through Darfur to Khartum. The people possess large numbers of horses, cattle, sheep and goats. Maize, durra, cotton and indigo are cultivated, and cloth is woven. Ivory and ostrich feathers, the chief articles of export, are taken to Tripoli by the desert route, together with small quantities of coffee and other produce. There is a trade in cattle, horses and coffee with the countries to the south. Until the French conquest Wadai was a great centre of the slave trade. Slaves were obtained by raiding and in the form of tribute from Bagirmi, Kanem and other countries once dependent on Wadai. The slaves were sent chiefly to Barca. ' Wadai was also notorious for its traffic in eunuchs. History. — Situated between the Sahara and the dense forest lands of equatorial Africa, Wadai early became a meeting ground of negro and Arab culture. Eastern influences and the Mahom- medan religion ultimately obtained predominance, though the sovereignty of the country reverted to the negro race. It was sometimes tributary to and sometimes the overlord of the neigh- bouring countries, such as Bagirmi and Kanem. It was made known to Europe by the writings of the Arab geographers, but it was not until Nachtigal's visit in 1873 that accurate knowledge of the land and people was obtained. About 1640 a Maba chieftain named Abd-el-Kerim conquered the country, driving out the Tunjur, a dynasty of Arabian origin. Thereafter Wadai, notorious as a great slave-raiding state, suffered from many civil and foreign wars. Mahommed Sherif, sultan from 1838 to 1858, introduced Senussiism into the country. In the last decade of the igth century the French advancing from the Congo and from the Niger made their influence felt in Wadai, and by the Anglo-French declaration of the 2ist of March 1899 Wadai was recognized as within the French sphere. That state was then torn by civil wars. The Sultan Ibrahim (see SENUSSI) was murdered in 1900, and Ahmed Ghazili became sultan. He was warned by the Sheikh Senussi el Mahdi of the danger arising from the approach of the Christians (i.e. the French), but he had to meet the opposition of the princes Doud Murra (a brother of Ibrahim) and Acyl. Ahmed Ghazili and Doud Murra, though of the royal family, had non-Maba mothers; Acyl, a grandson of the Sultan Mahommed Sherif, was of pure Maba descent. Acyl, ordered to be blinded by Ahmed Ghazili, fled to Kelkel6, west of Lake Fittri, and entered into friendly relations with the French. A few months later (Dec. 1901) Ahmed was dethroned. With Doud Murra, who then became sultan, the French endeavoured to come to an under- standing, and in November 1003 the Wadaians agreed to recog- nize the possession of Bagirmi, Kanem, &c., by France. How- ever, in the spring of 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation of the Senussites, the Wadaians attacked French posts in the Shari region and carried off many slaves. At Tomba (i3th of May 1904) they suffered a severe defeat, but they renewed their raids, and there was continual fighting on the west and south- west borders of Wadai during 1905-1907. The fighting resulted in strengthening the position of the French and of their ally Acyl, and in 1908 Doud Murra, again, it is stated, at the instigation of the Senussites, proclaimed the jihad. His army was split up under aguids (feudal lords), and was beaten in detail by the French. At Joue in the Batha valley (June 16, 1008) Comman- dant Julien inflicted enormous losses on the enemy. In May 226 WADDING— WADE, B. F. 1909 Captain Fiegenschuh, with a small force of tirailleurs, and Acyl's contingents, advanced up the Batha to a place within 15 m. of Abeshr, where, on the ist of June, the enemy were defeated. The next day another fight took place close to Abeshr. The Wadaians were again put to flight and the town bombarded with cannon. Doud Murra with a small following fled north, and Abeshr was occupied by the French. The prince Acyl was subsequently placed on the throne, and, under French guidance, governed Wadai proper, Dar Sila, Dar Runga and other tributary states being directly governed by French residents. The war was not, however, ended by the occupation of Abeshr. Captain Fiegenschuh's column, operating south-east of Abeshr, was cut off by the Massalit Arabs near the Darfur frontier, but a punitive force retrieved this disaster in April following. While these operations were in progress, Lieut. Boyd Alexander (b. 1873), who had previously crossed from the Niger to the Nile, the first British explorer to enter Wadai, passed through Abeshr on his way to Darfur. At the station of Nyeri, in Dar Tama, on the Darfur border, he was murdered on the and of April 1910. In November ic,io a French column, 300 strong, under Colonel Moll, while operating in the Massalit country was at- tacked by 5000 men under Doud Murra and the sultan of the Massalit. The enemy was beaten off, but the French had over too casualties, including Colonel Moll killed. See G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., Berlin, 1879-1889); Captain Julien, " Le Dar Ouadai," Renseign. colon, comite.de I'Afrique fran^aise (1904); J. van Vollenhoven, " Le Voyage de Nachtigal au Ouadai," Renseign. colon. (1903) ; Captain Repoux, " Le Ouadai," B.S.G. Com. Bordeaux (1909) ; Commandant Bordeaux, " Deux Contre-rezzous dans 1'Ouaddai," La Geog. B.S.G. Paris (1908); A. Ferrier, " La Prise d'Abecher," L'Afrique francaise (1909); A. H. Keane. "Wadai," Travel and Exploration (July 1910); Sir H. H. Johnston, " Lieutenant Boyd Alexander," Geog. Jour. (July 1910) ; The Times, July 2ist, 1910 (details of Boyd Alexander's murder). See also SENUSSI. WADDING, LUKE (1588-1657), Irish Franciscan friar and historian, was born in Waterford in 1588 and went to study at Lisbon. He became a Franciscan in 1607, and in 1617 he was made president of the Irish College at Salamanca. The next year he went to Rome and stayed there till his death. He collected the funds for the establishment of the Irish College of St Isidore in Rome, for the education of Irish priests, opened 1625, and for fifteen years he was the rector. A voluminous writer, his chief work was the Annales Minorum in 8 folic vols. (1625-1654), re- edited in the i8th century and continued up to the year 1622; it is the classical work on Franciscan history. He published also a Bibliotheca of Franciscan writers, an edition of the works of Duns Scotus, and the first collection of the writings of St Francis of Assisi. (E. C. B.) WADDINGTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1826-1894), French statesman, was born at St Remi-sur-FAvre (Eure-et-Loir) on the nth of December 1826. He was the son of a wealthy Englishman who had established a large spinning factory in France and had been naturalized as a French subject. After receiving his early education in Paris, he was sent to Rugby, and thence proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was second classic and chancellor's medallist, and rowed for the university in the winning boat against Oxford. Returning to France, he devoted himself for some years to archaeological research. He undertook travels in Asia Minor, Greece and Syria, the fruits of which were published in two Memoires, crowned by the Institute, and in his Melanges de numismatique et de philologie (1861). Except his essay on " The Protestant Church in France," oublished in 1856 in Cambridge Essays, his remaining works are likewise archaeological. They include the Pastes de I' empire remain, and editions of Diocletian's edict and of Philippe Lebas's Voyage archtologique (1868-1877). He was elected in 1865 a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. After standing unsuccessfully for the department of the Aisne in 1865 and 1869, Waddington was returned by that constituency at the election of 1871. He was minister of public instruction in the short-lived cabinet of the igth of May 1873, and in 1876, having been elected senator for the Aisne, he was again entrusted by Dufaure with the ministry of public instruction, with which, as a Protestant, he was not permitted to combine the ministry of public worship. His most important project, a bill transferring the conferment of degrees to the state, passed the Chamber, but was thrown out by the Senate. He continued to hold his office under Jules Simon, with whom he was overthrown on the famous seize mai 1877. The triumph of the republicans at the general election brought him back to power in the following December as minister of foreign affairs under Dufaure. He was one of the French plenipotentiaries at the Berlin Congress. The cession of Cyprus to Great Britain was at first denounced by the French newspapers as a great blow to his diplomacy, but he obtained, in a conversation with Lord Salisbury, a promise that Great Britain in return would allow France a free hand in Tunis. Early in 1879 Waddington succeeded Dufaure as prime minister. Holding office by sufferance of Gambetta, he halted in an undetermined attitude between the radicals and the re- actionaries till the delay of urgent reforms lost him the support of all parties. He was forced on the 27th of December to retire from office. He refused the offer of the London embassy, and in 1880 was reporter of the committee on the adoption of the scrutin de lisle at elections, on which he delivered an adverse judgment. In 1883 he accepted the London embassy, which he continued to hold till 1893, showing an exceptional tenacity in defence of his country's interests. He died on the I3th of January 1894. His wife, an American lady, whose maiden name was Mary A. King, wrote some interesting recol- lections of their diplomatic experiences — Letters of a Diplomatist's Wife, 1883-1900 (New York, 1903), and Italian Letters (London, WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1800-1878), American states- man, was born near Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 27th of October 1800, of Puritan ancestry. He was reared on a farm, receiving little systematic education, and in 1821 he removed with his family to Andover, in the Western Reserve of Ohio. Here he spent two more years on a farm, and then, securing employment as a drover, worked his way to Philadelphia and finally to Albany, New York, where for two years he taught school, studied medicine, and was a labourer on the Erie Canal. Returning to Ohio in 1825, he studied law at Canfield, was ad- mitted to the bar in 1827, and began practice at Jefferson, Ashtabula county, where from 1831 to 1837 he was a law partner of Joshua R. Giddings, the anti-slavery leader. During 1837- 1839 and 1841-1843 he was a Whig member of the Ohio State Senate. From 1847 until 1851 he was a state district judge, and from 1851 until 1869 was a member of the United States Senate, first as an anti-slavery Whig and later as a Republican. In the Senate Wade was from the first an uncompromising opponent of slavery, his bitter denunciations of that institution and of the slaveholders receiving added force from his rugged honesty and sincerity. His blunt, direct style of oratory and his somewhat rough manners were characteristic. After the outbreak of the Civil War he was one of the most vigorous critics of the Lincoln administration, whose Ohio member, Salmon P. Chase. had long been a political rival. He advocated the immediate emancipation and arming of the slaves, the execution of prominent Southern leaders, and the wholesale confiscation of Confederate property. During 1861-1862 he was chairman of the important joint-committee on the conduct cf the war, and in 1862, as chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, was instrumental in abolishing slavery in the Federal Territories. In 1864, with H. W. Davis (q.v.), he secured the passage of the Wade-Davis Bill (for the reconstruction of the Southern States), the fundamental principle of which was that reconstruction was a legislative, not an executive, problem. This bill was passed by both houses of Congress, just before their adjournment, but President Lincoln withheld his signature, and on the 8th of July issued a proclamation explaining his course and defining his position. Soon afterward (Aug. 5) Wade and Davis published hi the New York Tribune the famous " Wade-Davis Manifesto," a vituperative document impugning the President's honesty of WADE, G.— WADE, SIR T. F. 227 purpose and attacking his leadership. As long as President Johnson promised severe treatment of the conquered South, \Vucle supported him, but when the President definitively adopted the more lenient policy of his predecessor, Wade became one of his most bitter and uncompromising opponents. In 1867 he was elected president pro tern, of the Senate, thus becoming acting vice-president. He voted for Johnson's conviction on his trial for impeachment, and for this was severely criticized, since, in the event of conviction, he would have become president; but Wade's whole course before and after the trial would seem to belie the charge that he was actuated by any such motive. After leaving the Senate he resumed his law practice, becoming attorney for the Northern Pacific railway, and in 1871 he was a member of President Grant's Santo Domingo Commission. He died at Jefferson, Ohio, on the 2nd of March 1878. His son, JAMES FRANKLIN WADE (b. 1843), was colonel of the 6th United States (coloured) cavalry during the Civil War, and attained the rank of major-general in the regular army in 1903, commanding the army in the Philippines in 1903-1904 See A. G. Riddle, Life of Benjamin F. Wode (Cleveland, Ohio, 1886). WADE, GEORGE (1673-1748), British field marshal, was the son of Jerome Wade of Kilavally, Westmeath, and entered the British army in 1690. He was present at Steiniirk in 1692, and in 1695 he became captain. In 1702 he served in Marlborough's army, earning particular distinction at the assault on the citadel of Liege, and in 1 703 he became successively major and lieutenant- colonel in his regiment (later the loth Foot). In 1704, with the temporary rank of colonel, he served on Lord Galway's staff in Portugal. Wade distinguished himself at the siege of Alcantara in 1706, in a rearguard action at Villa Nova in the same autumn (in which, according to Galway, his two battalions repulsed twenty-two allied squadrons), and at the disastrous battle of Almanza on the 25th of April 1707. He had now risen to the command of a brigade, and on the following ist of January (1707/8) he was promoted brigadier-general in the British army. His next service was as second in command to James (ist earl) Stanhope in the expedition to Minorca in 1708. In 1710 he was again with the main Anglo-allied army in Spain, and took part in the great battle of Saragossa on the 2oth of August, after which he was promoted major-general and given a command at home. The Jacobite outbreak of 1715 brought him into promin- ence in the new role of military governor. He twice detected important Jacobite conspiracies, and on the second occasion procured the arrest of the Swedish ambassador in London, Count Gyllenborg. In 1719 he was second in command of the land forces in the successful " conjunct " military and naval expedition to Vigo. In 1724 he was sent to the Highlands to make a thorough investigation of the country and its people, and two years later, having meantime been appointed com- mander-in-chief to give effect to his own recommendations, he began the system of metalled roads which is his chief title to fame, and is commemorated in the lines — " Had you seen these roads before they were made. You would lift up your hands and bless General Wade." In the course of this engineering work Wade superintended the construction of no less than 40 stone bridges. At the same time, slowly and with the tact that came of long experience, he disarmed the clans. In 1742 he was made a privy councillor and lieutenant-general of the ordnance, and in 1743 field marshal. In this year he commanded the British contingent in Flanders, and was associated in the supreme command with the duke d'Aremberg, the leader of the Austrian contingent. The cam- paign, as was to be expected when the enemy was of one nation, superior in numbers and led by Saxe, was a failure, and Wade, who was seventy years of age and in bad health, resigned the command in March 1744. George II. promptly made him commander-in-chief in England, and in that capacity Field Marshal Wade had to deal with the Jacobite insurrection of 1745, >n which he was utterly baffled by the perplexing rapidity of Prince Charles Edward's marches. On the appointment of the duke of Cumberland as commander-in-chief of the forces, Wade retired. He died on the I4th Df March 1748. WADE, THOMAS (1805-1875), English poet and dramatist, was born at Woodbridge, Suffolk, in 1805. He early went to London, where he began to publish verse of considerable merit under the inspiration of Byron, Keats and especially Shelley. He wrote some plays that were produced on the London stage with a certain measure of success, owing more perhaps to the acting of Charles and Fanny Kemble than to the merits of the dramatist. Wade frequently contributed verses to the maga- zines, and for some years he was editor as well as part-pro- prietor of Bell's Weekly Messenger. This venture proving financially unsuccessful, he retired to Jersey, where he edited the British Press, continuing to publish poetry from time to time until 1871. He died in Jersey on the igth of September 1875. His wife was Lucy Eager, a musician of some repute. The most notable of Wade's publications were: Tasso and the Sisters (1825), a volume of poems, among which " The Nuptials of Juno " in particular showed rare gifts of imagination, though like all Wade's work deficient in sense of melody and feeling for artistic form; Woman's Love (1828), a play produced at Covent Garden; The Phrenologists, a farce produced at Covent Garden in 1830; The Jew of Arragon, a play that was " howled from the stage " at Covent Garden in 1830 owing to its exaltation of the Jew; Mimdi el cordis carmina (1835), a volume of poems, many of which had previously appeared in the Monthly Repository; The Contention of Death and Love, Helena and The Shadow Seeker — these three being published in the form of pamphlets in 1837; Prothanasia and other Poems (1839). Wade also wrote a drama entitled King Henry II., and a translation of Dante's " Inferno " in the metre of the original, both of which remain in manuscript ; and a series of sonnets inspired by his wife, some of which have been published. See Alfred H. Mills, The Poets and Poetry o) the Century, vol. iii. (10 vols., London, 1891-1897); Literary Anecdotes of the iftth Century, edited by Sir W. Robertson Nicoll and T. J. Wise (2 vols., London, 1895-1896), containing a number of Wade's sonnets, a specimen of his Dante translation and a reprint of two of his verse pamphlets. WADE, SIR THOMAS FRANCIS (1818-1895), British diplo- matist, born in London on the 25th of August 1818, was the son of Major Wade of the Black Watch, by his wife Anne, daughter of William Smythe of Barbavilla, Westmeath. In 1838 his father purchased for him a commission in the 8ist Regiment. Exchanging (1839) into the 42nd Highlanders, he served with his regiment in the Ionian Islands, devoting his leisure to the congenial study of Italian and modern Greek. On receiving his commission as lieutenant in 1841 he exchanged into the 98th Regiment, then under orders for China, and landed in Hong-Kong in June 1842. The scene of the war had at that time been trans- ferred to the Yangtze-kiang, and thither Wade was ordered with his regiment. There he took part in the attack on Chin-kiang-fu and in the advance on Nanking. In 1845 he was appointed interpreter in Cantonese to the Supreme Court of Hong-Kong, and in 1846 assistant Chinese secretary to the superintendent of trade, Sir John Davis. In 1852 he was appointed vice-consul at Shanghai. The Tai-ping rebellion had so disorganized the administration in the neighbourhood of Shanghai that it was considered advisable to put the collection of the foreign customs duties into commission, a committee of three, of whom Wade was the chief, being entrusted with the administration of the customs. This formed the beginning of the imperial maritime customs service. In 1855 Wade was appointed Chinese secretary to Sir John Bowring, who had succeeded Sir J. Davis at Hong- Kong. On the declaration of the second Chinese War in 1857, he was attached to Lord Elgin's staff as Chinese secretary, and with the assistance of H. N. Ley he conducted the negotia- tions which led up to the treaty of Tientsin (1858). In the following year he accompanied Sir Frederick Bruce in his attempt to exchange the ratification of the treaty, and was present at Taku when the force attending the mission was treacherously attacked and driven back from the Peiho. On Lord Elgin's return to China in 1860 he resumed his former post of Chinese secretary, and was mainly instrumental in arranging for the advance of the special envoys and the British and French forces to Tientsin, and subsequently towards Peking. For the purpose of arranging for a camping ground in the neighbourhood of Tungchow he accompanied Mr (afterwards Sir) Harry Parkes on his first visit to that city, where on the next day Parkes with 228 WADE, SIR W.— WAFER Mr Loch and others was by an act of shameless treachery made prisoner. In the succeeding negotiations Wade took a leading part, and on the establishment of the legation at Peking he took up the post of Chinese secretary of legation. In 1862 he was made a Companion of the Bath. On the return of Sir Frederick Bruce to England in 1864 he remained as charge d'affaires, and again from 1869 to 1871, when he was appointed minister, he filled the acting post. The Tientsin massacre in 1870 entailed long and difficult negotiations, which were admirably conducted by Wade. On the assumption of power by the emperor T'ung- chih he, in common with his colleagues, requested an audience in accordance with the treaties, which was for the first time granted as a right. The murder of A. R. Margary near Man- wyne in Yunnan in 1875 threatened at one time to cause a rupture with the Chinese government, and as a matter of fact Wade did leave Peking. But the Chinese, finding that he was in earnest, despatched Li Hung-Chang after him to Chefoo, where the two diplomatists arranged the penalties which were to be paid for the crime, and concluded a convention which, after a considerable interval, was ratified by the governments. Wade was then made K.C.B., and in 1883 retired from the service. On his return to England the attractions of his old university induced him to take up his residence at Cambridge, where he was appointed the first professor cf Chinese. He died there on the 3ist of July 1895. In 1889 he was made G.C.M.G. In 1868 he had married Amelia, daughter of Sir John Herschel. (R. K. D.) WADE (or WAAD), SIR WILLIAM (1546-1623), English states- man and diplomatist, was the eldest son of Armagil Wade (d. 1568), the traveller, who sailed with a party of adventurers for North America in 1536, and later became (1547) one of the clerks of the privy council in London and a member of parliament. William Wade obtained his entrance into official life by serving William Cecil, Lord Burghley, sending information to this statesman from Paris and from Italy. He also passed some time in Strassburg; then in 1581 he became secretary to Sir Francis Walsingham and in 1583 a clerk of the privy council. He visited Vienna, Copenhagen and Madrid on public business, and in 1585 he went to Paris, being waylaid and maltreated on his return near Amiens by influential personages who disliked the object of his mission. In 1 586 he went to Chartley and took possession of Mary Stuart's papers, and in 1587 was again in France. During the remainder of Elizabeth's reign Wade was much occupied in searching for Jesuits and in discovering plots against the life of the queen. James I., who knighted him in 1603, employed him in similar ways, and he was fully occupied in unravelling the plots which marked the early years of the new reign. For some time Wade was a member of parliament. He retired from public life in 1613, and died on the 2ist of October 1623. Sir William was a shareholder in the Virginia company, and the Wades of Virginia claim descent from his father. WADEBRID6E, a market town and seaport in the St Austell parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western and London & South- Western railways, 38 m. W.N.W. of Plymouth. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2186. It is pic- turesquely situated at the head of the estuary of the river Camel, 7 m. from its mouth in Padstow Bay on the north coast. A stone bridge, consisting of seventeen arches, was built in 1485 over the river, and made a county bridge under James I. The parish church of Egloshayle, nearly 2 m. from the town, is in the main Perpendicular, with a beautiful tower; but part of the fabric is Early English. The neighbouring church of St Breock is Decorated and Perpendicular, with a fine font of the earlier period. An ancient round-headed cross stands near the town. There is considerable agricultural trade, and iron founding is carried on; while in the neighbourhood some copper, lead, granite and slate are worked and exported in small vessels; coal, timber and general merchandise being imported. WADELAI, a station on the east bank of the Upper Nile in the British protectorate of Uganda, in 2° 50' N., 31° 35' E., 200 m. in a direct line N.N.W. of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza, and 72 m. by river below Butiaba on Albert Nyanza. The government station was built on a hill 160 to 200 ft. above the Nile at a spot where the river narrows to 482 ft. and attains a depth of 30 ft. At this place was a gauge for measuring the discharge of the river. Wadelai was first visited by a European, Lieut. H. Chippendall, in 1875, and was named after a chieftain who, when visited by Gessi Pasha (on the occasion of that officer's circumnavigation of Albert Nyanza), ruled the surrounding district as a vassal of Kabarega, king of Unyoro. The region was annexed to the Egyptian Sudan and Wadelai's village chosen as a government post. This post was on the western bank of the Nile, ij m. below the existing station. Here for some time Emin Pasha had his headquarters, evacuating the place in December 1888. Thereafter, for some years, the district was held by the Mahdists. In 1894 the British flag was hoisted at Wadelai, on both banks of the Nile, by Major E. R. Owen. Some twelve years later the government post was withdrawn. There is a native village at the foot of the hill. WADHWAN, a town of India, in Kathiawar, Bombay, the capital of a petty state of the same name, and the junction of the Kathiawar railway system with the Bombay and Baroda line, 389 m. N. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 16,223. It has con- siderable trade and manufactures. There is a school for girasias or subordinate chiefs. The civil station, under British ad- ministration, had a population in 1901 of 11,255. The state of Wadhwan has an area of 236 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,851; revenue, £25,000. Cotton trade and stone-quarrying are im- portant, and there are manufactures of soap and saddlery. WADI, also written wady, in some dialects wad; Arabic for a " valley," hence a stream or river flowing through a valley, as well as the valley itself. It is a common term in place names. WADI HAIFA, or HALFA, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 21° 55' N., 31° 19' E., on the right bank of the Nile, 5 m. S. of the northern frontier of the Sudan. It is the chief town of the Haifa mudiria, is 770 m. S. of Cairo by rail and steamer, and 575 m. N.N.W. of Khartum by rail. Some 6 m. above the town is the second cataract, and on the west bank of the Nile opposite Haifa are the ruins of the ancient Egyptian city of Buhen (Bohon). Haifa is the northern terminus of the Sudan railway and the southern terminus of a steamboat service on the Nile, which, running to Shellal (Assuan), connects there with the Egyptian railways. Wadi Haifa is a general designation including the native village of that name, the camp, founded by the British in 1884 as their base in the operations for the relief of General Gordon, and the civil cantonment established at the same time. This cantonment occupies the site of a Nubian village, and round it has grown a thriving town, at first named Taufikia, but now called Haifa. It has a population (1907) of about 3000. The camp is i\ m. S. of Haifa. Here are the barracks, officers' quarters, railway works, and an esplanade along the river front. The village of Wadi Haifa is 3 m. S. of the camp. WAD MEDANI, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, capital of the Blue Nile mudiria, in 14° 24' N., 33° 31' E., on the left bank of the Blue Nile, no m. by rail and 147 m. by river, S.E. of Khartum. Pop. about 20,000. It is the chief depot for grain raised in the Gezira, has oil and soap works, and is a thriving commercial centre, being on the main trade route between Khartum and Abyssinia. The town, which is of considerable antiquity, contains some fine buildings, the chief mosque having a conspicuous tower. Wad Medani was almost destroyed during the Mahdia, but its return to prosperity under Anglo-Egyptian rule was rapid. In 1909 it was connected by railway with Khartum, and thus the hindrance to trade through the Blue Nile being scarcely navigable between January and June was over- come. In 1910 railway communication between the town and Kordofan was established. (See SUDAN, § Anglo-Egyptian.) WAFER, a thin flat cake or sheet of paste, usually circular in shape. The derivation of the word, which is the same as " waffle," a batter-cake cooked in waffle-irons and served hot, is given under " Goffer," which is adapted from the French form of the Teutonic original. As articles of stationery, wafers consist of thin brittle, adhesive disks, used for securing papers together, and for forming a basis for impressed official seals. They are WAGER— WAGES 229 made of a thin paste of very fine flour, baked between " wafer irons " over a charcoal fire till the thin stratum of paste becomes dry and brittle and the flour starch is partly transformed into glutinous adhesive dextrin. The cake is cut into round disks with suitable steel punches. Bright non-poisonous colouring matter is added to the paste for making coloured wafers. They are also made of gelatin. Wafers of dry paste are used in medical practice to enclose powders or other forms of drugs, thus rendering them easy to swallow. In ecclesiastical usage the term " wafer " is applied to the thin circular disk of unleavened bread, stamped with a cross, the letters I.H.S. or the Agnus Dei, which is the form of the conse- crated bread as used in the service of the Eucharist by the Roman Catholic Church. WAGER (derived, through Fr. wagier, gagier, from Lat. indium, a pledge), a bet orstake. Wagers in theordinary sense of the term are dealt with under the headings GAMING and BETTING; but the method of wagering — in principle the putting of a decision to the hazard — has had extended employment in various cases which may be noticed here. The determination of cases, civil and criminal, by means of wager or analogous forms of procedure, was a characteristic feature of ancient law. The legis aclio sacramenli at Rome — at first a real, then a fictitious, wager — and the wagers " of battle " and " of law " in England, of the highest antiquity in their origin, survived up to a com- paratively late period in the history of both legal systems. The form of the wager survived long after its reason had been for- gotten. The general prevalence of the wager form of proceeding is perhaps to be attributed to the early conception of a judge as a mere referee who decided the dispute submitted to him, not as an executive officer of the state, but as an arbitrator casually called in (see Maine, Ancient Law, c. x.). " Wager of battle " in England was a mode of trial allowed in certain cases, viz. on a civil writ of right for recovery of land (see WRIT), and on criminal appeals of treason and felony (see APPEAL). Trial by battle, or single combat, was a common Teutonic custom in days when criminal " appeal " was really a prosecution by a private individual; and it remained in vogue on the continent of Europe (where hired champions were allowed) to a much greater extent than in England, where after the Con- quest it was to some extent substituted for trial by ordeal ( eyes, miners from diseases of the lungs, &c. Thus, in attempting to estimate real wages, we have to consider all the various dis- comforts involved in the " quantity of labour " as well as all the conveniences which the nominal wages will purchase and all the supplements in kind. In a systematic treatment of the wages question it would be natural to examine next the causes which determine the general rate of wages in any country at any time. This is a prob.lem to which economists have given much attention, and is one of great complexity. It wages is difficult, when we consider the immense variety i*> of " occupations " in any civilized country and the constant changes which are taking place, even to form an adequate conception of the general rate of wages. There are thousands of occupations of various kinds, and at first sight it may seem impossible to determine, in a manner sufficiently accurate for any useful purpose, an average or general rate of wages, especially if we attempt to take real and not merely nominal wages. At the same time, in estimating the progress of the working-classes, or in comparing their relative positions in different countries, it is necessary to use this conception of a general rate of wages in a practical manner. The difficulties presented are of the same kind as those met with in the deter- mination of the value of money or the general level of prices, and may be overcome to some extent by the same methods. An " index number " may be formed by taking various kinds of labour as fair samples, and the nominal wages thus obtained may be corrected by a consideration of the elements in the real wages to which they correspond. Care must be taken, however, that the quantity and quality of labour taken at different times and places are the same, just as in the case of commodities similar precautions are necessary. Practically, for example, errors are constantly made by taking the rate of wages for a short time (say an hour), and then, without regard to regularity of employ- ment, constructing the annual rate on this basis; and again, insufficient attention is paid to Adam Smith's pithy caution that " there may be more labour in an hour's hard work than in two hours' easy business." But, however difficult it may be to obtain WAGES 231 an accurate measure of the general rate of wages for practical purposes, there can be no doubt as to the value and necessity of the conception in economic theory. For, as soon as it is assumed that industrial competition is the principal economic force in the distribution of the wealth of a community — and this is in reality the fundamental assumption of modern economic M ience, — a distinction must be drawn between the most general causes which affect all wages and the particular causes which lead to differences of wages in different employments. In other words, the actual rate of wages obtained in any particular occu- pation depends partly on causes affecting that group compared with others, and partly on the general conditions which determine the relations between labour, capital and production over the whole area in which the industrial competition is effective. (See A. L. Bowley's Wages in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth Century (1900), § 3, for an account of the meaning and use of the average wage.) Thus the theory of the wages question consists of two parts, or gives the answers to two questions: (i) What are the causes which determine the general rate of wages? theory. (2) Why are wages in some occupations and at some times and places above or below this general rate ? With regard to the first question, Adam Smith, as in almost every important economic theory, gives an answer which com- bines two views which were subsequently differentiated into antagonism. " The produce of labour constitutes the natural recompense or wages of labour," is the opening sentence of his chapter on wages. But then he goes on to say that " this original state of things, in which the labourer enjoyed the whole produce of his own labour, could not last beyond the first introduction of the appropriation of land and the accumulation of stock." And he thus arrives at the conclusion that " the demand for those who live by wages, it is evident, cannot increase but in proportion to the increase of the funds which are destined to the payment of wages." This is the germ of the celebrated wages- fund theory which was carried to an extreme by J. S. Mill and others; and, although Mill abandoned the theory some time before his death, he was unable to eradicate it from his systematic treatise and to reduce it to its proper dimensions. It is im- portant to observe that in the hands of Mill this theory was by no means, as was afterwards maintained by Elliot Cairnes, a mere statement of the problem to be solved. According to Cairnes (Leading Principles of Political Economy, bk. ii.), the wages-fund theory, as given in Mill's Principles (bk. ii. ch. xi. § i), embraces the following statements: (i) the wages-fund is a general term used to express the aggregate of all wages at any given time in possession of the labouring population; (2) the average wage depends on the proportion of this fund to the number of people; (3) the amount of the fund is determined by the amount of general wealth applied to the direct purchase of labour. These propositions Cairnes easily reduces to mere verbal statements, and he then states that the real difficulty is to determine the causes which govern the demand and supply of labour. But the most superficial glance, as well as the most careful survey, will convince the reader of Mill's chapters on wages that he regarded the theory not as the statement but as the solution of the problem. For he applies it directly to the explanation of movements in wages, to the criticism of popular remedies for low wages, and to the discovery of what he considers to be legitimate and possible remedies. In fact, it was principally on account of the applica- tion of the theory to concrete facts that it aroused so muqh opposition, which would have been impossible if it had been a mere statement of the problem. The wages-fund theory as a real attempt to solve the wages question may be resolved into three propositions, which are very different from the verbal truisms of Cairnes. (i) In any country at any time there is a determinate amount of capital uncon- ditionally destined for the payment of labour. This is the wages- fund. (2) There is also a determinate number of labourers who must work independently of the rate of wages — that is, whether the rate is high or low. (3) The wages-fund is distributed amongst the labourers solely by means of competition, masters competing with one another for labour, and labourers with one another for work, and thus the average rate of wages depends on the proportion between wage-capital and population. It follows then, according to this view, that wages can only rise either owing to an increase of capital or a diminution of popu- lation, and this accounts for the exaggerated importance attached by Mill to the Malthusian theory of population. It also follows from the theory that any restraint of competition in one direction can only cause a rise of wages by a corresponding fall in another quarter, and in this form it was the argument most frequently urged against the action of trade unions. It is worth noting, as showing the vital connexion of the theory with Mill's principles, that it is practically the foundation of his propositions on capital in his first book, and is also the basis of the exposition in his fourth book of the effects of the progress of society on the condition of the working-classes. It has often been remarked that, in economics as in other sciences, what eventually assumes the form of the development of or supplement to an old theory at first appears as if in direct antagonism to it, and there is reason to think that the criticism of the wages-fund theory was carried to an extreme, and that the essential elements of truth which it contains were overlooked. In many respects the theory may be regarded as a good first approximation to the complete solution of the problem. The plan favoured by some modern economists of regarding wages simply as the price of labour determined as in the case of other prices simply by demand and supply, though of advantage from some points of view, is apt to lead to a maladjustment of emption in other directions. The supply of labour, for example, is in many ways on a different footing from the supply of commodities. The causes which the wages-fund theory emphasizes too ex- clusively are after all verae causae, and must always be taken into account. There can be no doubt, for example, that under certain conditions a rapid increase in the labouring population may cause wages to fall, just as a rapid decline may make them rise. The most striking example of a great improvement in the con- dition of the labouring classes in English economic history is found immediately after the occurrence of the Black Death in the middle of the I4th century. The sudden and extensive thinning of the ranks of labour was manifestly the principal cause of the great improvement in the condition of the survivors. Again, as regards the amount of capital competing for labour, the reality of the cause admits of no dispute, at any rate in any modern society. The force of this element is perhaps best seen by taking a particular case and assuming that the general wages- fund of the country is divided into a number of smaller wages- funds. Take, for example, the wages of domestic servants when the payment of wages is made simply for the service rendered. We may fairly assume that the richer classes of the community practically put aside so much of their revenue for the payment of the wages of their servants. The aggregate of these sums is the domestic wages-fund. Now, if owing to any cause the amount available for this purpose falls off, whilst the number of those seeking that class of employment remains the same, the natural result would be a fall in wages. It may of course happen in this as in other cases that the result is not so much a direct fall in the rate of wages as a diminution of employment — but even in this case, if people employ fewer servants, they must do more work. Again, if we were to seek for the reason why the wages of governesses are so low, the essence of the answer would be found in the excessive supply of that kind of labour compared with the funds destined for its support. And similarly through the whole range of employments in which the labour is employed in perishable services and not in material products, the wages- fund theory brings into prominence the principal causes governing the rate of wages, namely, the number of people competing, the amount of the fund competed for, and the effectiveness of the competition. This view also is in harmony with the general principles of demand and supply. If we regard labour as a commodity and wages as the price paid for it, then we may say that the price will be so adjusted that the quantity demanded 232 WAGES will be made equal to the quantity offered at that price, — the agency by which the equation is reached being competition. But when we turn to other facts for the verification of the theory we easily discover apparent if not real contradictions. The case of Ireland after the potato famine affords an instance of a rapidly declining population without any corresponding rise in wages, whilst in new countries we often find a very rapid increase of population accompanied by an increase in wages. In a similar manner we find that the capital of a country may increase rapidly without wages rising in proportion — as, for example, seems to have been the case in England after the great mechanical improvements at the end of the i8th century up to the repeal of the Corn Laws — whilst in new countries where wages are the highest there are generally complaints of the scarcity of capital. But perhaps the most striking conflict of the theory with facts is found in the periodical inflations and depressions of trade. After a commercial crisis, when the shock is over and the necessary liquidation has taken place, we generally find that there is a period during which there is a glut of capital and yet wages are low. The abundance of capital is shown by the low rate of interest and the difficulty of obtaining remunerative investments. Accordingly this apparent failure of the theory, at least partially, makes it necessary to examine the propositions into which it was resolved more carefully, in order to discover, in the classical economic phraseology, the " disturbing causes." As regards the first of these propositions — that there is always a certain amount of capital destined for the employment of labour — it is plain that this destination is not really unconditional. In a modern society whether or not a capitalist will supply capital to labour depends on the rate of profit expected, and this again depends proximately on the course of prices. But the theory as stated can only consider profits and prices as acting in an indirect roundabout manner upon wages. If profits are high then more capital can be accumulated and there is a larger wages-fund, and if prices are high there may be some stimulus to trade, but the effect on real wages is considered to be very small. In fact Mill writes it down as a popular delusion that high prices make high wages. And if the high prices are due purely to currency causes the criticism is in the main correct, and in some cases, as was shown above, high prices may mean real low wages. If, however, we turn to the great classes of employments in which the labour is embodied in a material product, we find on examination that wages vary with prices in a real and not merely in an illusory sense. Suppose, for example, that, owing to a great increase in the foreign demand for British produce, a rise in prices takes place, there will be a corresponding rise in nominal wages, and in all probability a rise in real wages. Such was undoubtedly the case in Great Britain on the conclusion of the Franco-German War. On the other hand, if prices fall and profits are low, there will so far be a tendency to contract the employment of labour. At the same time, however, to some extent the capital is applied unconditionally — in other words, without obtaining what is considered adequate remuneration, or even at a positive loss. The existence of a certain amount of fixed capital practically implies the constant employment of a certain amount of labour. Nor is the second proposition perfectly true, namely, that there are always a certain number of labourers who must work inde- pendently of the rate of wages. For the returns of pauperism and other statistics show that there is always a proportion of " floating " labour sometimes employed and sometimes not. Again, although, as Adam Smith says, man is of all luggage the most difficult to be transported, still labour as well as capital may be attracted to foreign fields. The constant succession of strikes resorted to in order to prevent a fall in wages shows that in practice the labourers do not at once accept the "natural" market rate. Still, on the whole, this second proposition is a much more adequate expression of the truth than the first; for labour cannot afford to lie idle or to emigrate so easily as capital. The third proposition, that the wages-fund is distributed solely by competition, is also found to conflict with facts. Competition ' may be held to imply in its positive meaning that every indi- vidual strives to attain his own economic interests regardless of the interests of others. But in some cases this end may be attained most effectively by means of combination, as, for example, when a number of people combine to create a practical monopoly. Again, the end may be attained by leaving the control to government, or by obeying the unwritten rules of long-established custom. But these methods of satisfying economic interests are opposed to competition in the usual sense of the term, and certainly as used in reference to labour. Thus on the negative side competition implies that the economic interests of the persons concerned are attained neither by combination, nor by law, nor by custom. Again, it is also assumed, in making competition the principal distributing force of the national income, that every person knows what his real interests are, and that there is perfect mobility of labour both from employment to employment and from place to place. Without these assumptions the wages-fund would not be evenly distributed according to the quantity of labour. It is, however, obvious that, even in the present industrial system, competition is modified considerably by these disturbing agencies; and in fact the tendency seems to be more and more for combinations of masters on one side and of men on the other to take the place of the competition of individuals. The attempted verification of the wages-fund theory leads to so many important modifications that it is not surprising to find that in recent times the tendency has been to reject it altogether. And thus we arrive at the develop- ment of Adam Smith's introductory statement, namely, from the that the produce of labour constitutes the natural recompense or wages of labour. The most important omission of the wages-fund theory is that it fails to take account of the quantity produced and of the price obtained for the pro- duct. If we bring in these elements, we find that there are several other causes to be considered besides capital, population and competition. There are, for example, the various factors in the efficiency of labour and capital, in the organization of industry, and in the general condition of trade. To some extent these elements may be introduced into the old theory, but in reality the point of view is quite different. This is made abundantly clear by considering Mill's treatment of the remedies for low wages. His main contention is that population must be rigidly restrained in order that the average rate of wages may be kept up. But, as several American economists have pointed out, in new countries especially every increase in the number of labourers may be accompanied by a more than proportionate increase in the produce and thus in the wages of labour. Again, the older view was that capital must be first accumulated in order after- wards to be divided up into wages, as if apparently agriculture was the normal type of industry, and the workers must have a store to live on until the new crop was grown and secured. But the " produce " theory of wages considers that wages aie paid continuously out of a continuous product, although in some cases they may be advanced out of capital or accumulated stores. According to this view wages are paid out of the annual produce of the land, capital and labour, and not out of the savings of previous years. There is a danger, however, of pushing this theory to an untenable extreme, and overlooking altogether the function of capital in determining wages; and the true solution seems to be found in a combination of the " produce " theory with the " fund " theory. An industrial society may be regarded, in the first place, as a great productive machine turning out a vast variety of products for the consumption of the members of the society. The distribution of these products, so far as it is not modified by other social and moral conditions, depends upon the principle of " reciprocal demand." In a preliminary rough classification we may make three groups — the owners of land and natural agents, the owners of capital or reserved products and instruments, and the owners of labour. To obtain the produce requisite even for the necessary wants of the community a combination of these three groups must take place, and the relative reward obtained WAGES 233 Relative wages. by each will vary in general according to the demands of the others for its services. Thus, if capital, both fixed and circulating, is scanty, whilst labour and land are both abundant, the reward of capital will be high relatively to rent and wages. This is well illustrated in the high rate of profits obtained in early societies. According to this view of the question the aggregate amount paid in wages depends partly on the general productiveness of ail the productive agents and partly on the relative power of the labourers as compared with the owners of land and capital (the amount taken by government and individuals for taxes, charity, &c., being omitted) . Under a system of perfect industrial competition the general rate of wages would be so adjusted that the demand for labour would be just equal to the supply at that rate. (Compare Marshall's Principles of Economics, bk. vi. ch. ii.) If all labour and capital were perfectly uniform it would not be necessary to carry the analysis further, but as a matter of fact, instead of two great groups of labourers and capitalists, we have a multitude of subdivisions all under the in- fluence of reciprocal demand. Every subgroup tries to obtain as much as possible of the general product, which is practically always measured in money. The determination of relative wages depends on the constitution of these groups and their relations to one another. Under any given social conditions there must be differences of wages in different employments, which may be regarded as permanent until some change occurs in the conditions; in other words, certain differences of wages are stable or normal, whilst others depend simply on temporary fluctuations in demand and supply. A celebrated chapter in the Wealth of Nations (bk. i. ch. x.) is still the best basis for the investigation of these normal differences — which, as stated above, is the second principal problem of the wages question. First of all, a broad distinction may be drawn between the natural and artificial causes of difference, or, in Adam Smith's phraseology, between those due to the nature of the employments and those due to the policy of Europe. In the former division *' . we have (i) the agreeableness or disagreeableness of difference, the employment, illustrated by two classical examples — " honour makes a great part of the reward of all honourable professions," and " the most detestable of all em- ployments— that of public executioner — is, in proportion to the work done, better paid than any common trade whatever." There is, however, much truth in Mill's criticism, that in many cases the worst paid of all employments are at the same time the most disagreeable, simply because those engaged in them have practically no other choice. (2) The easiness and cheapness or the reverse of learning the business. This factor operates in two ways. A difficult business implies to some extent peculiar natural qualifications, and it also involves the command of a certain amount of capital to subsist on during the process of learning, and thus in both respects the natural supply of labour is limited. (3) The constancy or inconstancy in the employment — a point already noticed under real wages. (4) The great or small trust reposed in the workmen, an important consideration in all the higher grades of labour, e.g. bankers, lawyers, doctors, &c. (5) The chance of success or the reverse. Here it is to be observed that, owing to the hopefulness of human nature and its influence on the gambling spirit, the chance of success is generally over- estimated, and therefore that the wages in employments where the chance of success is really small are lower than they ought to be. The most striking instance is furnished by the labour in gold mines, diamond fields, and the like, and the same cause also operates in many of the professions. All these causes of differences of wages in different employ- ments may be explained by showing the way in which they operate on the demand and supply of labour in the particular group. If the " net advantages," to adopt Marshall's phrase- ology, of any group are relatively high, then labour will be directly attracted to that group, and the children born in it will be brought up to the same occupation, and thus in both ways the supply of labour will be increased. But the " net advantages " embrace the conditions just enumerated. Again, if the other members of the community require certain forms of labour to a greater extent, there is an increase in the demand and a rise in their price. In addition to these so-called natural causes of difference, there are those arising from law, custom, or other so-called artificial causes. They may be classified under four headings. (i) Certain causes artificially restrain in- ^rti^cM dustrial competition by limiting the number of any difference. particular group. Up to the close of the i8th century, and in many instances to a much later date, the regulations of gilds and corporations limited the numbers in each trade (cf. Brentano, Gilds and Trade Unions). This they did by making a long apprenticeship compulsory on those wishing to learn the craft, by restricting the number of apprentices to be taken by any master, by exacting certain qualifications as to birth or wealth, by imposing heavy entrance fees, either in money or in the shape of a useless but expensive masterpiece. Some of these regulations were originally passed in the interests of the general public and of those employed in the craft, but in the course of time their effect was, as is stated by Adam Smith, simply to unduly restrain competition. The history of the craft-gilds is full of instructive examples of the principles governing wages. No doubt the regulations tended to raise wages above the natural rate, but as a natural consequence industry migrated to places where the oppressive regulations did not exist. In the time of the Tudors the decay of many towns during a period of rapid national progress was largely due to those " fraternities in evil," as Bacon called the gilds. At present one of the best examples of the survival of this species of artificial restriction is the limitation of the number of teachers qualifying for degrees in certain univer- sities. (2) In some employments, however, law and custom tend unduly to increase the amount of competition. This was to a great extent the case in the church and the scholastic professions owing to the large amount of charitable education. Adam Smith points out that even in his day a curate was " passing rich on forty pounds a year," whilst many only obtained £20 — below the wages earned by a journeyman shoemaker. In the same way state-aided education of a commercial and technical kind may result in lowering the rates (relatively) of the educated business classes. It is said that one reason why the Germans replace Englishmen in many branches is that, having obtained their education at a low rate, there are more of them qualified, and consequently they accept lower wages. The customary idea that the position of a clerk is more genteel than that of an artisan accounts largely for the excessive competition in the former class, especially now that education is practically universal. (3) In some cases law and custom may impede or promote the circula tion of labour. At the time Adam Smith wrote the laws of settlement were still in full operation. " There is not a man of forty who has not felt most cruelly oppressed by this ill-contrived law of settlement." Differences in wages in different parts of the same country and in different occupations are still largely due to impediments in the way of the "Wtevement of labour, which might be removed or lessened by the government making provisions for migration or emigration. (4) On many occasions in the past the law often directly interfered to regulate wages. The Statute of Labourers, passed immediately after the Black Death, was an attempt in this direction, but it appears to have failed, according to the investigations of Thorold Rogers. The same writer, however, ascribes to the celebrated Statute of Apprentices (gth of Elizabeth) the degradation of the English labourer for nearly three centuries (Agriculture and Prices, vol. v.). This, he asserts, was due to the wages being fixed by the justices of the peace. It is, however, worth noting that Brentano, who is equally sympathetic with the claims of labour, asserts that so long as this statute was actually enforced, or the customs founded upon it were observed, the condition of the labourers was prosperous, and that the degradation only began when the statute fell into disuse (Origin of Gilds and Trade Unions. For a full account of the effect of the Statute of Apprentices see W. Cunningham's Growth cf English Industry and Commerce, vol. ii.). 234 WAGES state Something must be said as to the power of .the state to regulate wages. As far as any direct regulation is concerned, it seems to be only possible within narrow limits. The state might of course institute certain complex sliding-scales for different classes of labour and make them compulsory, but this would rather be an official declaration of the natural market rate than a direct regulation. Any rate which the state of trade and prices would not bear could not be en- forced: masters could not be compelled to work at a loss or to keep their capital employed when it might be more advantage- ously transferred to another place or occupation. Thus the legal rate could not exceed to any considerable extent the market rate. Nor, on the other hand, could a lower rate in general be enforced, especially when the labourers have the right of combination and possess powerful organizations. And even apart from this the competition of capitalists for labour would tend to raise wages above the legal rate, and evasion would be extremely easy. The best illustration of the failure to raise the rate of wages directly by authority is found in the English poor law system between 1796 and 1834. " In the former year (1796) Poorniiet tne decisively fatal step of legalizing out-relief to the wages" able-bodied, and in aid of wages, was taken," and " in February 1834 was published perhaps the most remarkable and startling document to be found in the whole range of English, perhaps indeed of all social history " (Fowle's Poor Law). The essence of the system was in the justices determining a natural rate of wages, regard being paid to the price of necessaries and the size of the labourer's family, and an amount was given from the rates sufficient to make up the wages received to this natural level. The method of administration was certainly bad, but the best administration possible could only have kept the system in existence a few years longer. In one parish the poor-rate had swallowed up the whole value of the land, which was going out of cultivation, a fact which has an obvious bearing on land nationalization as a remedy for low wages The labourers became careless, inefficient and improvident. Those who were in regular receipt of relief were often better off (in money) than independent labourers. But the most important consequence was that the real wages obtained were, in spite of the relief, lower than otherwise they would have been, and a striking proof was given that wages are paid out of the produce of labour. The Report of the Poor Law Commissioners (1834) states emphatically (p. 48) that " the severest sufferers are those for whose benefit the system is supposed to have been introduced and to be perpetuated, the labourers and their families." The independent labourers suffered directly through the unfair competition of the pauper labour, but, as one of the sub-reporters stated, in every district the general condition of the independent labourer was strikingly distinguishable from that of the pauper and superior to it, though the independent labourers were commonly maintained upon less money. In New Zealand anc Australia in recent years a great extension has been made o: the principle of state intervention in the regulation of wages. But, although the direct intervention of the state, with the view of raising the nominal rates of wages, is, according to theory and experience, of doubtful advantage, still, when we Factory consider real wages in the evident sense of the term there seems to be an almost indefinite scope for state interference. The effect of the Factory Acts anc similar legislation has been undoubtedly to raise the real wages of the working-classes as a whole, although at first the same argu ments were used in opposition to these proposals as in the case of direct relief from the poor-rates. But there is a vital differeno in the two cases, because in the former the tendency is to increase whilst in the latter it is to diminish the energy and self-relianci of the workers. An excellent summary of the results of thi species of industrial legislation is given by John Morley (Life oj Cobden, vol. i. p. 303):— " We have to-day a complete, minute, and voluminous code fo the protection of labour : buildings must be kept pure of effluvia dangerous machinery must be fenced ; children and young person must not clean it while in motion ; their hours are not only limitec but fixed ; continuous employment must not exceed a given numbe legisla- tion. if hours, varying with the trade but prescribed by the law in given :ases; a statutable number of holidays is imposed; the children must go to school, and the employer must have every week a certi- icate to that effect ; if an accident happens notice must be sent :o the proper authorities; special provisions are made for bake- louses, for lace-making, for collieries, and for a whole schedule )f other special callings; for the due enforcement and vigilant upervision of this immense host of minute prescriptions there is .in immense host of inspectors, certifying surgeons, and other authorities whose business it is to ' speed and post o'er land and ocean ' on sullen guardianship of every kind of labour, from that of the woman who plaits straw at her cottage door to the miner who descends into the bowels of the earth and the seaman who conveys the fruits and materials of universal industry to and fro >etween the remotest parts of the globe." The analysis previously given of real wages shows that logically .11 these improvements in the conditions of labour, by diminishing the " quantity of labour " involved in work, are equivalent to a real rise in wages. Experience has also shown that the state may advantageously interfere in regulating the methods of paying wages. A curious poem, written about the time of Edward IV., on England's commercial policy (Political Soxgs and Poems, Rolls Series, ii. 282), Shows that even in the 15th century the " truck " system was in full operation, to the disadvantage of the labourers. The cloth-makers, in particular, compelled the workers to take half of their wages in merchandise which they estimated at higher than its real value. The writer proposes that the " wyrk folk be paid in good mone," and that a sufficient ordinance be passed for the purpose, and a law to this effect was enacted in the 4th year .of Edward IV. The Truck Acts have since been much further extended. Again, the legis- lation directed against the adulteration of all kinds of goods, which also finds its prototypes in the middle ages, is in its effects equivalent to a rise in real wages.1 The power of trade unions in regulating wages is in most respects analogous in principle to that of legislation just noticed. Nominal wages can only be affected within compara- lively narrow limits, depending on the condition of ^ trade and the state of prices, whilst in many cases a ^4 wages. rise in the rate in some trades or places can only be accomplished by a corresponding depression elsewhere. At the same time, however, it can hardly be questioned that through the unions nominal wages have on the whole risen at the expense of profits — that is to say, that combinations of labourers can make better bargains than individuals. But the debatable margin which may make either extra profits or extra wages is itself small, and the principal direct effect of trade unions is to make wages fluctuate with prices, a rise at one time being com- pensated by a fall at another. The unions can, however, look after the interests of their members in many ways which improve their general condition or raise the real rate of wages, and when nominal wages have attained a natural maximum, and some method of arbitration or sliding-scale is in force, this indirect action seems the principal function of trade unions. The effects of industrial partnership (cf . Sedley Taylor's Profit Sharing) and of productive co-operation (cf . Holyoake's History of Co-operation) are small in amount (cpmpared with the total industry of any country) though excellent in kind, and there seem to be no signs of the decay of the entrepreneur system. The industrial revolution which took place about the end of the i8th century, involving radical changes in production, destroyed the old relations between capital and labour, and per- ecfg of haps the most interesting part of the history of wages is machs,°ery that covered by the igth century. For fifty years after oa wages. the introduction of production on a large scale, the condition of the working-classes was on the whole deplorable, but great progress has since been made. The principal results may be summed up under the effects of machinery on wages— taking both words in their widest sense. Machinery affects the condition of the working-classes in many ways. The most obvious mode is the direct substitution of machinery for labour. It is clear that any sudden and extensive adoption of labour-saving machinery 1 On this subject compare Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour, new edition by F. A. Hirst. WAGGA-WAGGA— WAGNER, R. 235 may, bj' throwing the labourers out of employment, lower the rate of wages, and it is easy to understand how riots arose repeatedly owing to this cause. But as a rule the effect of labour- saving machinery in diminishing employment has been greatly exaggerated, because two important practical considerations have been overlooked. In the first place, any radical change made in the methods of production will be only gradually and continuously adopted throughout the industrial world: and in the second place these radical changes, these discontinuous leaps, tend to give place to advances by small increments of invention. We have an instance of a great radical change in the steam-engine. Watt's patent for " a method of lessening " the consumption of steam and fuel in fire-engines was published on January 5, 1769, and the movement for utilizing steam-power still found room for extension for a century or more afterwards. The history of the power-loom again shows that the adoption of an invention is comparatively slow. In 1813 there were not more than 2400 power-looms at work in England. In 1820 they increased to 14,150. In 1853 there were 100,000, but the curious thing is that during this time the number of hand-looms had actually increased to some extent (Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 186). The power-loom also illustrates the gradual continuous growth of improvements. This is clearly shown by Porter. A very good hand-weaver, twenty-five or thirty years of age, could weave two pieces of shirting per week. In 1823 a steam-loom weaver, about fifteen years of age, attending two looms, could weave nine similar pieces in a week. In 1826 a steam-loom weaver, about fifteen, attending to four looms, could weave twelve similar pieces a week. In 1833 a steam-loom weaver, from fifteen to twenty, assisted by a girl of twelve, attending to four looms, could weave eighteen pieces. This is only one ex- ample, for, as Porter remarks, it would fill many large volumes to describe the numerous inventions which during the ipth century imparted facility to manufacturing processes, and in every case we find a continuity in the improvements. This two- fold progressive character of invention operates in favour of the labourer — in the first place, because in most cases the increased cheapness of the commodity consequent on the use of machinery causes a corresponding extension of the market and the amount produced, and thus there may be no actual diminution of employment even temporarily; and secondly, if the improvement takes place slowly, there is time for the absorp- tion of the redundant, labour in other employments. It is quite clear that on balance the great increase in population in the igth century was largely caused, or rather rendered possible, by the increased use of labour-saving machinery. The way in which the working-classes were at first injured by the adoption of machinery was not so much by a diminution in the number of hands required as by a change in the nature of the employment. Skilled labour of a certain kind lost its peculiar value, and children and women were able to do work formerly only done by men. But the principal evils resulted from the wretched conditions under which, before the factory legislation, the work was per- formed; and there is good reason to believe that a deterioration of the type of labourer, both moral and physical, was effected. It is, however, a mistake to suppose that on the whole the use of machinery tends to dispense with skill. On the contrary, everything goes to prove that under the present system of pro- Process ^uct'on on a large scale there is on the whole far of the more skill required than formerly — a fact well brought working- out by Sir Robert Giffen in his essay on the progress classes. ^ ^ne woriyng.ciasses (Essays on Finance, vol. ii. p. 365), and expressed by the official reports on wages in different countries. (J. S. N.) WAGGA-WAGGA, a town of Wynyard county, New South Wales, Australia, on the left bank of the river Murrumbidgce, 309 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney and 267 m. N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 51 14. The Murrumbidgee is here spanned by a steel viaduct, the approaches of which are formed by heavy embank- ments. Wagga- Wagga has a school of art with a library attached, a fine convent picturesquely situated on Mount Erin, a good racecourse and agricultural show-grounds. There is a consider- able amount of gold-mining in the district, which, however, is chiefly pastoral, although cereals, tobacco and wine are produced in considerable quantities. WAGNER, ADOLF (1835- ), German economist, was born at Erlangen on the 2$th of March 1835. Educated at Gottingen and Heidelberg, he was professor of political science at Dorpat and Freiburg, and after 1870 at Berlin. A prolific writer on economic problems, he brought out in his study of the subject the close relation which necessarily exists between economics and jurisprudence. He ranks without doubt as one of the most eminent German economists and a distinguished leader of the historical school. His leanings towards Christian socialism made him one of those to whom the appellation of " Katheder- Socialisten " or " socialists of the (professional) chair " was applied, and he was one of the founders of the Verein fUr Social- politik. In 1871 he undertook, in conjunction with Professor E. Nasse (1829-1890), a new edition of Rau's Lehrbuch der politischen Okonomie, and his own special contributions, the Grundlegung and Finanzwissenschaft, afterwards published separ- ately, are probably his most important works. He approaches economic studies from the point of view that the doctrine of the jus naturae, on which the physiocrats reared their economic structure, has lost its hold on belief, and that the old a priori and absolute conceptions of personal freedom and property have given way with it. He lays down that the economic position of the individual, instead of depending merely on so-called natural rights or even on his natural powers, is conditioned by the contemporary juristic system, which is itself an historical product. These conceptions, therefore, of freedom and property, half economic, half juristic, require a fresh examination. Wagner accordingly investigates, before anything else, the conditions of the economic life of the community, and in sub- ordination to this, determines the sphere of the economic freedom of the individual. Among his works are Beitriige zur Lehre Ton den Banken (1857), System der deutschen Zetlelbankgcselzgebung (1870-1873) and Agrar- und Induslriestaat (1902). His brother, HERMANN WAGNER (1840- ), a distinguished geographer, joined the Geographical Institute of Justus Perthes in 1868, and was editor of the statistical section of the Gothaer Almanack up to 1876. In 1872 he founded Die Bevolkerung der Erde, a critical review of area and population, and in 1880 he was appointed professor of geography at GSttingen. He was editor of the Geographisches Jahrbuch from 1880 to 1908. His publications include Lehrbuch der Geographic (7th ed., 1903) and Methodischer Schulatlas (i2th ed., 1907). WAGNER, RUDOLPH (1805-1864), German anatomist and physiologist, was born on the 3Oth of June 1805 at Bayreuth, where his father was a professor in the gymnasium. He began the study of medicine at Erlangen in 1822, and finished his curriculum in 1826 at Wiirzburg, where he had attached himself mostly to J. L. Schonlein in medicine and to K. F. Heusinger in comparative anatomy. Aided by a public stipendium, he spent a year or more studying in the Jardin des Plantes, under the friendly eye of Cuvier, and in making zoological discoveries at Cagliari and other places on the Mediterranean. On his return he set up in medical practice at Augsburg, whither his father had been transferred; but in a few months he found an opening for an academical career, on being appointed prosector at Erlangen. In 1832 he became full professor of zoology and comparative anatomy there, and held that office until 1840, when he was called to succeed J. F. Blumenbach at Gottingen. At the Hano- verian university he remained till his death, being much occupied with administrative work as pro-rector for a number of years, and for nearly the whole of his residence troubled by ill-health (phthisis). In 1860 he gave over the physiological part of his teaching to a new chair, retaining the zoological, with which his career had begun. While at Frankfurt, on his way to examine the Neanderthal skull at Bonn, he was struck with paralysis, and died at Gottingen a few months later on the i3th of May 1864. Wagner's activity as a writer and worker was enormous, and his range extensive, most of his hard work having been done at Erlangen while his health was good. His graduation thesis was on the 236 WAGNER ambitious subject of " the historical development of epidemic and contagious diseases all over the world, with the laws of their diffusion ," which showed the influence of Schonlein. His first treatise was Die Naturgeschichte des Menschen (in 2 vols., Kempten, 1831). Frequent journeys to the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the North Sea gave him abundant materials for research on invertebrate anatomy and physiology, which he communicated first to the Munich academy of sciences, and republished in his Beitriige zur vergleichenden Physiologic des Blutes (Leipzig, 1832-1833), with additions in 1838). In 1834-1835 he brought out a text-book on the subject of his chair (Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomic, Leipzig), which recommended itself to students by its clear and concise style. A new edition of it appeared in 1843 under the title of Lehrbuch der Zootomie, of which only the vertebrate section was corrected by himself. The precision of his earlier work is evidenced by his Micrometric Measurements of the Elementary Parts of Man and Animals (Leipzig, 1834). His zoological labours may be said to conclude with the atlas Icones zootomicae (Leipzig, 1841). In 1835 he communicated to the Munich academy of sciences his researches on the physiology of generation and development, in- cluding the famous discovery of the germinal vesicle of the human ovum. These were republished under the title Prodromus historiae generationis hominis atque animalium (Leipzig, 1836). As in zoology, his original researches in physiology were followed by a students' text-book, Lehrbuch der speciellen Physiologic (Leipzig, 1838), which soon reached a third edition, and was translated into French and English. This was supplemented by an atlas, Icones physiologicae (Leipzig, 1839). To the same period belongs a very interesting but now little known work on medicine proper, of a historical and synthetic scope, Grundriss der Encyklopadie und Methodologie der medicinischen Wissenschaften nach geschichtlicher Ansicht (Erlangen, 1838), which was translated into Danish. About the same time he worked at a translation of J. C. Prichard's Natural History of Man, and edited various writings of S. T. Sommerring, with a biography of that anatomist (1844), which he himself fancied most of all his writings. In 1843, after his removal to Gottingen, he began his great Handworterbuch der Physiologic, mil Rucksicht auf physiologische Pathologie, and brought out the fifth (supplementary) volume in 1852; the only contributions of his own in it were on the sympathetic nerve, nerve-ganglia and nerve-endings, and he modestly disclaimed all merit except as being the organizer. While resident in Italy for his health from 1845 to 1847, he occupied himself with researches on the electrical organ of the torpedo and on nervous organization generally; these he published in 1853-1854 (Neurolo- gische Untersuchungen, Gottingen), and therewith his physiological period may be said to end. His next period was stormy and con- trqversial. He entered the lists boldly against the materialism of " Stoff und Kraft," and avowed himself a Christian believer, where- upon he lost the countenance of a number of his old friends and pupils, and was unfeelingly told that he was suffering from an atrophy of the brain." His quarrel with the materialists began with his oration at the Gottingen meeting of the Naturforscher- Versammlung in 1854, on "Menschenschopfungund Seelensubstanz." This was followed by a series of " Physiological Letters" in the Allgemeine Zeitung, by an essay on " Glauben und Wissen," and by the most important piece of this series, " Der Kampf urn die Seele (Gottingen, 1857). Having come to the consideration of these philosophical problems late in life, he was at some disadvantage ; but he endeavoured to join as he best could in the current of con- temporary German thought. He had an exact knowledge of classical German writings, more especially of Goethe's, and of the literature connected with him. In what may be called his fourth and last period, Wagner became anthropologist and archaeologist, occupied himself with the cabinet of skulls in the Gottingen museum collected by Blumenbach and with the excavation of prehistoric remains, corresponded actively with the anthropological societies of Paris and London, and organized, in co-operation with the veteran K. E. von Baer, a successful congress of anthropologists at Gottingen in 1861. His last writings were memoirs on the convolutions of the human brain, on the weight of brains, and on the brains of idiots (1860- 1862). See memoir by his eldest son in the Gottinger gelchrte Anzeigen, " Nachrichten " for 1864. WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883), German dramatic composer, poet and essay-writer, was born at Leipzig on the 2 2nd of May 1813. In 1822 he was sent to the Kreuzschule at Dresden, where he did so well that, four years later, he trans- lated the first twelve books of the Odyssey for amusement. In 1828 he was removed to the Nicolaischule at Leipzig, where he was less successful. His first music master was Gottlieb Miiller, who thought him self-willed and eccentric; and his first pro- duction as a composer was an overture, performed at the Leipzig theatre in 1830. In that year he matriculated at the university, and took lessons in composition from-Theodor Weinlig, cantor at the Thomasschule. A symphony was produced at the Gewand- haus concerts in 1833, and in the following year he was appointed conductor of the opera at Magdeburg. The post was unprofitable, and Wagner's life at this period was very unsettled. He had composed an opera called Die Feen adapted by himself from Gozzi's La Donna Serpenle, and another, Das Liebesverbot, founded on Shakespeare's Measure .for Measure, but only Das Liebesverbot obtained a single performance in 1836. In that year Wagner married Wilhelmina Planer, an actress at the theatre at Konigsberg. He had accepted an engagement there as conductor; but, the lessee becoming bankrupt, the scheme was abandoned in favour of a better appointment at Riga. Accepting this, he remained actively employed until 1839, when he made his first visit to Paris, taking with him an unfinished opera based on Bulwer Lytton's Rienzi, and, like his earlier attempts, on his own libretto. The venture proved most unfortunate. Wagner failed to gain a footing, and Rienzi, destined for the Grand Opera, was rejected. He completed it, however, and in 1842 it was produced at Dresden, where, with Madame Schroeder Devrient and Herr Tichatschek in the principal parts, it achieved a success which went far to make him famous. But though in Rienzi Wagner had shown energy and ambition, that work was far from representing his preconceived ideal. This he now endeavoured to embody in Der fliegende Hollander, for which he designed a libretto quite independent of any other treatment of the legend. The piece was warmly received at Dresden on the 2nd of January 1843; but its success was by no means equal to that of Rienzi. Spohr, however, promptly discovered its merits, and produced it at Cassel some months later, with very favourable results. On the 2nd of February 1843 Wagner was formally installed as Hofkapellmeister at the Dresden theatre, and he soon set to work on a new opera. He chose the legend of Tannhauser, collecting his materials from the ancient Tannhauser-Lied, the Volksbuch, Tieck's poetical Erziihlung, Hoffmann's story of Der Sangerkrieg, and the medieval poem on Der Wattburgkrieg. This last-named legend introduces the incidental poem of " Loherangrin," and so led Wagner to the study of Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parziiial and Tilurel, with great results later on. But for the present he confined himself to the subject in hand; and on the igth of October 1845 he produced his Tann- hauser, with Schroeder Devrient, Johanna Wagner,1 Tichatschek and Mitterwurzer in the principal parts. Notwithstanding this powerful cast, the success of the new work was not brilliant, for it carried still further the principles embodied in Der fliegende Hollander, and the time was not ripe for them. But Wagner boldly fought for them, and might have prevailed earlier had he not taken part in the political agitations of 1849, after which his position in Dresden became untenable. In fact, after the flight of the king and the subsequent suppression of the riots, a warrant was issued for his arrest; and he had barely time to escape to Weimar, where Liszt was at that moment engaged in preparing Tannhauser for performance, before the storm burst upon him with alarming violence. In all haste Liszt procured a passport and escorted his guest as far as Eisenach. Wagner fled to Paris and thence to Zurich, where he lived in almost unbroken retire- ment until the autumn of 1859. During this period most of his prose works — including Oper und Drama, Uber das Dirigieren, Das Judcntum in der Musik — were given to the world. The medieval studies which Wagner had begun for his work at the libretto of Tannhauser bore rich fruit in his next opera Lohengrin, in which he also developed his principles on a larger scale and with a riper technique than hitherto. He had com- pleted the work before he fled from Dresden, but could not get it produced. But he took the score with him to Paris, and, as he himself tells us, " when ill, miserable and despairing, I sat brooding over my fate, my eye fell on the score of my Lohengrin, which I had totally forgotten. Suddenly I felt something like compassion that the music should never sound from off the death-pale paper. Two words I wrote to Liszt; his answer was the news that preparations were being made for the perform- ance of the work, on the grandest scale that the limited means of Weimar would permit. Everything that care and accessories 1 The composer's niece. WAGNER 237 could do was done to make the design of the piece understood. Liszt saw what was wanted at once, and did it. Success was his reward; and with this success he now approaches me, saying " See, we have come thus far; now create us a new work, that we may go further." Lohengrin was, in fact, produced at Weimar under Liszt's direction on the 28th of August 1850. It was a severe trial to Wagner not to hear his own work, but he knew that it was in good hands, and he responded to Liszt's appeal for a new creation by studying the N ibelungenlicd and gradually shaping it into a gigantic tetralogy. At this time also he first began to lay out the plan of Tristan und Isolde, and to think over the possibilities of Parsifal. During his exile Wagner matured his plans and perfected his musical style; but it was not until some considerable time after his return that any of the works he then meditated were placed upon the stage. In 1855 he accepted an invitation to London, where he conducted the concerts of the Philharmonic Society with great success. In 1857 he completed the libretto of Tristan und Isolde at Venice, adopting the Celtic legend modified by Gottfried of Strasburg's medieval version. But the music was delayed until the strange incident of a message from] the emperor of Brazil encouraged Wagner to complete it in 1859. In that year Wagner visited Paris for the third time; and after much negotiation, in which he was nobly supported by the Prince and Princess Metternich, Tannhauser was accepted at the Grand Opera. Magnificent preparations were made; it was rehearsed 164 times, 14 times with the full orchestra; and the scenery and dresses were placed entirely under the composer's direction. More than £8000 was expended upon the venture; and the work was performed for the first time in the French language and with the new Venusberg music on the I3th of March 1861. But, for political reasons, a powerful clique was determined to suppress Wagner. A scandalous riot was inaugurated by the members of the Parisian Jockey Club, who interrupted the performance with howls and dog- whistles; and after the third representation the opera was withdrawn. Wagner was broken-hearted. But the Princess Metternich continued to befriend him, and by 1861 she had obtained a pardon for his political offences, with permis- sion to settle in any part of Germany except Saxony. Even this restriction was removed in 1862. Wagner now settled for a time in Vienna, where Tristan und Isolde was accepted, but abandoned after fifty-seven rehearsals, through the incompetence of the tenor. Lohengrin was, however, produced on the isth of May 1861, when Wagner heard it for the first time. His circumstances were now extremely straitened ; it was the darkness before dawn. In 1863 he published the libretto of Der Ring des Nibelungen. King Ludwig of Bavaria was much struck with it, and in 1864 invited Wagner, who was then at Stuttgart, to come to Munich and finish his work there. Wagner accepted with rapture. The king gave him an annual grant of 1200 gulden (£120), considerably enlarging it before the end of the year, and placing a comfortable house in the outskirts of the city at his disposal. The master expressed his gratitude in a " Huldigungsmarsch." In the autumn he was formally commissioned to proceed with the tetralogy and to furnish proposals for the building of a theatre and the foundation of a Bavarian music school. All promised well, but no sooner did his position seem assured than a miserable court intrigue was formed against him. His political indiscretions at Dresden were made the excuse for bitter persecutions: scandalmongers made his friendship with the ill-fated king a danger to both; and Wagner was obliged to retire to Triebschen near Lucerne for the next six years. On the loth of June 1865 at Munich, Tristan und Isolde was produced for the first time, with Herr and Frau Schnorr in the principal parts. Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg, first sketched in 1845, was completed in 1867 and first performed at Munich under the direction of Hans von Billow on the aist of June 1868. The story, though an original one, is founded on the character of Hans Sachs, the poet-shoemaker of Nuremberg. The success of the opera was very great; but the production of the Nibelung- tetralogy as a whole still remained impracticable, though Das Rheingold and Die Walkiire were performed, the one on the 22nd of September 1869 and the other on the 26th of June 1870. The scheme for building a new theatre at Munich having been abandoned, there was no opera-house in Germany fit for so colossal a work. A project was therefore started for the erection of a suitable building at Bayreuth (q.v.). Wagner laid the first stone of this in 1872, and the edifice was completed, after almost insuperable difficulties, in 1876. After this Wagner resided permanently at Bayreuth, in a house named Wahnfried, in the garden of which he built his tomb. His first wife, from whom he had parted since 1861, died in 1865; and in 1870 he was united to Liszt's daughter Cosima, who had previously been the wife of von Billow. Meantime Der Ring des Nibelungen was rapidly approaching completion, and on the I3th of August 1876 the introductory portion, Das Rheingold, was performed at Bayreuth for the first time as part of the great whole, followed on the i4th by Die Walkiire, on the i6th by Siegfried and on the 1 7th by GoUerddmmerung. The performance, directed by Hans Richter, excited extraordinary attention; but the expenses were enormous, and burdened the management with a debt of £7500. A small portion of this was raised (at great risk) by performances at the Albert Hall in London, conducted by Wagner and Richter, in 1877. The remainder was met by the profits upon performances of the tetralogy at Munich. Wagner's next and last work was Parsifal, based upon the legend of the Holy Grail, as set forth, not in the legend of the Morle d' Arthur, but in the versions of Chrestien de Troyes and Wolfram von Eschenbach and other less-known works. The libretto was complete before his visit to London in 1877. The music was begun in the following year, and completed at Palermo on the I3th of January 1882. The first sixteen performances took place at Bayreuth, in July and August 1882, under Wagner's own directing, and fully realized all expectations. Unhappily the exertion of directing so many consecutive performances seems to have been too much for the veteran master's strength, for towards the close of 1882 his health began to decline rapidly. He spent the autumn at Venice, and was well enough on Christmas Eve to conduct his early symphony (composed in 1833) at a private performance given at the Liceo Marcello. But late in the afternoon of the i3th of February 1883 his friends were shocked by his sudden death from heart- failure. Wagner was buried at Wahnfried in the tomb he had himself prepared, on the i8th of February; and a few days afterwards King Ludwig rode to Bayreuth alone, and at dead of night, to pay his last tribute to the master of his world of dreams. (W.S.R.;D.F.T.) In the articles on Music and OPERA, Wagner's task in music- drama is described, and it remains here to discuss his progress in the operas themselves. This progress has perhaps no parallel in any art, and certainly none in music, for even Beethoven's progress was purely an increase in range and power. Beethoven, we know, lost sympathy with his early works as he grew older; but that was because his later works absorbed his interest, not because his early works misrepresented his ideals. Wagner's earlier works have too long been treated as if they represented the pure and healthy childhood of his later ideal; as if Lohengrin stood to Parsifal as Haydn, Mozart and early Beethoven stand to Beethoven's last quartets. But Wagner never thus represented the childhood of an ideal, though he attained the manhood of the most comprehensive ideal yet known in art. To change the metaphor — the ideal was always in sight, and Wagner never swerved from his path towards it; but that path began in a' blaze of garish false lights, and it had become very tortuous before the light of day prevailed. Beethoven was trained in the greatest and most advanced musical tradition of his lime. For all his Wagnerian impatience, his progress was no struggle from out of a squalid environment; on the contrary, one of his latest discoveries was the greatness of his master Haydn. Now Wagner's excellent teacher Weinlig did certainly, as Wagner himself testifies, teach him more of good music than Beethoven, WAGNER Haydn and Mozart could have seen in their youth; for he showed him Beethoven. But this would not help Wagner to feel that contemporary music was really a great art; indeed it could only show him that he was growing up in a pseudo-classical time, in which the approval of persons of " good taste " was seldom directed to things of vital promise. Again, he began with far greater facility in literature than in music, if only because a play can be copied ten times faster than a full score. Wagner was always an omnivorous reader, and books were then, as now, both cheaper than music and easier to read. Moreover, the higher problems of rhythmic movement in the classical sonata forms are far beyond the scope of academic teaching, which is compelled to be contented with a practical plausibility of musical design; and the instrumental music which was con- sidered the highest style of art in 1830 was as far beyond Wagner's early command of such plausibility as it was obviously already becoming a mere academic game. Lastly, the rules of that game were useless on the stage, and Wagner soon found hi Meyerbeer a master of grand opera who was dazzling the world by means which merely disgusted the more serious academic musicians of the day. In Rienzi Wagner would already have been Meyerbeer's rival, but that his sincerity, and his initial lack of that musical savoir faire which is prior to the individual handling of ideas, put him at a disadvantage. Though Meyerbeer wrote much that is intrinsically more dull and vulgar than the overture to Rienzi, he never combined such serious efforts with a technique so like that of a military bandmaster. The step from Rienzi to Der fliegende Hollander is without parallel in the history of music, and would be inexplicable if Rienzi contained nothing good and if Der fliegende Hollander did not contain many reminiscences of the decline of Italian opera; but it is noticeable that in this case the lapses into vulgar music have a distinct dramatic value. Though Wagner cannot as yet be confidently credited with a satiric intention in his bathos, the fact remains that all the Rossinian passages are associated with the character of Daland, so as to express his vulgar delight at the prospect of finding a rich son-in-law in the mysterious Dutch seaman. Meanwhile the rest of the work (except in the prettily scored " Spinning Song," and other harmless and vigorous tunes) has more affinity with Wagner's mature style than the bulk of its much more ambitious successors, Tannhauser and Lohengrin. The wonderful overture is more highly organized and less unequal than that of Tann- hauser; and although Wagner uses less Leit-motif than Weber (see OPERA, ad fin.) and divides the piece into " numbers " of classical size, the effect is so continuous that the divisions could hardly be guessed by ear. Moreover, the work was intended to be in one act, and is now so performed at Bayreuth; and, although it is very long for a one-act opera, this is certainly the only form which does justice to Wagner's conception.1 Spohr's appreciation of Der fliegende Hollander is a remarkable point in musical history; and his criticism that Wagner's style (in Tannhauser) " lacked rounded periods " shows the best effect of that style on a well-disposed contemporary mind. Of course, from Wagner's mature point of view his early style is far too much cut up by periods and full closes; and its prophetic traits are so incomparably more striking than its resemblance to any earlier art that we often feel that only the full closes stand between it and the true Wagner. But Spohr would feel Wagner's works to be an advance upon contemporary romantic opera rather than a foreshadowing of an unknown future. When we listen to the free declamation of the singers at the outset of Der fliegende Hollander — a declamation which is accompanied by 1 The subsequent division into three acts, as given in all the published editions, has been effected in the crudest way by inserting a full close in the orchestral interludes at the changes of scene, and then beginning the next scene by taking up the interludes again. The true version can be recovered from the published score as follows: In act I skip from the last bar but four to the 41 st bar of the introduction to the 2nd act; and at the end of the 2nd act skip from the last bar but five to the 8th bar of the entr'acte to the 3rd act. an orchestral and thematic texture as far removed from that of mere recitative as it is from the forms of the classical aria — the repetition of a whole sentence in order to form a firm musical close has almost as quaint a ring as a Shakespearean rhymed tag would have in a prose drama of Ibsen. To Spohr the frequency of these incidents must have produced the impression that Wagner was perpetually beginning arias and breaking them off at once. With all its defects, Der fliegende Hollander is the most masterly and the least unequal of Wagner's early works. As drama it stood immeasurably above any opera since Cherub ini's Medee. As a complete fusion between dramatic and musical movement, its very crudities point to its immense advance towards the solution of the problem, propounded chaotically at the beginning of the 1 7th century by Monteverde, and solved in a simple form by Gluck. And as the twofold musical and dramatic achieve- ment of one mind, it already places Wagner beyond parallel in the history of art. Tannhauser is on a grander scale, but its musical execution is disappointing. The weakest passages in Der fliegende Hollander are not so helpless as the original recitatives of Venus in the first act ; or Tannhauser's song, which was too far involved in the whole scheme to be ousted by the mature " New Venusberg music " with which Wagner fifteen years later got rid both of the end of the overture and what he called his " Palais-Royal " Venus. It is really very difficult to understand Schumann's impression that the musical technique of Tannhauser shows a remarkable improvement. Not until the third act does the great Wagner arbitrate in the struggle between amateurishness and theatricality in the music, though at all points his epoch-making stagecraft asserts itself with a force that tempts us to treat the whole work as if it were on the Wagnerian plane of Tannhauser's account of his pilgrimage in the third act. But the history of mid-igth- century music is unintelligible until we face the fact that, when the anti- Wagnerian storm was already at its height, Wagner was still fighting for the recognition of music which was most definite just where it realized with ultra-Meyerbeerian brilliance all that Wagner had already begun to detest. No contemporary, un- aided by personal knowledge, could be expected to trust in Wagner's purity of ideal on the strength of Tannhauser, which actually achieved popularity by such coarse methods of climax as the revivalistic end of the overture, by such maudlin pathos as O du mein holder Abendstern, and by the amiably childish grand-opera skill with which half the action is achieved by processions and a considerable fraction of the music is repre- sented by fanfares. These features established the work in a position which it will always maintain by its unprecedented dramatic qualities and by the glory reflected from Wagner's later achievements; but we shall not appreciate the marvel of its nobler features if we continue at this time of day to regard the bulk of the music as worthy of a great composer. After even the finest things in Tannhauser, the Vorspiel to Lohengrin comes as a revelation, with its quiet solemnity and breadth of design, its ethereal purity of tone-colour, and its complete emancipation from earlier operatic forms. The sus- pense and climax in the first act is so intense, and the whole drama is so well designed, that we must have a very vivid idea of the later Wagner before we can see how far the quality of musical thought still falls short of his ideals. The elaborate choral writing sometimes rises to almost Hellenic regions of dramatic art; and there is no crudeness in the passages that carry on the story quietly in reaction from the climaxes — a test far too severe for Tannhauser and rather severe for even the mature works of Gluck and Weber. The orchestration is already almost classically Wagnerian; though there remains an excessive amount of tremolo, besides a few lapses into comic violence, as in the yelpings which accompany Ortrud's rage in the night-scene in the second act. But the mere tone-colours of that scene are enough to make a casual listener imagine that he is dealing with the true Wagner: the variety of tone never fails, and depends on no immoderate paraphernalia; for, far- reaching as are the results of the systematic increase of the classical pairs of wind-instruments to groups of three, this is WAGNER 239 a very modest reform compared to the banausic " extra attrac- tions " of every new production of Meyerbeer's. But there is another side to the picture. With the growing certainty of touch a stiff ness of movement appears which gradually disturbs the listener who can appreciate freedom, whether in the classical forms which Wagner has now abolished, or in the majestic flow of Wagner's later style. Full closes and repeated sentences no longer confuse the issue, but in their absence we begin to notice the incessant squareness of the ostensibly free rhythms. The immense amount of pageantry, though (as in Tannhauser) good in dramatic motive and executed with splendid stage-craft, goes far to stultify Wagner's already vigorous attitude of protest against grand-opera methods; by way of preparation for the ethereally poetic end he gives us a disinfected present from Meyerbeer at the beginning of the last scene, where mounted trumpeters career round the stage in full blast for three long minutes; and the prelude to the third act is an outburst of sheer gratuitous vulgarity. Again, the anti-Wagnerians were entirely justified in penetrating below the splendidly simple and original orchestration of the night-scene between Ortrud and Telramund, and pointing out how feebly its music drifts among a dozen vague keys by means of the diminished 7th; a device which teachers have tried to weed out of every high- flown exercise since that otiose chord was first discovered in the i;th century. The mature Wagner would not have carried out twenty bars in his flattest scenes with so little musical in- vention. We must not forget that these boyish demerits belong to the work of a man of thirty-five whose claims and aspirations already purported to dwarf the whole record of the classics. And the defects are in all respects commonplace; they have no resemblance to that uncanny discomfort which often warns the wise critic that he is dealing with an immortal. The crowning complication in the effect of Der fliegende Hollander, Tannh&user and Lohengrin on the musical thought of the iQth century was that the unprecedented fusion of their musical with their dramatic contents revealed some of the meaning of serious music to ears that had been deaf to the classics. Wagnerism was henceforth proclaimed out of the mouths of babes and sucklings; learned musicians felt that it had an unfair advantage; and by the time Wagner's popularity began to thrive as a persecuted heresy he had left it in the lurch. Wagner had hardly finished the score of Lohengrin before he was at work upon the poem of Der Ring des Nibelungen. And with this he suddenly became a mature artist. On a super- ficial view this is a paradox, for there are many more violations of probability and much graver faults of structure in the later works than in the earlier. Every critic could recognize the structural merits of the earlier plays, for their operatic con- ventionalities and abruptness of motive are always intelligible as stage devices. Jealousy might prompt a doubt whether these plays were within the scope of "legitimate" music; but they were obviously stories of exceptional musical and romantic beauty, presented with literary resources unprecedented in operatic libretti. Now the later dramas are often notoriously awkward and redundant; while the removal of those convenient operatic devices which symbolize situations instead of developing them, does not readily appear to be compensated for by any superior artistic resource. But there is a higher point of view than that of story-telling. In the development of characters and intellectual ideas Wagner's later works show a power before which his earlier stagecraft shrinks into insignificance. It would not have sufficed even to indicate his later ideas. To handle these so successfully that we can discriminate defects from qualities at all, is proof of the technique of a master, even though the faults extend to whole categories of literature. The faults make analysis exceptionally difficult, for they are no longer commonplace; indeed, the gravest dangers of modern Wagnerism arise from the fact that there is hardly any non-musical aspect in which Wagner's later work is not important enough to produce a school of essentially non-musical critics who have no notion how far Wagner's mature music transcends the rest of his thought, nor how often it rises where his philosophy falls. Thus the prominent school of criticism which appraised Wagner in the ipth century by his approximation to Darwin and Herbert Spencer, appraises him in the 2oth by his approximation to Bernard Shaw; with the absurd result that Gotlerdammerung is ruled out as a reactionary failure. It is true that its only conceivable moral is flatly the opposite of that " redemption by love " which Wagner strenuously preaches in a passage at the end which remained unset because, he considered it already expressed by the music. Indeed, though Wagner's later treat- ment of love is perhaps the main source of his present popularity it seldom rises to his loftiest regions except where it is thwarted. The love that is disguised in the deadly feud between Isolde and Tristan, before the drinking of the fatal potion, rises even above the music; the love-duet in the second act depends for its greatness on its introduction, before the lovers have met, and its wonderful slow movement (shortly before the catastrophe) where they are almost silent and leave everything to the music : the intervening twenty minutes is an exhausting storm in which the words are the sophisticated rhetoric of a 19th-century novel of passion, translated into terribly turgid verse and set to music that is more interesting as an intellectual ferment than effective as a representation of emotions which previous dramatists have wisely left to the imagination. But so long as we treat Wagner like a prose philosopher, a librettist, a poet, a mere musician, or anything short of the complex and many-sided artist he really is, we shall find insuperable obstacles to under- standing or enjoying his works. A true work of art is incompar- ably greater than the sum of its ideas; apart from the fact that, if its ideas are innumerable and various, prose philosophers are apt to complain that it has none. And every additional idea that does not merely derange an art enlarges it as it were by a new dimension in space. Wagner added all the arts to each other, and in one of them he attained so consummate a mastery that we can confidently turn to it when his words and doctrines fail us. Even when we treat him merely as a dramatist our enjoyment of his later works gains enormously if we take them as organic wholes, and not as mere plots dressed up in verse and action. It matters little that Parsifal requires two nameless attendant characters in a long opening scene, for the sole purpose of telling the antecedents of the story, when a situation is thereby revealed which for subtlety and power has hardly a parallel since Greek tragedy. The vast myth of the Ring is related in full several times in each of the three main dramas, with ruthless disregard for the otherwise magnificent dramatic effect of the whole; hosts of original dramatic and ethical ideas, with which Wagner's brain was even more fertile than his voluminous prose works would indicate, assert them- selves at all points, only to be thwarted by repeated attempts to allegorize the philosophy of Schopenhauer; all efforts to read a consistent scheme, ethical or philosophical, into the result are doomed to failure; but all this matters little, so long as we have Wagner's unfailing later resources in those higher dramatic verities which present to us emotions and actions, human and divine, as things essentially complex and conflicting, inevitable as natural laws, incalculable as natural phenomena. Wagner's choice of subjects had from the outset shown an imagination far above that of any earlier librettist; yet he had begun with stories which could attract ordinary minds, as he dismally realized when the libretto of Der fliegcnde Hollander so pleased the Parisian wire-pullers that it was promptly set to music by one of their friends. But with Der Ring des Nibclungen Wagner devoted himself to a story which any ordinary dramatist would find as unwieldy as, for instance, most of Shakespeare's subjects; a story in which ordinary canons of taste and prob- ability were violated as they are in real life and in great art.. Wagner's first inspiration was for an opera (Siegfried's Tod, projected in 1848) on the death of Germany's mythical hero; but he found that the story needed a preliminary drama to convey its antecedents. This preliminary drama soon proved to need another to explain it, which again finally needed a short introductory drama. Thus the plan of the Ring was sketched in reverse order; and it has been remarked that Gstlerdammcrung 240 WAGNER shows traces of the fact that Wagner had begun his scheme in the days when French grand opera, with its ballets and pageantry, still influenced him. There is little doubt that some redundant narratives in the Ring were of earlier conception than the four complete dramas, and that their survival is due partly to Wagner's natural affection for work on which he had spent pains, and partly to a dim notion that (like Browning's method in The Ring and. the Book) they might serve to reveal the story afresh in the light of each character. Be this as it may, we may confidently date the purification of Wagner's music at the moment when he set to work on a story which carried him finally away from that world of stereotyped operatic passions into which he had already breathed so much disturbing life. The disturbing life already appears in Der fllegende Hollander, at the point where Senta's father enters with the Dutchman, and Senta (who is already in an advanced state of Schwarmerei over the legend of the Flying Dutchman) stands rooted to the spot, comparing the living Dutchman with his portrait which hangs over the door. The conflict between her passionate fascina- tion and her disgust at her father's vulgarity is finely realized both in music and drama; but, if we are able to appreciate it, then the operatic convention by which Senta avows her passion becomes crude. Ethical and operatic points of view are similarly confused when it is asserted that the Flying Dutchman can be saved by a faithful woman, though it appears from the relations between Senta and Erik that so long as the woman is faithful to the Dutchman it does not matter that she jilts some one else. Erik would not have been a sufficiently pathetic operatic tenor if his claim on Senta had been less complete. In Tannhiiuser and Lohengrin Wagner's intellectual power develops far more rapidly in the drama than in the music. The Sdngerkrieg, with its disastrous conflict between the sincere but unnatural asceticism of the orthodox Minnesingers and the irrepressible human passion of Tannhauser, is a conception the vitality of which would reduce Tannhauser's repentance to the level of Robert le Diable, were it not that the music of the Siingerkrieg has no structural power, and little distinction beyond a certain poetic value in the tones of violas which had long ago been fully exploited by Mozart and Mehul, while the music of Tannhauser's pilgrimage ranks with the Vorspiel to Lohengrin as a wonderful foreshadow- ing of Wagner's mature style. Again, the appeal to " God's judgment " in the trial by battle in Lohengrin is a subject of which no earlier librettist could have made more than a plausible mess — which is the best that can be said for the music as music. But as dramatist Wagner compels our respect for the power that without gloss or apology brings before us the king, a model of royal fair-mindedness and good-nature, acquiescing in Tel- ramund's monstrous claim to accuse Elsa without evidence, simply because it is a hard and self-evident fact that the persons of the drama live in an age in which such claims seemed reason- able. Telramund, again, is no ordinary operatic villain; there is genuine tragedy in his moral ruin; and even the melodramatic Ortrud is a much more life-like intrigante than might be inferred from Wagner's hyperbolical stage-directions, which almost always show his manner at its worst. In Lohengrin we take leave of the early music that obscured Wagner's ideals, and in the Ring we come to the music which transcends all other aspects of Wagnerism. Had Wagner been a man of more urbane literary intellect he might have been less ambitious of expressing a world-philosophy in music-drama; and it is just conceivable that the result might have been a less intermittent dramatic movement in his later works, and a balance of ethical ideas at once more subtle and more orthodox. But it is much more likely that Wagner would then have found his artistic difficulties too formidable to let the ideas descend to us from Walhalla and the Hall of the Grail at all. More than a modicum of rusticity is needed as a protection to a man who attempts such colossal reforms. This necessity had its conse- quences in the disquieting inequalities of Wagner's early work, and the undeniable egotism that embittered his fiery nature throughout his life; while the cut-and-dried system of culture of later Wagnerian discipleship has revenged him in a specially sacerdotal type of tradition, which makes progress even in the study of his works impossible except through revolt. Such are the penalties exacted by the irony of fate for the world's persecution of its prorJhets. Genuinely dramatic music, even if it seem as purely musical as Mozart's, must always be approached through its drama; and Wagner's masterpieces demand that we shall use this approach ; but, as with Mozart, we must not stop on the threshold. With Mozart there is no temptation to do so. But with Wagner, just as there are people who have never tried to follow a sonata but who have been awakened by his music-dramas to a sense of the possibilities of serious music, so there are lovers of music who avow that they owe to Wagner their appreciation of poetry. But people whose love of literature is more independent find it hard to take Wagner's poetry and prose seriously, unless they have already measured him by his music. He effected no reform in literature; his meticulous adherence to the archaic alliteration of the N ' ibelungenlied is not allied with any sense of beauty in verbal sound or verse-rhythm; and his ways of expressing emotion in language consist chiefly in the piling-up of super- latives. Yet he was too full of dramatic inspiration to remain perpetually victimized by the conscientious affectations of the amateur author; and, where dramatic situations are not only poetical but (as in the first act of DieWalkure and the Waldweben scene in Siegfried) too elemental for strained language, Wagner is often supremely eloquent simply because he has no occasion to try to write poetry. Sometimes, too, when a great dramatic climax has given place to a lyrical anticlimax, retrospective moods, subtleties of emotion and crowning musical thoughts press in upon Wagner's mind with a closeness that determines every word; and thus not only is the whole third act of Tristan, as Wagner said when he was working at it, of " overwhelming tragic power," but Isolde's dying utterances (which occupy the last five minutes and are, of course, totally without action or dramatic tension) were not unlike fine poetry even before the music was written. But, as a rule, Wagner's poetic diction must simply be tolerated by the critic who would submit himself to Wagner's ideas. If we wish to know what Wagner means, we must fight our way through his drama to his music; and we must not expect to find that each phrase in the mouth of the actor corresponds word for note with the music. That sort of correspondence Wagner leaves to his imitators; and his views on " Leit-motif- hunting," as expressed in his prose writings and conversation, are contemptuously tolerant. We shall indeed find that his orchestra interprets the dramatic situations which his poetry roughly outlines. But we shall also find that, even if we could conceive the poetry to be a perfect expression of all that can be given in words and actions, the orchestra will express something greater; it will not run parallel with the poetry; the Leitmotif system will not be a collection of labels; the musical expression of singer and orchestra will not be a mere heightened resource of dramatic declamation. All that kind of pre-established harmony Wagner left behind him the moment he deserted the heroes and villains of romantic opera for the visionary and true tragedy of gods and demi-gods, giants and gnomes, with beauty, nobility and love in the wrong, and the forces of destruction and hate set free by blind justice. Let us illustrate Wagner's mature use of Leitmotif by the theme which happens to be associated with Alberich's ring. The fact that this theme is commonly called the " Ring-motif " is a glaring instance of what Wagner has had to endure from his friends. Important as the ring is throughout the tetralogy, Wagner would no more think of associating a theme with it for its own sake than he would think of associating a theme with Wotan's hat. Why should a Ring-motif be transformed into the theme repre- senting Walhalla? Are we to guess that the connexion of ideas is that Wotan had eventually to pay for Walhalla by the ring? But if we attend to the circumstances under which this theme arises, its purport and development become deep and natural. The Rhine-daughters have been teasing the Nibelung Alberich, and are rejoicing in the light of the Rhine-gold which shines at WAGNER 241 the top of a rock as the sun strikes it through the water. Alberich does not think much of the gold if its only use is for these water- children's games. But one of the Rhine-daughters tells him that " he who could make the gold into a ring would become master of the world," and to these words the so-called Ring-motif is first sung (see MELODY, Example u). The Rhine-daughter sings it in a childlike, indolently graceful way which well expresses the kind of toy the ring or the world itself would be to her. One of her sisters bids her be careful, but they reassure them- selves with the thought that the Rhine-gold is safe, since no one can win it who does not renounce love. Alberich broods over what he hears, and already the theme changes its character as he thinks of such mastery of the world as he might gain by it (MELODY, Ex. 12). He curses love and grasps the gold. The theme of world-mastery grows dark with the darkness of the Nibelung's mind. The waters of the Rhine change into black mists which grow grey and thin, while the now sinister theme becomes softer and smoother. Then it breaks gently forth in a noble, swinging rhythm and massively soft brazen tones, as Wotan awakes on a mountain height and gazes upon Walhalla, his newly finished palace which he has bid the giants build, so that from it he may rule the world (MELODY, Ex. 13). The theme thus shows no trivial connexion with a stage-property, mechanic- ally important in the plot; but it represents the desire for power, and what that desire means to each different type of mind. The gods, as the giants plaintively admit, " rule by beauty"; hence the " Walhalla-motif ." What it becomes in the mind of the Nibelung is grimly evident when Alberich uses his ring in Nibelheim. The Rhine-daughters' exultant cry of " Rhine-gold " is there tortured in an extremely remote modulation at the end of a very sinister transformation of the theme; and the orchestra- tion, wi(h its lurid but smothered brass instruments, its penetrat- ing low reed tones and its weird drum-roll beaten on a suspended cymbal, is more awe-inspiring than anything dreamed of by the cleverest of those composers who do not create intellectual causes for their effects. A famous and typical instance of Wagner's use of Leitmotif in tragic irony is the passage where Hagen gives Siegfried friendly welcome, to the melody of the curse which Alberich pronounced on the ring and all who approached it. The more subtle examples are inexhaustible in variety and resource; and perhaps the climax of subtlety is the almost entire absence of Leitmotif in the first scene of the third act of Gotterdiimmerung, when Siegfried throws away his last chance of averting his doom. The Rhine- daughters appear to him, and ask him to give them the ring that is on his finger. Siegfried refuses. They laugh at his stinginess and disappear. Siegfried is piqued, and calls them back to offer them the ring. Unfortunately they tell him of its curse, and prophesy death to him if he keeps it. This arouses his spirit of contradiction; and he tells them that they might have won it from him by coaxing, but never by threats, and that he values his life no more than the stone he tosses away as he speaks to them. In spite of the necessary allusions to the ominous theme of the curse, which would give any less great composer ample excuse for succumbing to the listener's sense of impending. doom, Wagner's music speaks to us through the child-minds of the Rhine-daughters and terrifies us with the ruthless calm of Nature. Almost as subtle, and much more directly impressive, is the pathos of the death of Siegfried, which is heightened by an un- precedented appeal to a sense of musical form on the scale of the entire tetralogy. Siegfried's whole character and career is, indeed, annihilated in the clumsy progress towards this con- summation ; but Shakespeare might have condoned worse plots for the sake of so noble a result; and indeed Wagner's awkward- ness arises mainly from fear of committing oversights. Hagen, the Nibelung's son, has managed to make Siegfried unwittingly drink a love-potion with Gutrune, which causes him to forget his own bride, Briinnhilde. Siegfried is then persuaded to transform himself by his magic Tarnhelm into the likeness of his host, Gutrune's brother Gunther, in order to bring Briinnhilde (whose name is now quite new to him) from her fire-encircled rock, so that Gunther may have her for his bride and Siegfried may wed Gutrune. This is achieved; and Brunnhilde's horror and be- wilderment at meeting Siegfried again as a stranger in his own shape creates a situation which Siegfried cannot understand, and which Hagen pretends to construe as damning evidence that Siegfried has betrayed Gunther's honour as well as Brunnhilde's. Hagen, Gunther and Briinnhilde therefore agree that Siegfried must die. In order to spare Gutrune's feelings it is arranged that his death shall appear as an accident in a hunting party. While the hunting party is resting Siegfried tells stories of his boyhood, thus recalling the antecedents of this drama with a charming freshness and sense of dramatic and musical repose. When he comes to the point where his memory has been clouded by Hagen's spells, Hagen restores his memory with another magic potion. Siegfried calmly continues to tell how he found Briinnhilde asleep on the fiery mountain. Hagen affects to construe this as a confession of guilt, and slays him as if in righteous wrath. The dying Siegfried calls on Briinnhilde to awaken, and asks "Who hath locked thee again in sleep?" He believes that he is once more with Briinnhilde on the Val- kyries' mountain height; and the harmonies of her awakening move in untroubled splendour till the light of life fades with the light of day and the slain hero is carried to the Gibichung's hall through the moonlit mists, while the music of love and death tells in terrible triumph more of his story than he ever knew. The bare conception of such art as this shows how perfect is the unity between the different elements in Wagner's later music- drama. If the music of Tristan is more polyphonic than that of Lohengrin, it is because it is hardly figurative to call its drama polyphonic also. Compare the mere fairy-tale mystery of Lohengrin's command that Elsa shall never ask to know his name, with the profound fatalism of Isolde's love-potion. Apart from the gain in tragic force resulting from Wagner's masterly development of the character of Brangacne, the raw material of the story was already suggestive of that astounding combina- tion of the contrasted themes of love and death, the musical execution of which involves a harmonic range almost as far beyond that of its own day as the ordinary harmonic range of the ipth century is beyond that of the i6th. In his next work, Die Meister singer, Wagner ingeniously made poetry and drama out of an explicit manifesto to musical critics, and proved the depth of his music by developing its everyday resources and so showing that its vitality does not depend on that extreme emotional force that makes Tristan und Isolde almost unbearably poignant. Few things are finer in music or literature than the end of the second act of Die Meister singer, from the point where Sachs's apprentice begins the riot, to the moment when the watchman, frightened at the silence of the moonlit streets so soon after he has heard all that noise, announces eleven o'clock and bids the folk pray for protection against evil spirits, while the orchestra tells us of the dreams of Walther and Eva and ends by putting poetry even into the pedantic ineptitudes of the malicious Beckmesser. Die Meister singer is perhaps Wagner's most nearly perfect work of art; and it is a striking proof of its purity and greatness that, while the whole work is in the happiest comic vein, no one ever thinks of it as in any way slighter than Wagner's tragic works. The overwhelming love-tragedy of Tristan und Isolde is hardly less perfect, though the simplicity of its action exposes its longueurs to greater notoriety than those which may be found in Die Meistetsinger. These two works interrupted the execution of the Ring and formed the stepping-stones to Parsifal, a work which may perhaps be said to mark a further advance in that subtlety of poetic conception which, as we have seen, gave the determining impulse to Wagner's true musical style. But in music he had no more to learn, and Parsifal, while the most solemn and concentrated of all Wagner's dramas, is musically not always unsuggestive of old age. Its harmonic style is, except in the Grail music, even more abstruse than in Tristan; and the intense quiet of the action is far removed from the forces which in that tumultuous tragedy carry the listener through every difficulty. Again, while the Eucharistic features in Parsifal attract some listeners, the material effect of their presentation 242 WAGNER on the stage has been known to repel others who are beyond suspicion of prejudice. But the greatness of the art is, like its subject, worlds away from material impressions; and a wide consensus regards Wagner's last work as his loftiest, both in music and poetry. Certainly no poet would venture to despise Wagner's imaginative conception of Kundry. In his letters to his, friend Mathilde Wesendonck, it appears that while he was composing Tristan he already had the inspiration of working out the identification of Kundry, the messenger of the Grail, with the temptress who, under the spell of Klingsor, seduces the knights of the Grail; and he had, moreover, thought out the impressively obscure suggestion that she was Herodias, con- demned like the wandering Jew to live till the Saviour's second coming. The quiet expression of these startling ideas is more remarkable than their adoption; for smaller artists live on still more startling ideas; but most remarkable of all is the presentation of Parsifal, both in his foolishness and in the widsom which comes to him through pity. The chief excuse for doubting whether Wagner's last work is really his greatest is that most of its dramatic subtleties are beyond musical expression, since they do not lead to definite conflicts and blendings of emotion. Where the orchestra shows that Parsifal is becoming half-con- scious of his quest while Kundry is beguiling him with memories of his mother, — and also during the two changes of scene to the Hall of the Grail, where the orchestra mingles the agony of Amfortas and the sorrow of the knights with the tolling of the great bells, — the polyphony is almost as dramatic as in Tristan', while the prelude and the Charfreitagszauber are among the clearest examples of the sublime since Beethoven. But else- where there are few passages in which the extremely recondite harmonic style can be with certainty traced to anything but habit. This style originated, indeed, in a long experience of the profoundest dramatic impulses; but as a habit it does not seem, like the greatest things in art, the one inevitable treatment of the matter in hand. But, whatever our doubts, we may safely regard Parsifal as a work which, like Beethoven's last fugues, invites attack rather from those critics who demand what flatters their own vanity than from those who wish to be inspired by what they could never have foreseen for themselves. In Wagner's harmonic style we encounter the entire problem of modern musical texture. Wagner effected vast changes in almost every branch of his all-embracing art, from theatre- building and stage-lighting to the musical declamation of words. Most of his reforms have since been intelligently carried out as normal principles in more arts than one; but, shocking as the statement may seem to 20th-century orthodoxy, Wagnerian harmony is a universe as yet unexplored, except by the few composers who are so independent of its bewildering effect on the generation that grew up with it, that they can use Wagner's resources as discreetly as he used them himself. The last two examples at the end of the article on HARMONY show almost all that is new in Wagner's harmonic principles. The peculiar art therein is that while the discords owe their intelligibility and softness to the smooth melodic lines by which in " resolving " they prove themselves but transient rainbow-hues on or below the surface, they owe their strangeness to the intense vividness with which at the moment of impact they suggest a mysteriously remote foreign key. Wagner's orthodox contemporaries regarded such mixtures of key as sheer nonsense; and it would seem that the rank and file of his imitators agree with that view, since they either plagiarize Wagner's actual progressions or else produce such mixtures with no vividness of key-colour and little attempt to follow those melodic trains of thought by which Wagner makes sense of them. There is far more of truly Wagnerian harmony to be found before his time than since. It was so early recognized as characteristic of Chopin that a magnificent example may be seen at the end of Schumann's little tone-portrait of him in the Carnaval: a very advanced Wagnerian passage on another principle constitutes the bulk of the development in the first movement of Beethoven's sonata Les Adieux; while even in the " Golden Age " of music, and within the limits of pure diatonic concord, the unexpectedness of many of Palestrina's chords is hardly less Wagnerian than the perfect smoothness of the melodic lines which combine to produce them. Wagnerian harmony is, then, neither aside-issue nor a progress per saltum, but a leading current in the stream of musical evolu- tion. That stream is sure sooner or later to carry with it every reality that has been reached by side-issues and leaps; and of such things we have important cases in the works of Strauss and Debussy. Strauss makes a steadily increasing use of avowedly irrational discords, in order to produce an emotionally apt physical sensation. Debussy has this in common with Strauss, that he too regards harmonies as pure physical sensations; but he differs from Strauss firstly in systematically refusing to regard them as anything else, and secondly in his extreme sensibility to harshness. We have seen (in the articles on HARMONY and Music) how harmonic music originated in just this habit of regarding combinations of sound as mere sensations, and how for centuries the habit opposed itself to the intellectual principles of contrapuntal harmony. These intellectual principles are, of course, not without their own ground in physical sensation; but it is evident that Debussy appeals beyond them to a more primitive instinct; and on it he bases an almost perfectly coherent system of which the laws are, like those of 12th-century music, precisely the opposite of those of classical harmony. The only illogical point in his system is that the beauty of his dreamlike chords depends not only on his artful choice of a timbre that minimizes their harshness, but also on the fact that they enter the ear with the meaning they have acquired through centuries of harmonic evolution on classical lines. There is a special pleasure in the subsidence of that meaning beneath a soothing sensation; but a system based thereon cannot be universal. Its phenomena are, however, perfectly real, and can be observed wherever artistic conditions make the tone of a mass of harmony more important than the interior threads of its texture. This is of constant occurrence in classical pianoforte music, in which thick chords are subjected to polyphonic laws only in their top and bottom notes, while the inner notes make a solid mass of sound in which numerous consecutive fifths and octaves are not only harmless but essential to the balance ol tone. In Debussy's art the top ancl bottom are also involved in the antipolyphonic laws of such masses of sound, thus making ihese laws paramount. The irrational discords of Strauss are also real phenomena in musical aesthetics. They are an extension of the principle on which gongs and cymbals and all instruments without notes of determinate pitch, are employed in otherwise polyphonic music. But it is important to realize that both these types of modern harmony are radically non-Wagnerian. Haydn uses a true Straussian discord in The Seasons, in order to imitate the chirping of a cricket; but the harshest realism in Gotterdiimmerung (the discord produced by the horns of Hagen and his churls in the mustering-scene in the second act) has a harmonic logic which would have convinced Corelli. And of Debussy's antipolyphonic art there is less in Wagner than in Beethoven. The present in- fluence of Wagnerian harmony is, then, somewhat indefinite, since the most important real phenomena of later music indicate a revolt both from it and from earlier classical methods. It has had, however, a marked effect on weaker musical individualities. Musical public opinion now puts an extraordinary pressure on the young composer, urging him at all costs to abandon " out- of-date "styles however stimulating they maybe to his invention. It is no exaggeration to say that a parallel condition in literature would be produced by a strong public opinion to the effect that any English style was hopelessly out of date unless it consisted exclusively of the most difficult types of phrase to be found in the works of Browning and Meredith. The brilliant success of Humperdinck's Hansel und Gretel, in which Wagnerian technique is applied to the diatonic style of nursery songs with a humorous accuracy undreamed of by Wagner's imitators, points a moral which would have charmed Wagner himself; but until the revival of some rudiments of musical common sense becomes widespread, there is little prospect of the influence of Wagner's harmonic style being productive of anything better than nonsense. WAGON— WAGRAM 243 The very sense of dramatic fitness has temporarily vanished from public musical opinion, together with the sense of musical form, in consequence of another prevalent habit, that of present- ing shapeless extracts from Wagner's operas as orchestral pieces without voices or textbooks or any hint that such adjuncts are desirable. But this vandalism, which Wagner condoned with a very bad grace, now happily begins to give way to the practice of presenting long scenes or entire acts, with the singers, on the concert-platform. This has the merit of bringing the real Wagner to ears which may have no other means of hearing him, and it fosters no delusion as to what is missing in such a presentation. The guidance of Hans Richter has given us a sure bulwark against the misrepresentation of Wagner; and so there is hope that Wagner may yet be saved from such an oblivion in fetish-worship as has lost Handel to us for so long. As with Shakespeare and Beethoven, the day will never come when we can measure the influence of so vast a mind upon the history of art. Smaller artists can make history; the greatest absorb it into that daylight which is its final cause. LIST OF WAGNER'S WORKS The following are Wagner's operas and music-dramas, apart from the unpublished Die Hpchzeil (three numbers only), Die Feen, and Das Lieoesverbot (Das Liebesverbot was disinterred in 1910). 1. Rienzi, der letzte der Tribunen: grosse tragische Oper; 5 acts (1838-1840). 2. Der fliegende Hollander: romantische Oper; I act, afterwards cut into 3 (1841). 3. Tannhduser und der Sdngerkrieg auf Wartburg: romantische Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1843; music, 1844-1845; new Venusberg music, 1860-1861). 4. Lohengrin: romantische Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1845; music, 1846-1848). This is the last work Wagner calls by the title of Opera. 5. Das Rheingold, prologue in 4 scenes to Der Ring des Nibelungen; ein Buhnenfestspiet (poem written last of the series, which was begun in 1848 and finished in 1851-1852; music, 1853-1854). 6. Die Walkilre: der Ring des Nibelungen, enter Tag; 3 acts (score finished, 1856). 7. Tristan und Isolde; 3 acts (poem written in 1857; music, 1857-1859). 8. Siegfried: der Ring des Nibelungen, zweiler Tag; 3 acts, the first two nearly finished before Tristan, the rest between 1865 and 1869. 9. Die Meistersinger von Number g; 3 acts (sketch of play, 1845; poem, 1861-1862; music, 1862-1867). 10. Gotterddmmerung: der Ring des Nibelungen, driller Tag; introduction and 3 acts (Siegfried's Tod already sketched dramati- cally in 1848; music, 1870-1874). 11. Parsifal: ein Buhnenwcthfestspiel (a solemn stage festival play). 3 acts (poem, 1876-1877; music, 1877-1882, Cltarfreiiags- zauber already sketched in 1857). As regards other compositions, the early unpublished works in- clude a symphony, a cantata, some incidental music to a pantomime, and several overtures, four of which have recently been discovered and produced. The important small published works are Eine Faust Overture (1839-1840; rewritten, 1855); the Siegfried Idylle (an exquisite serenade lor small orchestra on themes from the finale of Siegfried, written as a surprise for Frau Wagner in 1870); the Kaisermarsch (1871), the Huldigungsmarsch (1864) for military band (the scoring of the concert-version finished by Raff); Fiinf Gedichte (1862), a set of songs containing two studies for Tristan; and the early quasi-oratorio scene for male-voice chorus and full orchestra. Das Liebesmahl der Apostel (1843). Wagner's retouching of Cluck's Iphigenie en Aulide and his edition of Palestrina's Stabat Mater demand mention as important services to music, by no means to be classified (as in some catalogues) with the hack-work with which he kept off starvation in Paris. The collected literary works of Wagner in German fill ten volumes, and include political speeches, sketches for dramas that did not become operas, autobiographical chapters, aesthetic musical treatises and polemics of vitriolic violence. Their importance will never be comparable to that of his music; but, just as the reaction against Ruskin's ascendancy as an art-critic has coincided with an increased respect for his ethical and sociological thought, so the rebellious forces that are compelling Wagnensm to grant music a constitution coincide with a growing admiration of his general mental powers. The prose works have been translated into English by W. A. Ellis (8 vols., 1892-1899). The translation by F. Jameson (1897) °f the text of the Ring (first published in the pocket edition of the full scores) is the most wonderful tour deforce yet achieved in its line. A careful reading of the score to this English text reveals not a single false emphasis or loss of rhetorical point in the fitting of words to notes, nor a single extra note or halt in the music; and wherever the language seems stilted or absurd the original will be found to be at least equally so, while the spirit of Wagner's poetry is faithfully reflected. Such work deserves more recognition than it is ever likely to get. Rapidly as the standard of musical transla- tions was improving before this work appeared, no one could have foreseen what has now been abundantly verified, that the Ring can be performed in English without any appreciable loss to Wagner's art. The same translator has also published a close, purely literary version. LITERATURE. — The Wagner literature is too enormous to be dealt with here. The standard biography is that of Glasenapp (6 vols., of which five appeared between 1894 and 1909). Of readable English books we may cite Ernest Newman, A Study of Wagner (1899); H. E. Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama (1891); Jessie L. Weston, Legends of the Wagner Dramas (1906). The Perfect Wagnerite, by G. Bernard Shaw, though concerned mainly with the social philosophy of the Ring, gives a luminous account of Wagner's mastery of musical movement. The highest English authority on Wagner is his friend Dannreuther, whose article in Grove's Dictionary is classical. See also ARIA, HARMONY, INSTRUMENTATION, Music, OPERA, and OVERTURE. (D.F.T.) WAGON, or WAGGON, a large four-wheeled vehicle for the carriage of heavy loads, and drawn by two or more horses. This is the general English use of the term, where it is more particularly confined to the large vehicles employed in the carrying of agricultural produce. It is also used of the uncovered heavy rolling stock for goods on railways. In America the term is applied also to lighter vehicles, such as are used for express delivery, police work, &c., and to various forms of four-wheeled vehicles used for driving, to which the English term " cart " would be given. The word " wagon " appears to be a direct adaptation of Du. Wagen (cf. Ger. Wagen, Swed. Vagn, &c.). Skeat finds the earliest use of the word in Lord Berner's transla- tion of Froissart (1523-1525), so that it is by no means an early word. The O.E. cognate word was w&gn, later w„- Imagine Tetrici takes the form of a dialogue; it was inspired by an equestrian statue of Theodoric the Great which stood in front of Charlemagne's palace at Aix-la-Chapelle. For a bibliography of Walafrid's historical works, and of writings dealing with them, see Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi (Berlin, 1894), p. 1 102 ff. Walafrid's works are published in Migne's Palro- logia Latino, vols. cxiii. and cxiv. For further references see the article by Eduard Reuss and A. Hauck in Herzog-Hauck, Real- encyklopddie (Leipzig, 1908), xx. 790. WALCH, JOHANN GEORG (1693-1775). German theologian, was born on the I7th of June 1693 at Meiningen, where his father, Georg Walch, was general superintendent. He studied at Leipzig and Jena, amongst his teachers being J. F. Buddeus (1667-1729), whose only daughter he married. He published in 1716 a work, Historia critica Latinae linguae, which soon came into wide use. Two years later he became professor extra- ordinarius of philosophy at Jena. In 1719 he was appointed professor ordinarius of rhetoric, in 1721 of poetry, and in 1724 professor extraordinarius of theology. In 1728 he became professor ordinarius of theology, and in 1750 professor primarius. His theological position was that of a very moderate orthodoxy, which had been influenced greatly by the philosophy and controversies of the Deistic period. His university lectures and published works ranged over the wide fields of church history in its various branches, particularly the literature and the controversies of the church, dogmatics, ethics and pastoral theology. He died on the i3th of January 1775. Of his works the most valuable were Bibliotheca Oteologica (i757- 1765); Bibliotheca patristica (1770, new ed. 1834); his edition of Luther's works in 24 vois. (1740-1752); Historische and theologtsche Einleittmg in die religiosen Streitigkeiten, lueiche sonderltch ausser der ev -luthenschen Kirche entstanden (5 vols., 1733 ff.); the companion work to this, Einleitung in die Religionsstrettigkeiten dsr evangel, luth. Kirche (1730-1739), and Philosophises Lexikon (1726, 4th ed 1775). His life, with a complete list of his writings, which amounted to 287, Leben und Charakter des Kirchenraths J. G. Walch, was published anonymously by his son C. W. F. Walch (Jena, 1777)- Cf. Wilhelm Gass, Protestantische Dogmatik, iii. p. 205 sq. His son, JOHANN ERNST IMMANUEL (1725-1778), studied Semitic languages at Jena, and also natural science and mathe- matics. In 1749 he published Einleitung in die Harmonic der ' Walafrid also edited Thetmar's Life of Louis the Pious, prefixing a preface and making a few additions, and divided Einhard s Vtla Caroli into chapters, adding an introduction. 252 WALCOTT— WALDECK-PYRMONT Evangelisten, and in 1730 was appointed professor extraordi- narius of theology. Five years later he became professor ordinarius of logic and metaphysics; in 1759 he exchanged this for a professorship of rhetoric and poetry. Amongst other theological works he published Dissertationes in Ada Aposlolorum (1756-1761); Antlquitales symbolicae (1772); and after his death appeared Obseroationes in Matthaeum ex Graecis inscriptionibus (1779). He also published a periodical Der Naturforscher (1774- 1778), and during the years 1749-1756 took an active part in editing the Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen. See article in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; also Lebens- geschichte J. E. I. Walch (Jena, 1880), and J. G. Meusel's Lexikon der verstorbenen teutschen Schriftsteller, vol. xiv. Another son, CHRISTIAN WILHELM FRANZ (1726-1784), was educated at Jena under his father's direction, and as early as 1745-1747 lectured in the university in branches of exegesis, philosophy and history. He then travelled with his brother, J. E. I. Walch, for a year in Holland, France, Switzerland and Italy. On his return he was in 1750 made professor extra- ordinarius of philosophy in Jena, but in 1753 he accepted an invitation to become professor ordinarius at Gottingen. Here in 1754 he became professor extraordinarius of theology, and three years later received an ordinary professorship. He lectured on dogmatics, church history, ethics, polemics, natural theology, symbolics, the epistles of Paul, Christian antiquities, historical theological literature, ecclesiastical law and the fathers, and took an active interest in the work of the Goltinger Societal der Wissen- schaften. In 1766 he was appointed professor primarius. His permanent place amongst learned theologians rests on his works on church history. Semler was much his superior in originality and boldness, and Mosheim in clearness, method and elegance. But to his wide, deep and accurate learning, to his conscientious and impartial examination of the facts and the authorities at first hand, and to " his exact quotation of the sources and works illustrating them, and careful discussion of the most minute details," all succeeding historians are indebted. His method is critical and pragmatic, " pursuing everywhere the exact facts and the supposed causes of the outward changes of history," leaving wholly out of sight the deeper moving principles and ideas which influence its course. He died on the loth of March 1784. His principal work was his Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic der Ketzereien, Spaltungen, und Religionsstreiligkeiten, bis auf die Zeit der Reformation (n vols., Leipzig, 1762-1785). Of his other valuable works may be mentioned Geschichle der evangelisch-lutheri- schen Religion, als ein Beweis, dass sie die wahre sei (1753), Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic der romischen Papste (1756, 2nd eel. 1758; Eng. trans. 1759), Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic der Kirchenversammlungen (1759), Grundsdtze der Kirchengeschichte des Neuen Testaments (1761, 2nd ed. 1773, 3rd ed. 1792), Bibliotheca symbolica vetus (1770), Kritische Untersuchung vom Gcbrauch der hettigen Schrijt unter den alien Christen (1779), occasioned by the controversy between G. E. Lessing and J. M. Goeze, and to which Lessing began an elaborate reply just before his death. On C. W. F. Walch as historian see F. Baur, Epochen der kirch- lichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852), p. 145 sq., and Dogmengeschichte, p. 38 sq. (1867, 3rd ed.); W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik, iii. p. 267 sq. ; J. G. Meusel, Lexicon verstorbener teutschen Schriftsteller, vol. xiv. For his life, see the article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. A third son, KARL FRIEDRICH (1734-1799), devoted himself to the study of law, and became professor of law at Jena in 1759. His most important works were Introduclio in controversias juris civilis recentioris (Jena, 1771) and Geschichle der in Deutschland geltenden Rechie (Jena, 1780). He died on the 2oth of July 1799. WALCOTT, CHARLES DOOLITTLE (1850- ), American geologist, was born at the village of New York Mills, New York, on the 3ist of March 1850. He received a school education at Utica. In 1876 he was appointed assistant on the New York State Survey, and in 1879 assistant geologist on the United States Geological Survey; in 1888 he became one of the palae- ontologists in charge of the invertebrata, in 1893 chief palae- ontologist, and in 1894 director of the Geological Survey. In 1907 he was appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. As president of the Geological Society of Washington he delivered in 1894 an important address on The United States Geological Survey. He added largely to contemporary know- ledge of the fauna of the Older Palaeozoic rocks of North America, especially with reference to the Crustacea and brachiopoda; he dealt also with questions of ancient physical geography and with mountain structure. His more important works include " Palaeontology of the Eureka district " (Man. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884) ; " Cambrian faunas of North America" (Butt. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884); Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus Zone (1890, issued 1891), and Fossil Medusae (Man. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1898). WALDECK-PYRMQNT, a principality of Germany and a constituent state of the German empire, consisting of two separate portions lying about 30 m. apart, viz. the county of Waldeck, embedded in Prussian territory between the provinces of Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau, and the principality of Pyr- mont, farther to the north, between Lippe, Brunswick, Westphalia and Hanover. Waldeck comprises an area of 407 sq. m., covered for the most part with hills, which culminate in the Hegekopf (2775 ft.). The centre is occupied by the plateau of Corbach. The chief rivers are the Eder and the Diemel, both of which eventually find their way into the Weser. Pyrmont, only 26 sq. m. in extent, is also mountainous. The Emmer, also belonging to the Weser system, is its chief stream. The united area is thus 433 sq. m., or about half the size of Cambridge- shire in England, and the united population in 1905 was 59,127, showing a density of 138 to the square mile. The population is almost wholly Protestant. In consequence of the comparatively high elevation of the country — the lowest part being 540 ft. above the sea-level — the climate is on the whole inclement. Agriculture and cattle-rearing are the main resources of the in- habitants in both parts of the principality, but the soil is nowhere very fertile. Only 57% of the area is occupied by arable land and pasture; forests, one-tenth of which are coniferous, occupy 38 %. Oats is the principal crop, but rye, potatoes and flax are also grown in considerable quantities. Fruit is also cultivated in the principality. Iron mines, slate and stone quarries are worked at various points, and, with live stock, poultry, wool and timber form the chief exports. A few insignificant manufactures are carried en in some of the little towns, but both trade and manufactures are much retarded by the comparative isolation of the country from railways. Wildungen, in the extreme south of Waldeck, is the terminus of a branch line from Wabern, and a light railway runs from Warburg to Marburg; Pyrmont is intersected by the trunk line running from Cologne,viaPaderborn, to Brunswick and Berlin. The capital and the residence of the prince is Arolsen (pop. 2811 in 1905) in Waldeck; twelve smaller townships and about one hundred villages are also situated in the county. The only town in Pyrmont is Bad Pyrmont, with about 1500 inhabitants, a highly fashionable watering-place with chalybeate and saline springs. The annual number of- visitors is about 23,000. Wil- dungen is also a spa of repute. The inhabitants to the north of the Eder are of Saxon stock, to the south of Franconian, a difference which is distinctly marked in dialect, costumes and manners. Waldeck-Pyrmont has one vote in the federal council (Bundesrat) and one in the Reichstag. The constitution, dating from 1852, is a reactionary modification of one carried in 1849, which had been a considerable advance upon one granted in 1816. The Landtag of one chamber consists of fifteen members, three of whom represent Prymont, elected indirectly for three years. In the event of the male line of the present ruling family becoming extinct, the female line will succeed in Waldeck, but Pyrmont will fall to Prussia. In terms of a treaty concluded in 1867 for ten years, renewed in 1877 for a similar period, and continued in 1887 with the proviso that it should be terminable on two years' notice, the finances and the entire government of Waldeck-Pyrmont are managed by Prussia, the little country having found itself unable to support unassisted the military and other burdens involved by its share in the North German Confederation of 1867-1871 and subsequently as a constituent state of the German empire. The govern- ment is conducted in the name of the prince by a Prussian WALDECK-ROUSSEAU 253 " Landesdirector," while the state officials take the oath of allegiance to the king of Prussia. The prince of Waldeck reserves his whole rights as head of the church, and also the right of granting pardons, and in certain circumstances may exercise a veto on proposals to alter or enact laws. Education and similar matters are thus all conducted on the Prussian model; a previous convention had already handed over military affairs to Prussia. The budget for 1910 showed a revenue of £57,000 and a like expenditure. The public debt was £79.710, paying interest at 3J%. The prince is supported by the income derived from crown lands. As regards the administration of justice, Waldeck and Pyrmont belong to the districts of Cassel and Hanover respectively. The princes of Waldeck-Pyrmont are descendants of the counts of Schwalenberg, the earliest of whom known to history was one Widukind (d. 1137). His son Volkwin (d. 1178) acquired by marriage the county of VValdeck, and his line was divided into two branches, Waldeck and Landau, in 1397. In 1438 the land- grave of Hesse obtained rights of suzerainty over Waldeck, and the claims arising from this action were not finally disposed of until 1847, when it was decided that the rights of Hesse over Waldeck had ceased with the dissolution of the Holy _ Roman Empire. The Landau branch of the family became extinct in 1495, and in I^3i Waldeck inherited the county of Pyrmont, which had originally belonged to a branch of the Schwalenberg family. For a few years Waldeck was divided into Wildungen and Eisenberg, but in 1692, when the Wildungen branch died out with George Frederick, the imperial field-marshal, the whole principality was united under the rule of Christian Louis of Eisenberg. From 1692 the land has been undivided with the exception of a brief period from 1805 to 1812, when Waldeck and Pyrmont were ruled by two brothers. Frederick Anthony Ulrich (d. 1728), who succeeded his father, Christian Louis, in 1 706, was made a prince of the empire in 1 7 1 2. In 1807 Waldeck joined the confederation of the Rhine, and in 1815 entered the German confederation. Its first constitution was granted in 1816 by Prince George II. (d. 1845). Prince Frederick (b. 1865) succeeded his father, George Victor (1831-1893), as ruler on the izth of May 1893. The most important fact in the recent history of the principality is its connexion with Prussia, to which reference has already been made. See Curtze, Geschichte und Beschreibung des Ftirstentums Waldeck (Arolsen, 1850) ; Lowe, Heimatskunde von Waldeck (Arolsen, 1887) ; J. C. C. Hoffmeister, Historisch-genealogisches Handbuch iiber alle Graf en und Fiirsten von Waldeck seit 1228 (Cassel, 1883); Bottcher, Das Staatsrecht des Ftirstentums Waldeck (Freiburg, 1884); A. Wagner, Die Geschichte Waldecks und Pyrmonts (Wildungen, 1888), and the Geschicktsblatterfiir Waldeck und Pyrmont (Mengennghausen, 1901, fol.). WALDECK-ROUSSEAU, PIERRE MARIE RENE ERNEST (1846-1904), French statesman, was born at Nantes on the 2nd of December 1846. His father, Ren6 Valdec-Rousseau (1809- 1882), a barrister at Nantes and a leader of the local republican party, figured in the revolution of 1848 as one of the deputies returned to the Constituent Assembly for Loire Inferieure. With Jules Simon, Louis Blanc and others he sat on the commission appointed to inquire into the labour question, making many im- portant proposals, one of which, for the establishment of national banks, was partially realized in 1850. After the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency he returned to his practice at the bar, and for some time after the coup d'etat was in biding to escape arrest. He came back to political life in the crisis of 1870, when he became mayor of Nantes in August and proclaimed the third republic there on the 4th of September. He shortly afterwards resigned municipal office in consequence of differences with his colleagues on the education question. The son was a delicate child whose defective eyesight forbade him the use of books, and his early education was therefore entirely oral. He studied law at Poitiers and in Paris, where he took his licentiate in January 1869. His father's record ensured his reception in high republican circles. Jules Gr6vy stood sponsor for him at the Parisian bar, and he was a regular visitor at the houses of Stanislas Dufaure and of Jules Simon. After six months of waiting for briefs in Paris, he decided to return home and to join the bar of St Nazaire, where he inscribed his name early in 1870. In September he became, in spite of his youth, secretary to the municipal commission temporarily appointed to carry on the town business. He organized the National Defence at St Nazaire, and himself marched out with the contingent, though no part of the force saw active service owing to lack of ammunition, their private store having been commandeered by the state. In 1873 he removed to the bar of Rennes, and six years later was returned to the Chamber of Deputies. In his electoral programme he had stated that he was prepared to respect all liberties except those of conspiracy against the institutions of the country and of educating the young in hatred of the modern social order. In the Chamber he sup- ported the policy of Gambetta. The Waldeck-Rousseau family was strictly Catholic in spite of its republican principles; never- theless Waldeck-Rousseau supported the anti-clerical education law submitted by Jules Ferry as minister of education in the Waddington cabinet. He further voted for the abrogation of the law of 1814 forbidding work on Sundays and f£te days, for compulsory service of one year for seminarists and for the re- establishment of divorce. He made his reputation in the Chamber by a report which he drew up in 1880 on behalf of the committee appointed to inquire into the French judicial system. But then as later he was chiefly occupied with the relations between capital and labour. He had a large share in 1884 in securing the recog- nition of trade unions. In 1881 he became minister of the interior in Gambetta's grand minislere, and he held the same portfolio in the Jules Ferry cabinet of 1883-1885, when he gave proof of great administrative powers. He sought to put down the system by which civil posts were obtained through the local deputy, and he made it clear that the central authority could not be defied by local officials. He had begun to practise at the Paris bar in 1886, and in 1889 he did not seek re-election to the Chamber,_ but devoted himself to his legal work. The most famous of" the many noteworthy cases in which his cold and penetrating intellect and his pcwer of clear exposition were retained was the defence of M. de Lesseps in 1893. In 1894 he returned to political life as senator for the department of the Loire, and next year stood for the presidency of the republic against Felix Faure and Henri Brisson, being supported by the Conservatives, wLo were soon to be his bitter enemies. He received 184 votes, but retired before the second ballot to allow Faure to receive an absolute majority. During the political anarchy of the next few years he was recognized by the moderate republicans as the successor of Jules Ferry and Gambetta, and at the crisis of 1899 on the fall of the Dupuy cabinet he was asked by President Loubet to form a government. After an initial failure he succeeded in forming a coalition cabinet which included such widely different politicians as M. Millerand and General de Galliffet. He himself returned to his former post at the ministry of the interior, and set to work to quell the discontent with which the country was seething, to put an end to the various agitations which under specious pretences were directed against republican institutions, and to restore independence to the judicial authority. His appeal to all republicans to sink their differences before the common peril met with some degree of success, and enabled the government to leave the second court-martial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes an absolutely free hand, and then to compromise the affair by granting a pardon to Dreyfus. Waldeck-Rousseau won a great personal success in October by his successful intervention in the strikes at Le Creusot. With the condemnation in January 1900 of Paul De>oulede and his monarchist and nationalist followers by the High Court the worst of the danger was past, and Waldeck-Rousseau kept order in Paris without having recourse to irritating displays of force. The Senate was staunch in support of M. Waldeck-Rousseau, and in the Chamber he displayed remarkable astuteness in winning support from various groups. The Amnesty Bill, passed on igth December, chiefly through his unwearied advocacy, went far to smooth down the acerbity of the preceding years. With the object of aiding the industry of wine-producing, and of 254 WALDEGRAVE FAMILY— WALDENBURG discouraging the consumption of spirits and other deleterious liquors, the government passed a bill suppressing the octroi duties on the three " hygienic " drinks — wine, cider and beer. The act came into force at the beginning of 1901. But the most important measure of his later administration was the Associa- tions Bill of 1001. Like many of his predecessors, he was con- vinced that the stability of the republic demanded some restraint on the intrigues of the wealthy religious bodies. All previous attempts in this direction had failed. In his speech in the Chamber M. Waldeck-Rousseau recalled the fact that he had endeavoured to pass an Associations Bill in 1882, and again in 1883. He declared that the religious associations were now being subjected for the first time to the regulations common to all others, and that the object of the bill was to ensure the supremacy of the civil power. The royalist bias given to the pupils in the religious seminaries was undoubtedly a principal cause of the passing of this bill; and the government further took strong measures to secure the presence of officers of un- doubted fidelity to the republic in the higher positions on the staff. His speeches on the religious question were published in 1901 under the title of Associations et congregations, following a volume of speeches on Questions sociales (1900). As the general election of 1902 approached all sections of the Opposition united their efforts, and M. Waldeck-Rousseau 's name served as a battle-cry for one side, and on the other as a target for the foulest abuse. The result was a decisive victory for republican stability. With the defeat of the machinations against the republic M. Waldeck-Rousseau considered his task ended, and on the 3rd of June 1902 he resigned office, having proved himself the " strongest personality in French politics since the death of Gambetta. " He emerged from his retirement to protest in the Senate against the construction put on his Associations Bill by M. Combes, who refused in mass the applications of the teaching and preaching congregations for official recognition. His health had long been failing when he died on the loth of August 1004. His speeches were published as Discours parlementaires (1889) ; Pour la republique, 1883-1^03 (1904), edited by H. Leyret; L'Etat et la liberte (1906); and his Plaidoyers (1906, &c.) were edited by H. Barboux. See also H. Leyret, Waldeck-Rousseau et la troisieme republique (1908), and the article FRANCE: History. WALDEGRAVE, the name of an English family, taken from its early residence, Walgrave in Northamptonshire. Its founder was SIR RICHARD WALDEGRAVE, or WALGRAVE, who was member of parliament for Lincolnshire in 1335; his son, Sir Richard Waldegrave (d. 1402), was speaker of the House of Commons in 1402. One of Sir Richard's descendants was Sir Edward Walde- grave (c. 1517-1561) of Borley, Essex, who was imprisoned during the reign of Edward VI. for his loyalty to the princess, afterwards Queen Mary. By Mary he was knighted, and he received from her the manor of Chewton in Somerset, now the residence of Earl Waldegrave. He was a member of parliament and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. After Mary's decease he suffered a reverse of fortune, and he was a prisoner in the Tower of London when he died on the ist of September 1561. Sir Edward's descendant, another Sir Edward Waldegrave, was created a baronet in 1643 for his services to Charles I.; and his descendant, Sir Henry Waldegrave, Bart. (1660-1689), was created Baron Waldegrave of Chewton in 1686. Sir Henry married Henrietta (d. 1730), daughter of King James II. and Arabella Churchill, and their son was James, ist Earl Waldegrave (1684-1741). Educated in France, James Waldegrave soon crossed over to England, and under George I. he declared himself a Protestant and took his seat as Baron Waldegrave in the House of Lords. Having become friendly with Sir Robert Walpole, he was sent to Paris as ambassador extraordinary in 1725, and from 1727 to 1730 he was British ambassador at Vienna. In 1729 he was created Viscount Chewton and Earl Waldegrave, and in 1730 he succeeded Sir Horatio Walpole as ambassador in Paris, filling this post during ten very difficult years. He died on the nth of April 1741. Much of his diplomatic correspondence is in the British Museum. His son JAMES, the 2nd earl (1715-1763), was perhaps the most intimate friend of George II., and was for a time governor of his grandson, the future king George III. He was very much in evidence during the critical years 1755-1757, when the king employed him to negotiate in turn with Newcastle, Devonshire, Pitt and Fox about the formation of a ministry. Eventually, in consequence of a deadlock, Waldegrave himself was first lord of the treasury for five days in June 1757. He died on the 28th of April 1763, leaving some valuable and interesting Memoirs, which were published in 1821. His brother JOHN, the 3rd earl (1718-1784), was a soldier, who distinguished himself especially at the battle of Minden and became a general in 1772. He was a member of parliament from 1747 to 1763. His younger son, William Waldegrave (1753- 1825), entered the British navy in 1766, and after many years of service was third in command at the battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797. In 1800 he was created an Irish peer as Baron Rad- stock, and in 1802 he became an admiral. His son, George Granville, and Baron Radstock (1786-1857), followed in his father's footsteps, and was made a vice-admiral in 1851. In 1857 his son, Granville Augustus William (b. 1833), became 3rd Baron Radstock. GEORGE, 4th Earl Waldegrave (1751-1789), the eldest son of the 3rd earl, was a soldier and a member of parliament. His sons, GEORGE (1784-1794) and JOHN JAMES (1785-1835), were the 5th and 6th earls. In 1797 the 6th earl inherited from Horace Walpole his famous residence, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham, but his son, GEORGE EDWARD, the 7th earl (1816-1846), was obliged in 1842 to sell the valuable treasures collected there. His wife, Frances, Countess Waldegrave (1821-1879), a daughter of the singer John Braham, was a prominent figure in society. He was her second husband, and after his death she married George Granville Vernon Harcourt of Nuneham Park, Oxford- shire, and later Chichester Fortescue, Baron Carlingford. The 7th earl was succeeded by his uncle William (1788-1859), a son of the 4th earl, and in 1859 William.'s grandson, WILLIAM FREDERICK (b. 1851), became the 9th earl. WALDEN, ROGER (d. 1406), English prelate, was a man of obscure birth, little or nothing, moreover, being known of his early years. He had some connexion with the Channel Islands, and resided for some time in Jersey; and he held livings in Yorkshire and in Leicestershire before he became archdeacon of Winchester in 1387. His days, however, were by no means fully occupied with his ecclesiastical duties, and in 1387 also he was appointed treasurer of Calais, holding about the same time other positions in this neighbourhood. In 1395, after having served Richard II. as secretary, Walden became treasurer of England, adding the deanery of York to his numerous other benefices. In 1397 he was chosen archbishop of Canterbury in succession to Thomas Arundel, who had just been banished from the realm, but he lost this position when the new king Henry IV. restored Arundel in 1399, and after a short imprisonment he passed into retirement, being, as he himself says, " in the dust and under feet of men. " In 1405, through Arundel's influence, he was elected bishop of London, and he died at Much Hadham in Hertfordshire on the 6th of January 1406. An Historia Mundi, the manuscript of which is in the British Museum, is sometimes regarded as the work of Walden; but this was doubtless written by an earlier writer. See J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV. vol. iii. (1896). WALDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 39 m. S.W. of Breslau by the line to Hirschberg and Gorlitz Pop. (1905) 16,435. It contains a handsome town hall, three Protestant and two Roman Catholic churches. Walden- burg lies in the centre of the productive coal district of the Waldenburger Gebirge, a branch of the Sudetic chain, and its inhabitants are largely occupied in the mining industry. Among other industrial establishments are a large porcelain and earthen- ware factory, extensive fireclay works, glassworks and a china- painting establishment; there are also numerous flax-spinneries and linen-factories in the neighbourhood. Adjoining the town on the south is the village of Oberwaldenburg, pop. (1905) WALDENSES 255 4758, with a chateau and some coal mines. Waldenburg became a town in 1426. WALDENSES. The Waldensian valleys lie to the south-west of Turin, in the direction of Monte Viso, but include no high or snowy mountains, while the glens themselves are (with one or two exceptions) fertile and well wooded. The principal town near the valleys is Pinerolo (Pignerol). Just to its south-west there opens the chief Waldensian valley, the Val Pellice, watered by the stream of that name, but sometimes called inaccurately the Luserna valley, Luserna being simply a village opposite the capital, Torre Pellice; near Torre Pellice the side glens of Angrogna and Rora join the Pellice valley. To the north-west of Pinerolo. up the Chisone valley, there opens at Perosa Argen- tina the valley of St Martin, another important Waldensian valley, which is watered by the Germanasca torrent, and at Perrero splits into two branches, of which the Prali glen is far more fertile than that of Massello, the latter being the wildest and most savage of all the Waldensian valleys. The name Waldenses was given to the members of an heretical Christian sect which arose in the south of France about 1170. The history of the sects of the middle ages is obscure, because the earliest accounts of them come from those who were con- cerned in their suppression, and were therefore eager to lay upon each of them the worst enormities which could be attri- buted to any. In later times the apologists of each sect reversed the process, and cleared that in which they were interested at the expense of others. In early times these sectaries produced little literature of their own; when they produced a literature at the beginning of the I5th century they attempted to claim for it a much earlier origin. Hence there is confusion on every side; it is difficult to distinguish between various sects and to determine their exact opinions or the circumstances under which they came into being. The polemical conception which has done much to perpetuate this confusion is that of the historical continuity of Protestantism from the earliest times. According to this view the church was pure and uncorrupt till the time of Constantine, when Pope Sylvester gained the first temporal possession for the papacy, and so began the system of a rich, powerful and worldly church, with Rome for its capital. Against this secularized church a body of witnesses silently protested; they were always persecuted but always survived, till in the 1 3th century a desperate attempt was made by Innocent III. to root them out from their stronghold in southern France. Persecution gave new vitality to their doctrines, which passed on to Wycliffe and Huss, and through these leaders produced the Reformation in Germany and England. This view rests upon a series of suppositions, and is entirely unhistorical. So far as can be discovered the heretical sects of the middle ages rested upon a system of Manichaeism which was imported into Europe from the East (see MANICHAEISM). The Manichaean system of dualism, with its severe asceticism, and its individualism, which early passed into antinomianism, was attractive to many minds in the awakening of the nth century. Its presence in Europe can be traced in Bulgaria soon after its conversion in 862,* where the struggle between the Eastern and Western churches for the new converts opened a way for the more hardy speculations of a system which had never entirely disappeared, and found a home amongst the Paulicians (q.v.) in Armenia. The name of Cathari (see CATHARS) , taken by the adherents of this new teaching, sufficiently shows the Oriental origin of their opinions, which spread from Bulgaria amongst the Slavs, and followed the routes of commerce into central Europe. The earliest record of their presence there is the condemnation of ten canonsof Orleans as Manichees in 1023, and soon after this we find complaints of the prevalence of heresy in northern Italy and in Germany. The strongholds of these heretical opinions were the great towns, the centres of civilization, because there the growing sentiment of municipal independence, and the rise of a burgher class through commerce, created a spirit of criticism which was dissatisfied with the worldly lives of the clergy and their undue influence in affairs. 1 Schmidt, Histoire des Cathares, i. 7. The system of Catharism recognized two classes of adherents, credentes and perfecti. The perfecti only were admitted to its esoteric doctrines and to its superstitious practices. To the ordinary men it seemed to be a reforming agency, insisting on a high moral standard, and upholding the words of Scripture against the traditions of an overgrown and worldly church. Its popular aim and its rationalistic method made men overlook its real contents, which were not put clearly before them. It may be said generally that Catharism formed the abiding background of medieval heresy. Its dualistic system and its anti-social principles were known only to a few, but its anti- ecclesiastical organization formed a permanent nucleus round which gathered a great deal of political and ecclesiastical dis- content. When this discontent took any independent form of expression, zeal, which was not always accompanied by dis- cretion, brought the movement into collision with the ecclesi- astical authorities, by whom it was condemned as heretical. When once it was in conflict with authority it was driven to strengthen its basis by a more pronounced hostility against the system of the church, and generally ended by borrowing some- thing from Catharism. The result was that in the beginning of the 1 3th century there was a tendency to class all bodies of heretics together: partly their opinions had coalesced; partly they were assumed to be identical. • Most of these sects were stamped out before the period of the middle ages came to a close. The Waldenses, under their more modern name of the Vaudois, have survived to the present day in the valleys of Piedmont, and have been regarded as at once the most ancient and the most evangelical of the medieval sects. It is, however, by no means easy to determine their original tenets, as in the i3th and i4th centuries they were a body of obscure and unlettered peasants, hiding themselves in a corner, while in the i6th century they were absorbed into the general movement of the Reformation. As regards their antiquity, the attempts to claim for them an earlier origin than the end of the I2th century can no longer be sustained. They rested upon the supposed antiquity of a body of Waldensian literature, which modern criticism has shown to have been tampered with. The most important of these documents, a poem in Provencal, " La Nobla Leyczon," contains two lines which claimed for it the date of noo: — Ben ha mil e cent anez compli entierament Que fo scripta 1' ora, car sen al derier temp. But it was pointed out1 that in the oldest MS. existing in the Cambridge university library the figure 4 had been imperfectly erased before the word " cent," a discovery which harmonized with the results of a criticism of the contents of the poem itself. This discovery did away with the ingenious attempts to account for the name of Waldenses from some other source than from the historical founder of the sect, Peter Waldo or Valdez. To get rid of Waldo, whose date was known, the name Waldenses or Vallenses was derived from Vallis, because they dwelt in the valleys, or from a supposed Provencal word Vaudes, which meant a sorcerer. Putting these views aside as unsubstantial, we will consider the relation of the Waldenses as they appear in actual history with the sects which preceded them. Already in the 9th century there were several protests against the rigidity and want of spirituality of a purely sacerdotal church. Thus Berengar of Tours (990-1088) upheld the symbolic character of the Eucharist and the superiority of the Bible over tradition. The Paterines in Milan (1045) raised a protest against simony and other abuses of the clergy, and Pope Gregory VII. did not hesitate to enlist their Puritanism on the side of the papacy and make them his allies in imposing clerical celibacy. In mo an apostate monk in Zeeland, Tanchelm, carried their views still farther, and asserted that the sacraments were only valid through the merits and sanctity of the ministers. In France, at Embrun, Peter de Bruys founded a sect known as Petrobrusians, who denied infant baptism, the need of consecrated churches, 'transubstantiation, 1 Bradshaw, in Transactions of Cambridge Antiquarian Society (1842). The text edited by Montet, 410 (1887). 256 WALDENSES and masses for the dead. A follower of his, a monk, Henry, gave the name to another body known as Henricians, who centred in Tours. The teachers of these new opinions were men of high character and holy lives, who in spite of persecution wandered from place to place, and made many converts from those who were dissatisfied at the want of clerical discipline which followed upon the struggle for temporal supremacy into which the reforming projects of Gregory VII. had carried the church. It was at this time (1170) that a rich merchant of Lyons, Peter Waldo, sold his goods and gave them to the poor; then he went forth as a preacher of voluntary poverty. His followers, the Waldenses, or poor men of Lyons, were moved by a religious feeling which could find no satisfaction within the actual system of the church, as they saw it before them. Like St Francis, Waldo adopted a life of poverty that he might be free to preach, but with this difference that the Waldenses preached the doctrine of Christ while the Franciscans preached the person of Christ, Waldo reformed teaching while Francis kindled love; hence the one awakened antagonisms which the other escaped. For Waldo had a translation of the New Testament made into Provencal, and his preachers not only stirred up men to more holy lives but explained the Scriptures at their will. Such an interference with the ecclesiastical authorities led to difficulties. Pope Alexander III., who had approved of the poverty of the Waldensians, prohibited them from preaching without the per- mission of the bishops (1179). Waldo answered that he must obey God rather than man. The result of this disobedience was excommunication by Lucius III. in 1184. Thus a reforming movement became heresy through disobedience to authority, and after being condemned embarked on a course of polemical investigation how to justify its own position. Some were re- admitted into the Catholic Church, and one, Durandus de Osca (1210), attempted to found an order of Pauperes Catholici, which was the forerunner of the order of St Dominic. Many were swept away in the crusade against the Albigenses (d Holyhead (10,079) — fall far below that of Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), the fourth largest town in Glamorgan- shire. Industries. — The chief mineral product of the Principality is coal, of which the output amounts to over 23,000,000 tons annually. The great South Wales coalfield, one of the largest in the kingdom, covers the greater part of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, the south-eastern corner of Carmarthenshire, and a small portion of south Pembrokeshire, and the quality of its coal is especially suitable for smelting purposes and for use in steamships. The supply of limestone and ironstone in Glamorganshire is said to be practically unlimited. About 400,000 tons of pig iron are produced yearly, and some of the largest iron-works in the world are situated at Merthyr Tydfil and Dowlais. Copper, tin and lead works are everywhere numerous in the busy valleys of north Glamorgan and in the neigh- bourhoods of Swansea, Neath, Cardiff and Llanelly. In North Wales, Wrexham, Ruabon and Chirk are centres of coal-mining in- dustry. There are valuable copper mines in Anglesea, and lead mines in Flint and in north Cardiganshire, which also yield a certain deposit of silver ore. Gold has been discovered and worked, though only to a small extent, in Merionethshire and Carmarthenshire. Slate quarries are very numerous throughout the Principality, the finest quality of slate being obtained in the neighbourhood of Bangor and Carnarvon, where the Penrhyn and Bethesda quarries give employment to many thousands of workmen. By far the larger portion of Wales is purely agricultural in char- acter, and much of the valley land is particularly fertile, notably the Vale of Glamorgan, the Vale of Clwyd and the valleys of the Towy, the Teifi, the Usk and the Wye, which have long been cele- brated for their rich pastures. The holdings throughout Wales are for the most part smaller in extent than the average farms of England. Stock-raising is generally preferred to the growing of cereals, and in western Wales the oat crops exceed in size those of wheat and barley. The extensive tracts of unenclosed and often unimprovable land, which still cover a large area in the Principality, especially in the five counties of Cardigan, Radnor, Brecon, Montgomery and Merioneth, support numerous flocks of the small mountain sheep, the flesh of which supplies the highly prized Welsh mutton. The wool of the sheep is manufactured into flannel at numberless factories in the various country towns, and the supply meets an important local demand. The upland tracts also afford good pasturage for a number of cobs and ponies, which obtain high prices at the local fairs, and Pembrokeshire and Cardiganshire have long been famous for their breed of horses and ponies. The cattle of Wales present all varieties of race, the Hereford breed prevailing in the eastern counties, and Shorthorns and the black Castlemartins in the south- western parts. The great herds of goats, which in medieval times subsisted on the Welsh hills, have entirely disappeared since the general adoption of the sheep-farming industry. WALES 261 The deep-sea fisheries on the south-western coasts are of some importance; the Mumbles, Tenby and Milford Haven being the i-hii-f centres of this industry. Lobsters and crabs are caught in t '.inligan Bay, and oysters are found at various points of the Pem- brokeshire coast. The large rivers produce salmon, which are usually sent to the great towns for sale. The Wye, the Usk, the Dee, the Dovey, the Teifi, the Towy and most of the Welsh rivers and lakes are frequented by anglers for salmon and trout. Communications. — The two principal railways serving the Princi- pality are the London & North-Western, which passes along the North Wales coast-line by way of Conway and Bangor, crosses the Menai Strait and has its terminus at Holyhead ; and the Great Western, which traverses South Wales by way of Cardiff, Landore, Llanelly and Carmarthen, and has its principal terminal station at Fishguard Harbour. The lines of the Cambrian railway serve North and Mid-Wales, and branches of the London & North-Western and the Midland penetrate into South Wales as far as Swansea. A net- wi irk of lines connects the great industrial districts of Glamorganshire with the main line of the Great Western railway. There are steam- ship services between Holyhead and Dublin in connexion with the trains of the London & North-Western railway; and an important traffic for dairy produce, live-stock and passengers between Fish- guard and Rosslare on the Irish coast was opened in 1906 in con- nexion with the Great Western railway. There is also a boat service between Holyhead and Greenore on the Ulster coast. Steamboats likewise ply between Milford, Tenby, Swansea and Cardiff and Bristol; also between Swansea and Cardiff and Dublin; and there is a regular service between Swansea and Ilfracombe. The principal canals are the Swansea, the Neath, the Aberdare & Glamorgan, and the Brecon & Abergavenny, all worked in connexion with the industrial districts of north Glamorganshire. Government. — In all acts of parliament Wales is invariably included under the term of " England and Wales," and whenever an act, or any section of an act, is intended to apply to the Principality alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouth- shire. The extinction of the Welsh Court of Great Sessions in 1830 served to remove the last relic of separate jurisdiction in Wales itself, but in 1881 special legislation was once more inaugurated by the Welsh Sunday Closing Act (46 Victoria), forbidding the sale of spirituous liquors by all inn-keepers on Sundays to any but bona fide travellers throughout Wales and Monmouthshire. A separate act on behalf of Welsh education was likewise passed in 1889, when the Welsh Intermediate Educa- tion Act made special provision for intermediate and technical education throughout the Principality and Monmouthshire. Except for the administration of these two special acts, the system of government in Wales is identical in every respect with that of England (see ENGLAND and UNITED KINGDOM). Royal commissions dealing with questions peculiar to Wales have been issued from time to time, notably of recent years, in the Welsh Land Tenure Commission of 1893, and the Welsh Church Commission of 1906 (see History). Religion. — Ecclesiastically, the whole of Wales lies within the province of Canterbury. The four Welsh sees, however, extend beyond the borders of the twelve counties, for they include the whole of Monmouthshire and some portions of the English border shires; on the other hand, the sees of Hereford and Chester encroach upon the existing Welsh counties. The diocese of St Davids (Tyddewi), the largest, oldest and poorest of the four Cambrian sees, consists of the counties of Pembroke, Carmarthen and Cardigan, almost the whole of Brecon, the greater part of Radnor, and west Glamorgan with Swansea and Gower. The cathedral church of St Davids is situated near the remote headland of St Davids in Pembrokeshire, but the episcopal residence has been fixed ever since the Reformation at Abergwili near Carmarthen, the most central spot in this vast diocese. The see of Llandaff comprises Monmouthshire, all Glamorganshire as far west as the Tawe, and some parishes in Brecon and Hereford. The diocese of Bangor consists of the counties of Anglesea, Carnarvon and large portions of Merioneth and Montgomery. The diocese of St Asaph (Llanelwy) consists of the county of Denbigh, nearly the whole of Flint, with portions of Montgomery, Merioneth and Shropshire. Since the beginning of the igth century dissent has been strongly represented in the Principality, the combined numbers of the various Nonconformist bodies far outstripping the ad- herents of the Church. Universally accepted statistics as to the various religious bodies it has been found impossible to obtain, but the Report (1910) of the Welsh Church Commission stated that, exclusive of Roman Catholics, there were 743,361 communicants or fully admitted members of some denomination, of whom 193,081 were Churchmen and 550,280 Nonconformists. The gentry and landowners are all, broadly speaking, members of the established Church, but it is impossible to name any other class of society as belonging definitely either to " Church " or " Chapel." According to the above Report, the three most powerful dissenting bodies in Wales are the Congregationalists or Independents, whose members number 175,147 throughout Wales and Monmouthshire; the Calvinistic Methodists — a direct offshoot of the Church since the schism of 1811 — with a mem- bership of 170,617; and the Baptists, 143,835. Wesleyan and Presbyterian chapels are likewise numerous, and the Unitarian or Socinian body has long been powerful in the valley of the Teifi. Nearly every existing sect is represented in Wales, in- cluding Swedenborgians and Moravians. The Roman Catholic Church has many followers amongst the labouring population of Irish descent in the industrial districts. The diocese of Newport (known till 189635 Newport and Menevia) consists of the counties of Monmouth, Glamorgan and Hereford; whilst the remaining eleven counties were in 1895 formed into the Vicariate of Wales, which in 1898 was erected into a diocese under a bishop with the title of Menevia. Since the expulsion of the religious orders from France in 1903 several communities of French monks and nuns have taken up their abode in the Principality. History. — At the time of the Roman invasion of Britain, 55 B.C., four distinct dominant tribes, or families, are enumerated west of the Severn, viz. the Decangi, owning the island of Anglesea (Ynys F6n) and the Snowdonian district; the Or- dovices, inhabiting the modern counties of Denbigh, Flint and Montgomery; the Dimetae, in the counties of Cardigan, Car- marthen and Pembroke; and the Silures, occupying the counties of Glamorgan, Brecknock, Radnor and Monmouth. It is interesting to note that the existing four Welsh sees of Bangor, St Asaph, St Davids and Llandaff correspond in the main with the limits of these four tribal divisions. On the advance of Ostorius into western Britain, he met with considerable resist- ance from Caractacus (Caradog), king of the Silures, but after some encounters this prince was eventually captured and sent in chains to Rome. The partial conquest by Ostorius was completed under Julius Frontinus by the year 78, after which the Romans set to work in order to pacify and develop their newly annexed territory. At this period the copper mines of Mona or Anglesea, the silver mines near Plinlimmon and the gold mines in the valley of the Cothi in Carmarthenshire were ex- ploited and worked with some success by the conquerors. In spite of the mountainous and boggy character of the country, roads were now constructed in all directions. Of these the most important are the military road leading S. from Deva (Chester) by way of Uriconium (Wroxeter) andGobannium (Abergavenny) to Isca Silurum (Caerleon-on-Usk) and Venta Silurum (Caer- went); another from Deva to Conovium (Conway), whence a road, the Sarn Helen, extended due S. to Carmarthen (Mari- dunum), by way of Loventium (Pont Llanio), which was also connected with Gobannium; from Maridunum a road led E. through the modern county of Glamorgan by way of Leucarum (Loughor) and Nidum (Neath) to Venta Silurum. With the accession of Constantine. Christianity was introduced by the Romans into the parts of Wales already colonized, and the efforts of the Roman priests were later supplemented during the sth, 6th and 7th centuries by the devoted labours of Celtic missionaries, of whom nearly five hundred names still remain on record. Foremost in the work of preaching and educating were SS. David, Teilo, Ultyd and Cadoc in Dyfed, Morganwg, Gwent and Brycheiniog, comprising South Wales; Cynllo, Afan and Padarn in Ceredigion and Maesyfed, or Mid-Wales; and Deiniol, Dunawd, Beuno, Kentigern and Asaph in North Wales. To this period succeeding the fall of the Roman power is also ascribed the foundation of the many great Celtic monasteries, of which Bangor-Iscoed on the Dee, Bardsey Island, Llancarvan and Llantwit Major in the Vale of Glamorgan, Caerleon-on-Usk 262 WALES and St Davids are amongst the most celebrated in early Welsh ecclesiastical annals. With the withdrawal of the Roman legions, the recognized powers of the Dux Britanniarum, the Roman official who governed the upper province of Britain, were in the sth century assumed by the Celtic prince Cunedda under the title of Gwledig (the Supreme), who fixed his court and residence at Deganwy, near the modern Llandudno. During the 6th century the battle of Deorham gained by the West Saxons in 577 cut off communication with Cornwall, and in 613 the great battle of Chester, won by King Ethelfrith, pre- vented the descendants of Cunedda from ever again asserting their sovereignty over Strathclyde; the joint effect, therefore, of these two important Saxon victories was to isolate Wales and at the same time to put an end to all pretensions of its rulers as the inheritors of the ancient political claims of the Roman governors of the northern province of Britain. The Sth century saw a further curtailment of the Welsh territories under Offa, king of Mercia, who annexed Shrewsbury (Amwythig) and Hereford (Henfordd) with their surrounding districts, and constructed the artificial boundary known as Offa's Dyke running due N. and S. from the mouth of the Dee to that of the Wye. It was during these disastrous Mercian wars that there first appeared on the Welsh coasts the Norse and Danish pirates, who harried and burnt the small towns and flourishing monasteries on the shores of Cardigan Bay and the Bristol Channel. In the gth century, however, the Welsh, attacked by land and sea, by Saxons and by Danes, at length obtained a prince capable of bringing the turbulent chieftains of his country into obedience, and of opposing the two sets of invaders of his realm. This was Rhodri Mawr, or Roderick the Great, a name always cherished in Cymric annals. Like Alfred of Wessex, Rhodri also built a fleet in order to protect Anglesea, " the mother of Wales," so called on account of its extensive corn- fields which supplied barren Gwynedd with provisions. In 877 Rhodri, after many vicissitudes, was slain in battle, and his dominions of Gwynedd (North Wales), Deheubarth (South Wales) and Powys (Mid Wales) were divided amongst his three sons, Anarawd, Cadell and Mervyn. Consolidation of Cambro- British territory was found impossible; there was no settled capital; and the three princes fixed their courts respectively at Aberffraw in Anglesea, at Dynevor (Dinefawr) near Llandilo in Deheubarth, and at Mathrafal in Powys. Howel, son of Cadell, commonly known as Howel Dda the Good, is ever celebrated in Welsh history as the framer, or rather the codifier, of the ancient laws of his country, which were promulgated to the people at his hunting lodge, Ty Gwyn ar Taf, near the modern Whitland. In Howel's code the prince of Gwynedd with his court at Aberffraw is recognized as the leading monarch in Wales; next to him ranks the prince of Deheubarth, and third in estimation is the prince of Powys. The laws of Howel Dda throw a flood of interesting light upon the ancient customs and ideas of early medieval Wales, but as their standard of justice is founded on a tribal and not a territorial system of society, it is easy to understand the antipathy with which the Normans subsequently came to regard this famous code. The dissensions of the turbulent princes of Gwynedd, Powys and Deheubarth, and of their no less quarrelsome chieftains, now rent the country, which was continually also a prey to Saxon incursions by land and to Scandinavian attacks by sea. Some degree of peace was, however, given to the distracted country during the reign of Llewelyn ap Seissyllt, the husband of Ang- harad, heiress of Gwynedd, who at length secured the over- lordship or sovereignty of all Wales, and reigned till 1022. His son, Griffith ap Llewelyn, who, after having been driven into exile, recovered his father's realm in the battle of Pencader, Carmarthenshire, in 1041, for many years waged a war of varying success against Harold, earl of Wessex, but in 1062 he was treacherously slain, and Harold placed Wales under the old king's half-brothers, Bleddyn and Rhiwallon. With the advent of the Normans, William the Conqueror, with the object of placing a firm feudal barrier between Wales and the earldom of Mercia, erected three palatine counties along the Cymric frontier. Thus Hugh the Wolf was placed in Chester (Caer), Roger de Montgomery at Shrewsbury and William Fitz- Osbern at Hereford. In 1081 William himself visited the Princi- pality", and even penetrated as far west as St Davids. But the most important result of this first Norman invasion was to be found in the marvellous and rapid success of Robert Fitz-Hamon, earl of Gloucester, who, accompanied by a number of knightly adventurers, quickly overran South Wales, and erected a chain of castles stretching from the Wye to Milford Haven. The rich low-lying lands of Morganwg and Gwent were thus firmly occupied, nor were they ever permanently recovered by the Welsh princes; and such natives as remained were kept in subjection by the almost impregnable fortresses of stone erected at Caerphilly, Cardiff, Cowbridge, Neath, Kidwelly and other places. The important castles of Carmarthen and Pembroke were likewise built at this period. At the accession of William Rufus the domain of Gwynedd had been reduced to Anglesea and the Snowdonian district, and that of South Wales, or Deheubarth, to the lands contained in the basins of the rivers Towy and Teifi, known as Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion. Griffith ap Cynan, of the royal house of Gwynedd, who had been first an exile in Ireland, and later a prisoner at Chester, once more returned to his native land, and defied the Norman barons with success, whilst Henry I. vainly endeavoured to make his liege and follower, Owen of Powys, ruling prince in Wales. Meanwhile the house of Dynevor once more rose to some degree of power under Griffith ap Rhys, whose father, Rhys ap Tudor, had been slain in 1093. The confused reign of Stephen was naturally favourable to the development of Cymric liberty, and with such strong princes as Owen, son of Griffith ap Cynan, heir to the throne of Gwynedd, and with Griffith ap Rhys ruling at Dynevor, the prospects of the Cymry grew brighter. In 1136 the army of Griffith ap Rhys met with a large English force near Cardigan, composed of the denizens of the South Wales castles and of the hated Flemish colonists, who had been lately planted by Henry I. in Dyfed. A fierce engagement took place wherein the Norman and Flemish troops were utterly routed, and the victorious Cymry slew thousands of their fugitives at the fords of the Teifi close to the town of Cardigan. The following year (1137) saw the deaths of the two powerful princes, Griffith ap Cynan, " the sovereign and protector and peacemaker of all Wales," and Griffith ap Rhys, " the light and the strength and the gentleness of the men of the south." With the accession of Henry II. peace was made with Owen of Gwynedd, the successor of Griffith ap Cynan, and with Rhys ap Griffith of South Wales. In 1169 Owen Gwynedd died and was buried in Bangor cathedral after a reign of 33 years, wherein he had successfully defended his own realm and had done much to bring about that union of all Wales which his grandson was destined to complete. On the other hand, " The Lord Rhys," as he is usually termed, did homage to Henry II. at Pembroke in 1171, and was appointed the royal justiciar of all South Wales. At the castle of Cardigan in 1176, Prince Rhys held a historic bardic entertainment, or eisteddfod, wherein the poets and harpists of Gwynedd and Deheubarth contended in amicable rivalry. This enlightened prince died in 1196, and as at his death the house of Dynevor ceased to be of any further political importance, the overlordship of all Wales became vested indisputably in the house of Gwynedd, which from this point onwards may be considered as representing in itself alone the independent principality of Wales. The prince of Gwynedd henceforth considered himself as a sovereign, independent, but owing a personal allegiance to the king of England, and it was to obtain a recognition of his rights as such that Llewelyn ap lorwerth, " the Great," consistently strove under three English kings, and though his resources were small, it seemed for a time as though he might be able by uniting his countrymen to place the recognized autonomy of Gwynedd on a firm and enduring basis. By first connecting himself with John through his marriage with the English king's daughter Joan, by straining every nerve to repress dissensions and enforce obedience amongst the Welsh chieftains, and later by allying himself with the English barons against his suzerain, this prince during a WALES 263 reign of 44 years was enabled to give a considerable amount of peace and prosperity to his country, which he persistently sought to rule as an independent sovereign, although acknowledging a personal vassalage to the king of England. The close of the iath century saw the final and complete subjection of the ancient Cambro-British Church to the supre- macy of Canterbury. As part of the Roman Upper Province of Britain, Wales would naturally have fallen under the primacy of York, but the Welsh sees had continued practically inde- pendent of outside control during Saxon times. The bishops of St Davids had from time to time claimed metropolitan rights over the remaining sees, but in 1115 St Anselme's appointment of the monk Bernard (d. 1147) to St Davids, in spite of the opposition of the native clergy, definitely marked the end of former Welsh ecclesiastical independence. In 1188 Archbishop Baldwin with a distinguished train, whilst preaching the Third Crusade, made an itinerary of the Welsh sees and visited the four cathedral churches, thereby formally asserting the supremacy of Canterbury throughout all Wales. But in 1199 the celebrated Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis), archdeacon of Brecon and a member of the famous Norman baronial house of de Barri, and also through his grandmother Nesta a great-grandson of Prince Rhys ap Tudor of Deheubarth, was elected bishop by the chapter of St Davids. This enthusiastic priest at once began to re-assert the ancient metropolitan claims of the historic Welsh see, and between the years 1199-1203 paid three visits to Rome in order to obtain the support of Pope Innocent III. against John and Archbishop Hubert, who firmly refused to recognize Gerald's late election. Innocent was inclined to temporize, whilst the Welsh chieftains, and especially Gwenwynwyn of Powys, loudly applauded Gerald's action, but Llewelyn ap lorwerth himself prudently held aloof from the controversy. Finally, in 1203, Gerald was compelled to make complete submission to the king and archbishop at Westminster, and henceforth Canterbury remained in undisputed possession of the Welsh sees, a circum- stance that undoubtedly tended towards the later union of the two countries. In 1238 Llewelyn, growing aged and infirm, summoned all his vassals to a conference at the famous Cistercian abbey of Strata Florida, whereat David, his son by the Princess Joan of England, was acknowledged his heir by all present. Two years later Llewelyn, the ablest and most successful qf all the Welsh princes, expired and was buried in the monastery of his own foundation at Aberconway. He was succeeded by David II., at whose death without children in' 1246 the sovereignty of Gwynedd, and con- sequently of Wales, reverted to his three nephews, sons of his half-brother Griffith, who had perished in 1244 whilst trying to escape from the Tower of London, where Henry III. was holding him as hostage for the good behaviour of Prince David. Of Griffith's three sons, Owen, Llewelyn and David, the most popular and influential was undoubtedly Llewelyn, whose deeds and qualities were celebrated in extravagant terms by the bards of his own day, and whose evil fate has ever been a favourite theme of Welsh poets. Though to this, the last prince of Wales, political sagacity and a firm desire for peace have often been ascribed, it must be admitted that he showed himself both turbulent and rash at a time when the most cautious diplomacy on his part was essential for his country's existence. For Edward, Henry III.'s son and heir, who had been created earl of Chester by his father and put in possession of all the royal claims in Wales, was generally credited with a strong determin- ation to crush for ever Welsh independence, should a fitting oppor- tunity to do so present itself. Nevertheless, the hostile policy of Llewelyn, who had closely associated himself with the cause of Simon de Montfort and the barons, was at first successful. For after the battle of Evesham a treaty was concluded between the English king and the Welsh prince at Montgomery, whereby the latter was confirmed in his principality of Gwynedd and was permitted to receive the homage of all the Welsh barons, save that of the head of the house of Dynevor, which the king reserved to himself; whilst the four fertile cantrefs of Perfeddwlad, lying between Gwynedd and the earldom of Chester, were granted to the prince. Llewelyn was, however, foolish enough to lose the results of this very favourable treaty by intriguing with the de Montfort family, and in 1273 he became betrothed to Eleanor de Montfort, the old Earl's only daughter, a piece of political folly which may possibly in some degree account for Edward's harsh treatment of the Welsh prince. In 1274 Llewelyn refused to attend at Edward's coronation, although the Scottish king was present. In 1276 Edward entered Wales from Chester, and after a short campaign brought his obstinate vassal to submit to the ignominious treaty of Conway, whereby Llewelyn lost almost all the benefits conferred on him by the compact of Montgomery ten years before. Llewelyn, utterly humbled, now behaved with such prudence that Edward at last sanctioned his marriage with Eleanor de Montfort (although such an alliance must originally have been highly distasteful to the English king), and the ceremony was performed with much pomp in Worcester Cathedral in 1278. In 1281 discontent with the king and his system of justice had again become rife in Wales, and at this point the treacherous Prince David, who had hitherto supported the king against his own brother, was the first to proclaim a national revolt. On Palm Sunday 1282, in a time of peace, David suddenly attacked and burnt Hawarden Castle, whereupon all Wales was up in arms. Edward, greatly angered and now bent on putting an end for ever to the independence of the Principality, hastened into Wales; but whilst the king was campaigning in Gwynedd, Prince Llewelyn himself was slain in an obscure skirmish on the nth of December 1282 at Cefn-y- bedd, near Builth on the Wye, whither he had gone to rouse the people of Brycheiniog. Llewelyn's head was brought to Ed ward at Conway Castle, who ordered it to be exhibited in the capital, surrounded by a wreath of ivy, in mocking allusion to an ancient Cymric prophecy concerning a Welsh prince being crowned in London. His body is said, on doubtful authority, to have been buried honourably by the monks of Abbey Cwm Hir, near Rhayader. Llewelyn's brother, now David III., designated by the English " the last survivor of that race of traitors," for a few months defied the English forces amongst the fastnesses of Snowdon, but ere long he was captured, tried as a disloyal English baron by a parliament at Shrewsbury, and finally executed under circumstances of great barbarity on the 3rd of October 1283. With David's capture practically all serious Welsh resistance to the English arms ceased, if we except the unsuccessful attempt made to rouse the crushed nation in 1293 by Llewelyn's natural son, Madoc, who ended his days as a prisoner in the Tower of London. Having suppressed the independence of Wales, Edward now took steps to keep Gwynedd itself in permanent subjection by building the castles of Conway, Carnarvon, Criccieth and Harlech within the ancient patrimony of the princes of North Wales, whose legitimate race was now extinct save for Llewelyn's daughter Gwenllian, who had entered the convent of Sempring- ham. In April 1 284 Queen Eleanor, who had meanwhile joined her husband in Wales, gave birth to a son in the newly built castle of Carnarvon, and this infant the victorious king, half in earnest and half in jest, presented to the Welsh people for a prince who could speak no word of English. On the 7th of February 1301, Edward of Carnarvon was formally created " prince of Wales " by his father, and henceforward the title and honours of Prince of Wales became associated with the recognized heir of the English crown. By the Statute, or rather Ordinance of Rhuddlan, promulgated in 1284, many important changes were effected in the civil administration of Wales. Glamorgan and the county palatine of Pembroke had hitherto been the only portions of the country subject to English shire law, but now Edward parcelled out the ancient territory of the princes of Gwynedd and of Deheubarth into six new counties, with sheriffs, coroners and bailiffs. Thus Anglesea, Carnarvon, Merioneth and Flint were erected in North Wales; whilst out of the districts of Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion in South Wales, the old dominions of the house of Dynevor, the counties of Carmarthen and Cardigan were formed. The old Welsh land tenure by gavelkind was, however, still permitted 264 WALES to remain in force amongst the natives of all Wales, whilst it was henceforth arranged to administer justice in the eight counties by special royal judges, and in the Marches by the officers appointed by the various lords-marchers according to the terms of their tenure. Another distinguishing mark of Edward's policy towards Wales is to be found in the commercial and administra- tive powers given to the fortified towns, inhabited solely by people of English birth and by Welshmen who acquiesced in English rule. Municipal charters and market privileges were now granted to such towns as Cardiff, Carmarthen, Builth, Cardigan, Mont- gomery, Aberystwith, Newborough, &c., and this wise policy was continued under Edward II. and Edward III. Many of the turbulent Welsh warriors having now become mercenaries on the continent or else enlisted under the English king, and the whole of the land west of Severn at last enjoying internal peace, the commercial resources of Wales were developed in a manner that had hitherto not been possible. Coal, copper, timber, iron, and especially wool, were exported from the Principality, and by the Statute Staple of 1353 Carmarthen was declared the sole staple for the whole Welsh wool trade, every bale of wool having first to be sealed or " cocketed " at this important town, which during the I4th century may almost be accounted as the English capital of the Principality, so greatly was it favoured by the Plantagenet monarchs. A natural result of this partial treatment of the towns by the king and his vassals was that the English tongue and also English customs became prevalent if not universal in all the towns of Wales, whilst the rural districts remained strongly Cymric in character, language and sympathy. After more than a century of enforced repose in the land and of prosperity in the towns, all Wales was suddenly convulsed by a wide-spread revolt against the English crown, which reads more like a tale of romance than a piece of sane history. The deposi- tion of Richard II. and the usurpation of Henry IV., combined with the jealousy of the rural inhabitants of Wales against the privileged dwellers of the towns, 'seem to have rendered the country ripe for rebellion. Upon this troubled scene now appeared Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwfrdwy: died ? 1415), a descendant of the former princes of Powys and a favourite courtier of the late King Richard, smarting under the effect of personal wrongs received from Henry of Lancaster. With a success and speed that contemporary writers deemed miraculous, Owen stirred up his countrymen against the king, and by their aid succeeded in destroying castle after castle, and burning town after town throughout the whole length and breadth of the land between the years 1401 and 1406. In r4O2 he routed the forces of the Mortimers at Bryn Glas near Knighton in Maesyfed, where he captured Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle and guardian of the legitimate heir to the English throne, the young earl of March. The aims of Owen were described by himself in a letter addressed to Charles VI., king of France, who had hastened to acknowledge the upstart as Prince of Wales and had sent 12,000 troops on his behalf to Milford Haven. In this letter Owen, who was holding his court in Llanbadarn near Aberystwith, demands his own acknowledgment as sovereign of Wales; the calling of a free Welsh parliament on the English model; the independence of the Welsh Church from the control of Canterbury; and the founding of national colleges in Wales itself. An assembly of Welsh nobles was actually summoned to meet in 1406 at Machyn- lleth in an ancient building still standing and known to this day as " Owen Glendower's Parliament House." In vain did Henry and his lords-marchers endeavour to suppress the rebellion, and to capture, by fair means or foul, the person of Glendower himself; the princely adventurer seemed to bear a charmed existence, and for a few years Owen was practically master of all Wales. Nevertheless, his rule and power gradually declined, and by the year 1408 Owen himself had disappeared as suddenly and mysteriously as he had arisen, and the land once more fell into undisputed possession of the king and his chosen vassals. For Owen's brilliant but brief career and ruthless treatment of English settlers and Anglophil Welshmen, his countrymen had not unnaturally to pay a heavy penalty in the severe statutes which the affrighted parliaments of Henry IV. framed for the protection of the English dwellers in Wales and the border counties, and which were not repealed until the days of the Tudors. Of the part played by the Cymry during the wars of the Roses it is needless to speak, since the period forms a part of English rather than of Welsh history. The Yorkist faction seems to have been strongest in the eastern portion of the Principality, where the Mortimers were all-powerful, but later the close connexion of the house of Lancaster with Owen Tudor, a gentleman of Anglesea (beheaded in 1461) who had married Catherine of France, widow of Henry V., did much to invite Welsh sympathy on behalf of the claims of Henry Tudor his grandson, who claimed the English throne by right of his grand- mother. Through the instrumentality of the celebrated Sir Rhys ap Thomas (1451-1527), the wealthiest and the most powerful personage in South Wales, Henry Tudor, earl of Rich- mond, on his landing at Milford Haven in 1485 found the Welsh ready to rise in his behalf against the usurper Richard III. With an army largely composed of Sir Rhys's adherents, Henry was enabled to face Richard III. at Bosworth, and consequently to obtain the crown of England. Thus did a Welshman revenge the ignominious deaths of Prince Llewelyn and Prince David by becoming two centuries later king of England and prince of Wales. With the Tudor dynasty firmly seated on the throne, a number of constitutional changes intended to place Welsh subjects on a complete social and political equality with Englishmen have to be recorded. The all-important Act of Union 1536 (27 Henry VIII.), converted the whfle of the Marches of Wales into shire ground, and created five new counties: Denbigh, Montgomery, Radnor, Brecknock, or Brecon and Monmouth. At the same time the remaining lordships were added to the English border counties of Gloucester, Shropshire and Hereford, and also to the existing Welsh shires of Cardigan, Carmarthen, Glamorgan and Pembroke, all of which found their boundaries considerably enlarged "under this statute. Clause 26 of the same act likewise enacted that the 12 Welsh counties should return 24 members to the English parliament: one for each county, one for the boroughs in each county (except Merioneth), and one for the town and county of Haverfordwest. It is probable that Welsh members attended the parliaments of 1536 and 1539, and certain it is that they were present at the parliament of 1541 and every parliament subse- quently held. This act of union was followed in 1542 by an " Act for certain Ordinances in the King's Majesty's Dominion and Principality of Wales " (34 & 35 Henry VIII.), which placed the court of the president and council of Wales and the Marches on a legal footing. This court, with a jurisdiction some- what similar to that of the Star Chamber, had originally been called into being under Edward IV. with the object of suppressing private feuds and other illegalities amongst the lords-marchers and their retainers. This council of Wales, the headquarters of which had been fixed at Ludlow, undoubtedly did good service on behalf of law and order under such capable presidents as Bishop Rowland Lee and William Herbert, earl of Pembroke; but it had long ceased to be of any practical use, and had in fact become an engine of oppression by the time of the Common- wealth, although it was not definitely abolished till the revolution of 1688. The act of 1542 also enacted that courts of justice under the name of " The King's Great Sessions in Wales " should sit twice a year in every one of the counties of Wales, except Mon- mouth, which was thus formally declared an English shire. For this purpose four circuits, two for North and two for South Wales, each circuit containing a convenient group of three counties, were created; whilst justices of the peace and custodes rotulorum for each shire were likewise appointed. At the same time all ancient Welsh laws and customs, which were at variance with the recognized law of England, were now declared illegal, and Cymric land tenure by gavelkind, which had been respected by Edward I., was expressly abolished and its place taken by the ordinary practice of primogeniture. It was also particularly stated that all legal procedure must henceforth be conducted in the English tongue, an arrangement which fell very heavily on poor monoglot Welshmen and appears an especially harsh and WALES 265 ungracious enactment when coming from a sovereign who was himself a genuine Welshman by birth. Under the system of the Great Sessions justice was administered throughout the twelve counties of Wales for nearly three hundred years, and it was not until 1830 that this system of jurisdiction was abolished (not without some protest from Welsh members at Westminster), and the existing North and- South Wales circuits were brought into being. With the peaceful absorption of the Principality into the realm of the Tudor sovereigns, the subsequent course of Welsh history assumes mainly a religious and educational character. The influence of the Renaissance seems to have been tardy in penetrating into Wales itself, nor did the numerous ecclesiastical changes during the period of the Reformation cause any marked signs either of resentment or approval amongst the mass of the Welsh people, although some of the ancient Catholic customs lingered on obstinately. As early as the reign of Henry VIII. there were, however, to be found at court and in the universities a number of ardent and talented young Welshmen, adherents mostly of the reforming party in Church and State, who were destined to bring about a brilliant literary revival in their native land during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Of this dis- tinguished band the most memorable names are those of Bishop Richard Davies (c. 1501-1581) and of William Salesbury, the squire-scholar of Llanrwst (c. 1520-6. 1600) in Denbighshire, who is commonly credited with the honour of having produced the first printed book in the Welsh language, a small volume of pro- verbs published in London about the year 1 545. With the acces- sion of Elizabeth a novel and vigorous ecclesiastical policy on truly national lines was now inaugurated in Wales itself, chiefly through the instrumentality of Richard Davies, nominated bishop of St Asaph in 1559 and translated thence to St Davids in 1561, who was mainly responsible for the act of parliament of 1563, commanding the bishops of St Davids, Llandaff, Bangor, St Asaph and Hereford to prepare with all speed for public use Welsh translations of the Scriptures and the Book of Common Prayer. Of the five prelates thus named, Davies alone was competent to undertake the task, and for assistance in the work of translation he called upon his old friend and former neigh- bour, William Salesbury, who like the bishop was an excellent Greek and Hebrew scholar. The pair laboured with such diligence that before the close of the year 1567 the required translations of the Liturgy and the New Testament were pub- lished in London; the former being the exclusive work of the bishop, whilst the latter was principally the product of Salesbury's pen, although some portions of it were contributed by Bishop Davies and by Thomas Huet, or Hewett, precentor of St Davids (d. 1591). Having accomplished so much in so small a space of time, the two friends were next engaged upon a translation of the Old Testament, but owing to a quarrel, the cause of which remains obscure, this interesting literary partnership was brought to an abrupt ending about 1570. The honour of presenting his countrymen with a complete Welsh version of the Bible was reserved for William Morgan (c. 1547-1604), vicar of Llanr- hayader, in Denbighshire, and afterwards bishop successively of Llandaff and of St Asaph. For eight years Morgan was busied with his self-imposed task, being greatly encouraged thereto by Archbishop Whitgift, by Bishop William Hughes (d. 1600) of St Asaph, and by other leading dignitaries of the Church both in. England and in Wales. In December 1588 the first complete Welsh Bible, commonly known as " Bishop Morgan's Bible," was issued from the royal press at Westminster under the patron- age of queen and primate, about 800 copies being supplied for distribution amongst the parish churches of Wales. This famous editio princeps of the Welsh Bible, first and foremost of Welsh classics, was further supplemented under James I. by the Authorized Version, produced by Richard Parry (1560-1623), bishop of St Asaph, with the help of Dr John Davies of Mallwyd (1570-1644), the first great Welsh lexicographer. At the ter- centenary of " Bishop Morgan's Bible " in 1888 a national move- ment of appreciation was set on foot amongst Welshmen of all denominations both at home and abroad, with the result that a memorial cross was erected in the cathedral close of St Asaph in order to perpetuate the names and national services of the eight leading Welsh translators of the Scriptures: — Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry; William Salesbury; Thomas Huet; Dr Davies of Mallwyd; Archdeacon Edmund Prys (1541-1624), author of a popular Welsh metrical version of the Psalter; and Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster (1528-1601), a native of Ruthin, who greatly assisted Bishop Morgan in his task. Two circumstances attending the production of these Welsh transla- tions should be noted: — (i) That the leaders of this remarkable religious, literary and educational revival within the Principality were chiefly natives of North Wales, where for many years St Asaph was regarded as the chief centre of Cambro-British intellectual life; and (2) that all these important works in the Welsh tongue were published of necessity in London, owing to the absence of an acknowledged capital, or any central city of importance in Wales itself. It would be well-nigh impossible to exaggerate the services rendered to the ancient British tongue, and consequently to the national spirit of Wales, by these Elizabethan and Jacobean translations, issued in 1567, 1588 and 1620, which were able definitely to fix the standard of classical Welsh, and to embody the contending dialects of Gwynedd, Dyfed and Gwent for all time in one literary storehouse. But for this sudden revival of Cymric literature under the patronage of Elizabeth (for the obtaining of which Wales must ever owe a deep debt of gratitude to Bishop Richard Davies, " her second St David "), there is every reason to believe that the ancient language of the Princi- pality must either have drifted into a number of corrupt dialects, as it then showed symptoms of doing, or else have tended to ultimate extinction, much as the Cornish tongue perished in the 1 7th century. The growth of Puritanism in Wales was neither strong nor speedy, although the year 1588, which witnessed the appear- ance of Bishop Morgan's Bible, also gave birth to two fierce appeals to the parliament, urging a drastic Puritanical policy in Wales, from the pen of the celebrated John Penry, a native of Brecknockshire (1550-1593). Far more influential than Penry amongst the Welsh were Rhys Prichard (? 1570-1644), the famous vicar of Llandovery,1 Carmarthenshire, and William Wroth (d. 1642), rector of LJanfaches, Monmouthshire. Of these two Puritan divines, Vicar Prichard, who was essentially orthodox in his behaviour, forms an interesting connecting link between the learned Elizabethan translators of the Bible and the great revivalists of the i8th century, and his moral rhymes in the vernacular, collected and printed after his death under the title of The Welshman's Candle (Canwyll y Cvmry), still retain some degree of popularity amongst his countrymen. Although a strong opponent of Laud's and Charles's ecclesi- astical policy, Prichard lived unmolested, and even rose to be chancellor of St Davids; but the indiscreet Wroth, " the founder and father of nonconformity in Wales," being suspended in 1638 by Bishop Murray of Llandaff, founded a small community of Independents at Llanfaches, which is thus commonly ac- counted the first Nonconformist chapel in Wales. Daring the years prior to the Great Rebellion, however, in spite of the preaching and writings of Vicar Prichard, Wroth and others, the vast mass of Welshmen of all classes remained friendly to the High Church policy of Laud and staunch supporters of the king's prerogative. Nor were the effects of the great literary revival in Elizabeth's reign by any means exhausted, for at this time Wales undoubtedly possessed a large number of native divines that were at once active parish priests and excellent scholars, many of whom had been educated at Jesus College, Oxford, the Welsh college endowed by Dr Hugh Price (d. 1574) and founded under Elizabeth's patronage in 1573. So striking was the devotion shown throughout the Principality to the king, who fought his last disastrous campaign in the friendly counties of Wales and the Marches, that on the final victory of the parliament there was passed within a month of Charles's execution 'Sometimes known as vicar of Llandingat, his church being in that parish. 266 WALES in 1649 (perhaps as a special measure of punishment) an " Act for the better Propagation and Preaching of the Gospel in Wales," by the terms of which a packed body of seventy commissioners was presented with powers that were practically unlimited to deal with all matters ecclesiastical in Wales. To assist these commissioners in their task of inquiry and eject- ment, a body of twenty-five " Approvers " was likewise con- stituted, with the object of selecting itinerant preachers to replace the dismissed incumbents; and amongst the Approvers are conspicuous the names of Walter Cradock (d. 1659), a sus- pended curate of St Mary's, Cardiff, and a follower of Wroth's; and of Vavasor Powell (1617-1670), an honest but injudicious zealot. Some 330 out of a possible total of 520 incumbents were now ejected in South Wales and Monmouthshire, and there is every reason to suppose that the beneficed clergy of North Wales suffered equally under the new system. The greed and tyranny of several of the commissioners, and the bigotry and mismanagement of well-meaning fanatics such as Cradock and Powell, soon wrought dire confusion throughout the whole Principality, so that a monster petition, signed alike by moderate Puritans and by High Churchmen, was prepared for presentation to parliament in 1652 by Colonel Edward Freeman, attorney-general for South Wales. Despite the fierce efforts of Vavasor Powell and his brother itinerant preachers to thwart the reception of this South Wales petition at Westminster, Colonel Freeman was able to urge the claims of the petitioners, or " Anti-Propagators " as they were termed, at the bar of the House of Commons, openly declaring that by the late policy of ejectment and destruction " the light of the Gospel was almost extinguished in Wales." A new commission was now appointed to inquire into alleged abuses in Wales, and the existing evidence clearly shows how harsh and unfair was the treatment meted out to the clergy under the act of 1649, and also how utterly subversive of all ancient custom and established order were the reforms suggested by the commissioners and approvers. At the Restoration all the ejected clergy who sur- vived were reinstated in their old benefices under the Act of Uniformity of 1662, whilst certain Puritan incumbents were in their turn dismissed for refusing to comply with various re- quirements of that act. Amongst these Stephen Hughes of Carmarthen (1623-1688), a devoted follower of Vicar Prichard and an editor of his works, was ejected from the living of Mydrim in Carmarthenshire, whereby the valuable services of this eminent divine were lost to the Church and gained by the Nonconformists, who had increased considerably in numbers since the Civil Wars. The old ecclesiastical policy of Elizabeth, which had hitherto borne such good fruit in Wales, was now gradually relaxed under the later Stuarts and definitely abandoned under Anne, during whose reign only Englishmen were appointed to the vacant Welsh sees. From 1702 to 1870, a period of nearly 170 years, no Welsh-speaking native bishop was nominated (with the solitary exception of John Wynne, consecrated to St Asaph in 1715), and it is needless to point out that this selfish and unjust policy was largely responsible for the neglect and misrule which dis- tinguished the latter half of the i8th and the early part of the I9th centuries. The Church, which had so long played a prominent and valuable part in the moral and literary education of the Welsh people, was now gradually forced out of touch with the nation through the action of alien and unsympathetic Whig prelates in Wales itself, which still remained mainly High Church and Jacobite in feeling. All writers agree in stating that the mass of the Welsh people at the close of the i7th century were illiterate, and many divines of Cymric nationality charge their countrymen also with immorality and religious apathy. English was little spoken or understood amongst the peasant population, and there was a great dearth of Welsh educational works. Some efforts to remedy this dark condition of things had already been made by Thomas Gouge, with the assistance of Stephen Hughes, and also by the newly founded " Society for the Promotion of Christian Know- ledge "; but it was Griffith Jones (1683-1761), rector of Lland- dowror in south Carmarthenshire, who was destined to become the true pioneer of Welsh education, religious and secular. Early in the reign of George I. this excellent man, whose name and memory will ever be treasured so long as the Welsh tongue survives, began a system of catechizing in the vernacular amongst the children and adults of his own parish. With the cordial help of Sir John Philipps (d. 1736) of Picton Castle, the head of an ancient family in Dyfed, and of Mrs Bridget Bevan of Laugharne (d. 1779), who is still affectionately remembered in Wales as the donor of " Madam Sevan's Charity," Griffith Jones was enabled to extend his scheme of educating the people throughout South Wales, where numerous " circulating charity schools," as they were called, were set up in many parishes with the approval of their incumbents. The results obtained by the growth of these schools were speedy and successful beyond the wildest hopes of their founder. This educational system, in- vented by Griffith Jones and supported by the purse of Mrs Bevan, in 1760 numbered 215 schools, with a total number of 8687 contemporary scholars; and by the date of Jones's death in 1761 it has been proved that over 150,000 Welsh persons of every age and of either sex, nearly a third of the whole population of Wales at that time, were taught to read the Scriptures in their own language by means of these schools. With this newly acquired ability to read the Bible in their own tongue, the many persons so taught were not slow to express a general demand for Cymric literature, which was met by a supply from local presses in the small country towns; the marvellous success of the Welsh circulating charity schools caused in fact the birth of the Welsh vernacular press. In spite, however, of the marked improve- ment in the conditions and behaviour of the Welsh people, owing to this strictly orthodox revival within the pale of the Church, Griffith Jones and his system of education were regarded with indifference by the English prelates in Wales, who offered no preferment and gave little encouragement to the founder of the circulating schools. Meanwhile the writings and personal example of the pious rector of Llanddowror were stirring other Welshmen in the work of revival, chief amongst them being Howell Harris of Trevecca (1713-1773), a layman of brilliant abilities but erratic temperament; and Daniel Rowland (1713- 1790), curate of Llangeitho in Mid- Cardiganshire, who became in time the most eloquent and popular preacher throughout all Wales. Two other clergymen, who figure prominently in the Methodist movement, and whose influence has proved lasting, were Peter Williams of Carmarthen (1722-1796), the Welsh Bible commentator, and William Williams of Pantycelyn (1717- 1791), the celebrated Welsh hymn-writer. Incidentally, it will be noticed that this important Methodist revival had its origin and found its chief supporters and exponents in a restricted corner of South Wales, of which Carmarthen was the centre, in curious contrast with the literary movement in Elizabeth's reign, which was largely confined to the district round St Asaph. During the lifetime of Griffith Jones the course of Welsh Methodism had run in orthodox channels and had been generally supported by the Welsh clergy and gentry; but after his death the tendency to exceed the bounds of conventional Church discipline grew so marked as to excite the alarm of the English bishops in Wales. Nevertheless, the bulk of the Methodists continued to attend the services of the Church, and to receive •the sacraments from regularly ordained parish priests, although a schism was becoming inevitable. Towards the close of the i8th century the Methodist revival spread to North Wales under the influence of the celebrated Thomas Charles, commonly called Charles of Bala (1755-1814), formerly curate of Llany- mowddwy and the founder of Welsh Sunday schools. So strained had the relations between the English rulers of the Church and the Methodists themselves now grown, that in 1811 the long- expected schism took place, much to the regret of Charles of Bala himself, who had ever been a devoted disciple of Griffith Jones. The great bulk of the farming and labouring members of the Church now definitely abandoned their " Ancient Mother," to whom, however, the Welsh gentry still adhered. The Great Schism of 1811 marks in fact the lowest point to which the WALES 267 fortunes of the once powerful and popular Church in Wales had sunk; — in 1811 there were only English-speaking prelates to be found, whilst the abuses of non-residence, pluralities and even nepotism were rampant everywhere. As instances of this clerical corruption then prevailing in Wales, mention may be made of the cases of Richard Watson (d. 1816), the non-resident bishop of Llandaff, who rarely visited his diocese during an episcopate of thirty years; and of another English divine who held the deanery, the chancellorship and nine livings in a North Welsh see, his curates-in-charge being paid out of Queen Anne's Bounty, a fund expressly intended for the benefit of impoverished livings. An honourable exception to the indolent and rapacious divines of this stamp was Thomas Burgess (bishop of St Davids), to whose exertions is mainly due the foundation of St David's College at Lampeter in 1822, an institution erected to provide a better and cheaper education for intending Welsh clergymen. The foundation of Lampeter College was one of the earliest signs of a new era of revived vigour and better government within the Church, although it was not till 1870 that, by Mr Gladstone's appointment of Dr Joshua Hughes to the see of St Asaph, the special claims of the Welsh Church were officially recognized, and the old Elizabethan policy was one more reverted to after a lapse of nearly two hundred years. After 1870 Welsh ecclesi- astical appointments were made in a more truly national spirit, and this official acknowledgment of the peculiar duties and claims of the Church in Wales largely helped to win back no small amount of the strength and popularity that had been lost during Georgian times. With the old national Church enthralled by English political prelates, and consequently hindered from ministering to the special needs of the people, the progress of dissent throughout the Principality was naturally rapid. Although primary education was largely supplied by the many Church schools in all parts of Wales, yet it was in the three most important denomina- tions—the Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Calvinistic Methodists (that new-born sect of which the Church herself was the unwilling parent) — that almost all Welsh spiritual development was to be found during the first half of the igth century. Thus between the year 181 1 (the date of the Methodist secession) and 1832 (the year of the great Reform Bill), the number of dissenting chapels had risen from 945 to 1428: a truly marvellous increase even allowing for the speedy growth of population, since every chapel so built had of necessity to be well attended in order to render it self-supporting. From this religious guidance of the people by the well-organized forces of dissent, it was but a step to political ascendancy, and as the various constitutional changes from the Reform Bill onward began to lower the elective franchise, and thus to throw more and more power into the hands of the working classes, that spirit of radicalism, which is peculiarly associated with political dissent, began to assert itself powerfully throughout the country. As early as the reign of William IV. there appeared the weekly Times of Wales (Amserau Cymry), founded and edited by the able William Rees, who may be styled the father of the Welsh political press; and the success of Rees's venture was so marked that other journals, arranged to suit the special tenets of each sect, speedily sprang into existence. In the year 1870 — a date that for many reasons marks the opening of an important era in modern Welsh history — the dissenting bodies of Wales were supporting two quarterly, sixteen monthly and ten weekly papers, all published in the vernacular and all read largely by peasants, colliers and artisans. With so powerful a press behind it, it is no wonder that Welsh political dissent was largely responsible for the changed attitude of the Imperial government in its treatment of the Principality — as evinced in the Sunday Closing Act of 1 88 1, a measure which was very dear to the strong temperance party in Wales, and in the Welsh Intermediate Education Act, granted by Lord Salisbury's government in 1889. It was certainly owing to the pressure of Welsh political dissent that Lord Rosebery's cabinet issued the Welsh Land Tenure Commission in 1893 — an inquiry which did much to exonerate the Welsh squirearchy from a number of vague charges of extortion and sectarian oppression; and that Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet appointed the Welsh Church Commission (2ist June 1906). This Commission was authorized to " inquire into the origin, nature, amount and application of the temporalities, endowments and other properties of the Church of England in Wales and Monmouthshire; and into the provision made and the work done by the Churches of all de- nominations in Wales and Monmouthshire for the spiritual welfare of the people, and the extent to which the people avail themselves of such provision." The Report and Memoranda of the Commission were published on the 2nd of December 1910. Mention must be made of the Rebecca riots in 1843-1844 in South Wales, wherein many toll gates were destroyed by mobs of countrymen dressed in female garb, " as the daughters of Rebecca about to possess the gates of their enemies "; and the Anti-Tithe agitation of 1885-1886— largely traceable to the inflammatory language used concerning clerical tithe by certain organs of the vernacular press — which led to some disorderly scenes between distraining parties of police and crowds of excited peasants in the more remote rural districts. There have been occasional strikes accompanied by acts of lawlessness in the industrial and mining districts of Glamorganshire, and also amongst the workmen employed in the quarries of Gwynedd. The University College of Wales was founded at Aberystwyth in 1872; that of South Wales at Cardiff in 1883; and of North Wales at Bangor in 1884. In 1889 the system of intermediate schools, arranged to form an educational link between the primary schools and the colleges, was inaugurated. In November 1893 the University of Wales was incorpcrated by royal charter, with Lord Aberdare (d. 1895) as its first chancellor. All the religious bodies, including the Church, have been extremely active in educational and pastoral work; whilst the peculiar religious movement known as a revival (Diwygiad) has occurred from time to time throughout the Principality, notably in the years 1859 and 1904. But the most remarkable phenomenon in modern Wales has been the evident growth of a strong national sentiment, the evolution of a new Welsh Renaissance, which demanded special recognition of the Principality's claims by the Imperial parlia- ment. This revived spirit of nationalism was by outsiders some- times associated, quite erroneously, with the aims and actions of the Welsh parliamentary party, the spokesmen of political dissent in Wales; yet in reality this sentiment was shared equally by the clergy of the Established Church, and by a large number of the laity within its fold. Nor is the question of the vernacular itself of necessity bound up with this new movement, for Wales is essentially a bi-lingual country, wherein every educated Cymro speaks and writes English with ease, and where also large towns and whole districts — such as Cardiff, south Monmouth, the Vale of Glamorgan, Gower, south Glamorgan, south Pem- broke, east Flint, Radnorshire and Breconshire — remain practi- cally monoglot English-speaking. Nor are the Welsh landowners and gentry devoid of this new spirit of nationalism, and although some generations ago they ceased as a body to speak the native tongue, they have shown a strong disposition to study once more the ancient language and literature of their country. It is true that a Young Wales party has arisen, which seeks to narrow this movement to the exclusion of English ideas and influences; and it is also true that there is a party which is abnormally suspicious of and hostile to this Welsh Renaissance; but in the main it is correct to say that the bulk of the Welsh nation remains content to assert its views and requirements in a reasonable manner. How wide-spread and enthusiastic is this true spirit of national- ism amongst all classes and sects of Welsh society to-day may be observed at the great meetings of the National Eisteddfod, which is held on alternate years in North and South Wales at some important centre, and at which the immense crowds col- lected and the interest displayed make a deep impression on the Anglo-Saxon or foreign visitors. The sincere, if somewhat narrow-minded religious feelings; the devotion manifested by all classes towards the land of their fathers; the extraordinary 268 WALES vitality of the Cambro-British tongue — these are the main char- acteristics of modern Wales, and they seem to verify the terms of Taliesin's ancient prophecy concerning the early dwellers of Gwalia: — " Their Lord they shall praise; Their Tongue they shall keep ; Their Land they shall lose Except Wild Wales." (H. M. V.) Welsh Literature. — The Welsh language possesses an ex- tensive literature, ranging from the 9th century to the present day. A detailed account of it will be found in the article CELT: Celtic Literature, § iv. Welsh Language. — Welsh, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Britons (see CELT: Language), is the domestic tongue of the majority of the inhabitants of the Principality. With the final destruction of Welsh independence under Edward I. the Cambro-British language, in spite of the disappearance of a court, continued to be spoken by Welshmen of all classes residing west of Severn, and the I4th and isth centuries are remarkable for producing some of the finest Welsh bards and historians. With the union of Wales with England by the Act of 27 Henry VIII. (1536) the subsequent administration of all law and justice in the English tongue throughout the Principality threatened for a time the ancient language of the people with practical extinct- tion. From such a fate it was largely preserved by the various translations of the Scriptures, undertaken at the command of Queen Elizabeth and performed by a number of native scholars and divines, amongst whom appear prominent the names of Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry, and of William Salesbury of Llanrwst. Although the assertion of the celebrated Rhys Prichard of Llandovery that in his time (c. 1630) only i % of the people of Wales could read the native language is probably an exaggeration, yet the number of persons who could read and write Welsh .must have been extremely small outside the ranks of the clergy. During the earlier half of the i7th century the number of Welsh Bibles distributed throughout the Principality could hardly have exceeded 8000 in all, and except the Bible there was scarcely any Welsh work of importance in circulation. The system of the Welsh circulating charity schools, set up by Griffith Jones, rector of Llanddowror, in the i8th century, undoubtedly gave an immense impetus to the spread of popular education in Wales, for it has been stated on good authority that about one-third of the total population was taught to read and write Welsh by means of this system. As a result of Griffith Jones's efforts there quickly arose a vigorous demand for Welsh books of a pious and educational character, which was largely supplied by local Welsh printing-presses. The enthusiastic course of the Methodist movement under Howell Harris, Daniel Rowland and William Williams; the establishment of Welsh Sunday Schools; the founding of the Bible Society under Thomas Charles of Bala; and the revival early in the igth century of the Eisteddfodau (the ancient bardic contests of music, poetry and learning), have all contributed to extend the use of the Welsh language and to strengthen its hold as a popular medium of education throughout the Principality. In 1841 the Welsh-speaking population was computed at 67 % of the total, and in 1893 Welsh was understood or spoken by over 60% of the inhabitants in the twelve Welsh counties with the exception of the following districts, wherein English is the pre- vailing or the sole language employed: — viz. nearly the whole of Radnorshire; east Flint, including the neighbouring districts of Ruabon and Wrexham in Denbighshire; east Brecknock; east Montgomery; south Pembroke, with the adjoining district of Laugharne in Carmarthenshire; and the districts of Gower, Vale of Glamorgan and Cardiff in south Glamorgan. In Mon- mouth, the eastern portion of the county is purely English- speaking, and in the western districts English also prevails (J. E. Southall, Linguistic Map of Wales). Before tracing the history of Welsh sounds, it will be convenient to give the values of the letters in the modern alphabet: — Tenues: p; t; c (=Eng. k). Mediae: b; d; g ( = Eng. hard g). Voiceless spirants: / or ph ( = Eng. /); th ( = Eng. th in tii ick) ; ch( = Scottish ch in loch). Voiced spirants: / ( = Eng. v); dd ( = Eng. th in this); the guttural voiced spirant (7) disappeared early in Welsh. Voiceless nasals: mh; nh; ng/i. Voiced nasals: m; n; ng. Voiceless liquids: II (unilateral voiceless /); rh (voiceless r). Voiced liquids: /; r. Sibilant: j (Welsh has no z). Aspirate: h. Semi-vowels: i ( = Eng. y in yard); w ( = Eng. w). The sounds of / and d are more dental than in English, though they vary; the voiced spirants are very soft; the voiceless nasals are aspirated, thus nh is similar to Eng. nh in inhale; r is trilled as in Italian. Vowels: a, e, i, o have the same values as in Italian; w as a vowel = north Eng. oo in book or Italian « ; y has two sounds — (i) the clear sound resembling the Eng. * in bit, but pronounced farther back; (2) the obscure sound = Eng. * in fir; u in Med. Welsh had the sound of French «, but now has the clear sound of y described above, which is similar to the ear, and has the same pitch. The Welsh language belongs to the Celtic branch of the Aryan or Indo-European family of languages. Primitive Celtic split up, as already shown, into two dialects, represented in modern times by two groups of languages — (i) the Goidelic group, comprising Irish, Scottish, Gaelic and Manx. (2) The Brythonic or Brittonic ' group, comprising Welsh, Breton and Cornish. In the Goidelic group qu appears as c, thus Irish cethir, " four "; in the Brythonic group it is changed into p, as in Welsh pea-war, " four." Gaulish, which was supplanted in France by Latin, had p, as in peior-ritum, " four- wheeled car," and is thus allied to the Brythonic group; but it is believed that remains of a continental Celtic qu- dialect appear in such names as Sequani, and in some recently discovered inscrip- tions. The sounds of parent Aryan appeared in Primitive Celtic with the following modifications : — p disappeared, thus Aryan * peter, which gave Latin pater, Eng. father, gave in Irish athir; correspond- ing to Eng. floor, we have Irish lar, Welsh llator. The velar tenuis q, when labialized, became qu, without labialization became k; the velar media g became 6 or g. The aspirated mediae bh, dh, gh, gh were treated as unaspirated b, d, g, g; probably also the rare aspir- ated tenues fell together with the unaspirated. The other Aryan consonants seem generally to have remained. Aryan a,t,u remained. Aryan e became i, as in Irish fir, Welsh gwir, " true," cognate with Latin ver-us. Aryan d became 6, as in Irish lar, cognate with Anglo- Saxon flor, Eng. floor. The short vowels remained, except that Aryan 3 became a, as in the other European branches. In Brythonic, primitive Celtic qu became p, as above noted. Probably also Celtic u was advancing or had advanced to a forward position, for it appears in Welsh as I, as in din, " stronghold," from Celtic *dun-on, cognate with Eng. town, while Latin u, borrowed in the Brythonic period, gives u with its Welsh sound above described, as in mur, " wall," from Latin mur-us. The Aryan system of inflexion was preserved in Celtic, as may be seen in Stokes's restoration of Celtic declension (Trans. Philol. Soc., 1885-1886, pp. 97-201); and Brythonic was probably as highly inflected as Latin. The development of Brythonic into Welsh is analogous to that of Latin into French. Unfortunately, the extant remains of Brythonic are scanty; but in the Roman period it borrowed a large number of Latin words, which, as we know their original forms, and as they underwent the same modi- fications as other words in the language, enable us to trace the phonetic changes by which Brythonic became Welsh. These changes are briefly as follows : — 1. Loss of Syllables. — The last syllable of every word of more than one syllable was dropped; thus Latin lermin-us gives in Welsh terfyn; the name Sabrin-a * "Severn" became Hafren. The loss extends to the stem-ending of the first element of a compound, thus the personal name Maglo-cunos became Maelgwn; and generally to unaccented syllables, thus episcopus became *epscop, whence esgob; trlnitat-em gives trindod. The accusative is often the case represented in Welsh; but we have also the nominative, and sometimes both, as in ciwed from civit-as, and ciwdod from ctvittit-ent, now two words, not two cases of the same word. Aryan declension naturally disappeared with the loss of final syllables. 2. Consonant Changes. — (i) Between two vowels, or a vowel and a liquid, the seven consonants p, t, c, b, d, g, m, became re- spectively 6, d, g, f, dd, -, f, where "-" represents the lost voiced spirant y. Examples: Latin cupidus gave cybydd; Tacitus gave 'The Bretons call their language Brezonek; the Welsh bards sometimes call Welsh Brythoneg: both forms imply an original *Brittonica. J The i was short: Sabrina would have given Hefrin in Welsh. WALES 269 Tegyd; labdrem gave llafur; sagitta gave saeth; remus gave rhwyf. This change is called the " soft mutation." (2) After nasals p, t, c, b, d, g became respectively mh, nh, ngh, m, n, ng; thus tmperator gave ymherawdr, and ambactos (evidently a Brythonicas well as a Gaulish word) gave amaeth (m, though etymologically double, is written single). This change is called the " nasal mutation." (3) pf>, U, cc became respectively ph otf, th, ch; thus pecc&tum gave fechawd, later pechod; and Brittones gave Brython. This change is called the " spirant mutation." The tenuis becomes a spirant also after r or /, as in corff from corpus, and Eljfin from Alpinus; but U gives lit or //. The combinations act, ect, act, uct gave aeth, aith, oeth, wyth, respectively; as in doeth, " wise," from Lat. doctus, Jfrwyth from fructus. (4) Original s between vowels (but not Latin j) became h, and disappeared; initially it generally appears as A, as in halen, " salt," sometimes as s, as in saith, " seven." Initial / and r became II and rh, as seen in examples in (i) above; but between vowels they remained. Similarly initial » became gw, as in gwin, from Latin rinum, remaining between vowels, though now written w, as in ciwed from Anitas. A consonant occurring medially is, generally speaking, invariable in the present language; thus the p and d of cuptdus are b and dd in cybydd; but with the initial consonant the case is different. In one combination the initial may remain; thus *oinos cuptdus gave un cybydd, " one mieer " ; in another combination it may nave originally stood between vowels, and so is mutated, as in *duo cupido, which gave dau eybydd, " two misers." Thus arose the system of " initial mutation : an initial consonant may retain its original form, or may undergo any of the changes to which it is subject. The names given above to these changes are those by which they are known when they occur initially, the unchanged form being called the " radical." The liquids /and r were brought into the system, the initial forms U and rh being regarded as " radical." The initial mutations, then, are as follows: — Radical . P t c b d £ m U rh Soft . . b d g f dd — f I r Nasal . mh nh ngh m . n «g No change. Spirant . ph th ch No change. No change. The initial mutation of any word depends upon its position in the sentence, and is determined by a grammatical rule which can ordinarily be traced to a generalization of the original phonetic conditions. Thus the second element of a compound word, even though written and accented as a separate word, has a soft initial, because in Brythonic the first element of a compound generally ended in a vowel, as in the name Maglo-cunos. The more important rules for initial mutation are the following: the soft mutation occurs in a feminine singular noun after the article, thus y fam, " the mother" (radical mam); in an adjective following a feminine singular noun, as in mam dda, " a good mother " (da, " good ") ; in a noun following a positive adjective, as in hen ddyn, " old man," because this order represents what was originally a compound; in a noun following dy, thy," and ei, " his," thus ay ben, " thy head," ei ben, " his head " (pen, " head ") ; in the object after a verb ; in a noun after a simple preposition; in a verb after the relative a. The nasal mutation occurs after fy, " my," and yn, " in "; thus fy mhen, " my head " (pen, " heaa ), yn Nhalgarth, " at Talgarth." The spirant mutation occurs after a, " and," " with," ei, " her "; thus o p hen, " and a head," ei phen, " her head." 3. Vowel Changes. — (i) Long o, whether from Aryan fi or d or from Latin d, becomes aw in monosyllables, as in brawd, " brother " from *brater; in the penult it is o, as in broder, " brothers," in the ultima aw, later o, as m pechawd, now pechod, from pecc&tum. Long i, whether from Aryan e or I, or from Latin i, remains as »', see ex- amples above. Latin e was identified with a native diphthong ei, and becomes wy, as in rhwyf from remus. Latin o and u appear as . u; see examples above. A long vowel when unaccented counts short, thus peccatorem treated as *peccdt6rem, gave pechadur. (2) Short d, e, o remain; short I became y; and u became y (with its obscure sound) in the penult, remaining in the ultima, though now written w. But short vowels have been affected by vowels in suc- ceeding syllables. These "affections" of vowels are as follows:— (a) I-affection, caused by i in a lost termination: a becomes at or ei, and I, d, u became y, more rarely ai or ei. Thus *bardos gave bardd, but pi. *bardi gave beirdd; episcopi gave esgyb, " bishops." This change is also caused by -o, as in tleidr, " thief," from latro. (ft) A-affection, caused by o in a lost ending: I becomes e (instead of y); u becomes o. Thus civitas gave ciwed; columna gave colofn. (y) Penultimate affection : t or y in the ultima causes several changes in the penult, as arch, " order," erchi, " to bid " ; saer, " carpenter," pi. seiri; caer, " fort," pi. ceyrydd. (3) In the modern language other vowel changes occur by a change of position; thus ai, au, aw in the ultima become ei, eu, o respectively in the penult, as dail, " leaves," dstien, " leaf "; haul, " sun," heiilog, " sunny "; brawd, " brother," pi. broder or brodyr. The last is an old interchange of sounds, and probably the others are older than their first appearance in writing (i5th century) suggests. Accidence. — Welsh has a definite article yr, " the," which becomes 'r after a vowel, and y before a consonant unless already reduced to 'r. Thus yr oen, " the lamb," i'r ty, " into the house, yn y ty, " in the house." The noun has two numbers, and two genders, masculine and feminine. A plural noun is formed from the singular by »-affection: thus bardd, " bard," pi. beirdd; ffon, " stick," p\.Jfyn; or by adding a termination as ffenestr, " window," pi. ffenestrt, with any conse- quent vowel change, as brawd, " brother," pi. brodyr; gwlad, country," pi. gwledydd. The terminations chiefly used are -au, -ion, -on, -i, -ydd, -oedd. These are old stem endings left after the loss of the original -es; thus latro gives lleidr, latrones gives lladron; the forms having dd represent jj stems, j. becoming dd in certain positions. In some cases the singular is formed from the plural by the ad- dition of -yn or -en; thus ser, " stars," seren, " star." Feminine names of living things are formed from the masculine by the addition of -es, as brenin, " king," brenhines, " queen " ; lleic, " lion," llewes, " lioness." It is difficult to lay down rules for the determination of the gender of names of inanimate objects. Adjectives are inflected for number and gender. Plural ad- jectives are formed from the singular by »-affection or by adding the termination -ion or -on; thus hardd, " beautiful," pi. heirda; glas, " blue," pi. gleision. Adjectives having y or w are made feminine by o-affection, due to the lost feminine ending -a; thus gwyn, " white," fern, gwen; truim, " heavy," fern. trom. The adjective has four degrees 01 comparison — positive, equative, comparative, superlative; as gMn, " clean," glaned, " as clean (as)," glanach, " cleaner," glanaf, " cleanest." A few adjectives are compared irregularly. The personal pronouns are: simple sing. i. mi, 2. ti, 3. masc. ef, fern, hi; pi. I. ni, 2. chwi, 3. hwy, hwynt; reduplicated, myfi, tydi, &c. ; conjunctive, minnau, tithau, &c. Prefixed genitive: sing, i./y, " my," 2. dy, 3. i, ei; pi. I. yn, ein, 2. ych, etch, 3. eu. Infixed genitive and accusative: sine, i- 'm, 2. 'th, 3. '»'; pi. i. 'n, 2. 'ch, 3. '«. Affixed: sing. I. *, 2, di, 3. ef, &c., like the simple forms. The demonstrative pronouns are hwn, " this," hwnnw, " that," fern. hon. honno, pi. hyn, hynny. The relative pronouns are nominative and accusative a, oblique cases ydd.yr, y. The expressions yr hwn, y neb, " the one," are mistaken Tor relatives by the old grammarians ; the true relative follows: yr hwn a = " the one who. The interrogative pronouns are substantival pwy ? = "who ? adjectival pa? Substantival "what?" is expressed by pa betkf " what thing ? " or shortly beth? The verb has four tenses in the indicative, one in the subjunctive, and one in the imperative. The old passive voice has become an impersonal active, each tense having one form only. The regular verb caraf, " I love," is conjugated thus: — Indicative — Pres. (and fut.) sing. i. caraf, 2. ceri, 3. c&r; pi. I. carwn, 2. cerwch, 3. carant; impers. cerir. Imperfect sing. I. carwn, 2. carit, 3. carai; pi. I. carem, 2. carech, 3. cerynt, carent; impers. cerid. Aorist sing. I. cerais, 2. ceraist, 3. carodd; pi. 1. carasom, 2. carasoch, 3. carasant; impers. carwyd. Pluperfect sing. I. caraswn, 2. carasit, 3. carasai; pi. I. carasem, 2. caraseck, 3. caresynt, -asent; impers. caresid. Subjunctive — Pres. sing. i. carwyf, 2. cerych, 3. caro; pi. I. carom, 2. caroch, 3. caront; impers. carer. Imperative — Pres. sing. 2. car, 3. cared; pi. I. carwn, 2. cerwch, 3. carent; impers. carer. Verbal noun, caru, " to love." Verbal adjectives, caredig, " loved," caradwy, " lovable." As in other languages the verb " to be " and its compounds are irregular; the number of other irregular verbs is comparatively small. Prepositions also are " conjugated " in Welsh, their objects, if pronominal, being expressed by endings. Thus or, " on," arnaf, on me," arnat, " on thee," arno, " on him," ami, " on her," arnom, "on us," arnoch, "on you," arnynt, " on them." The second conjugation has for endings -of, -ot, -ddo, -ddi; -om, -och, -ddynt; the third -y/, -yt, -ddo. -ddi; -ym, -ych, -ddynt. The negative adverbs are ni, nid, conjunctive na, nod. Inter- rogative particles: a, ai. Affirmative particles: yr,fe. The commoner conjunctions are o, ac, " and " ; and, eithr, " but " ; o, os, " if " ; pan, " when " ; tra, " while." Syntax^. — A qualifying adjective follows its noun, and agrees with it in gender and generally in number. It may, however, precede its noun, and a compared adjective generally does so. In a simple sentence the usual order of words is the following: — verb, subject, object, adverb ; as prynodd Dafydd lyfr yno, " David bought a book there." The verb may be preceded by an affirmative, a negative, or an interrogative particle. When a noun comes first, it is followed by a relative pronoun, thus, Dafydd a brynodd lyfr yno, which really means " (it is) David who bought a book there," and is never used in any other sense in the spoken language, though in literary Welsh it is used rhetorically for the simple statement which is properly expressed by put- ting the verb first. In negative and interrogative sentences this rhetorical use does not occur. 270 WALEWSKI— WALKER, F. A. In a simple interrogative sentence the introductory particle before the verb is a, and the positive answer consists in a repetition of the verb ; a ddaw Dafydd r Daw. " Will David come ? Yes." If the verb is aorist the answer is do for all verbs. In negative answers na precedes the verb. In sentences in which a noun comes first, the interrogative particle is at, and the answer is always, positive 'ie, negative nage; as at Dafydd a ddaw? 'ie. " Is it David who will come? Yes." A relative pronoun immediately precedes its verb and can only be separated from it by an infixed pronoun, thus Dafydd a'i prynodd, " (it is) David who bought it," yno y'm gweli, " (it is) there that thou wilt see me." If the relative is the object of a preposition, the latter is put at the end of the clause, and has a personal ending, thus y ty y bum ynddo, literally, " the house which I-was in-it." The verb does not agree with its subject unless the latter is a personal pronoun ; when the subject is a noun the verb is put in the third person singular; thus carant, " they love," can take a pro- nominal subject — carant hwy, " they love "; but " the men love ' is car y dynion (not carant y dynion, which can only mean " they love the men "). In relative clauses the verb is sometimes made to agree ; but in the oldest poetry we generally find the singular verb, as in the oft-repeated Gododin phrase Gwyr a aeth Gatraeth, " men who went (to) Catraeth " (not Gwyr a aethant). AUTHORITIES. — J. D. Rhys, Cambrobrytannicae Cymraecaeve lingvae institvtiones (1592); John Davies, Antiqae lingvae Britan- nicae . . . rvdimenta (1621); Antiauae linguae Britannicae . . . dictionarium duplex (1632); Edward Lhuyd, Archaeo- logia Britannica (1707); W. O. Pughe, Grammar and Dictionary* (1832), vitiated by absurd etymological theories; J. C. Zeuss, Grammatica Celtica (2nd ed. by H. Ebel, 1871)— an index to the O. Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V. Tourneur in Archivfur celt. Lexikographie, iii. 109-137; T. Rowland, Grammar of the Welsh Language * (1876), containing a large collection of facts about the modern language, badly arranged and wholly undigested; Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology 2 (1879); J. Strachan, An In- troduction to Early Welsh, with a Reader (Manchester, 1909); Stokes, " Urkeltischer Sprachschatz," in Pick's Vergleichendes Worterbuch der idg. Sprachen 4, ii. (1894) ; E. Anwyl, Welsh Grammar for Schools, i. (1898), ii. (1899); J. Morris Jones, Historical Welsh Grammar, i. (1911); W. Spurrek, Welsh-English and English-Welsh Dictionary (Carmarthen 6, 1904) ; D. Silvan Evans, Welsh Dictionary, A-E (1888-1906). The last-named received a subsidy from the British government. Some corrections and additions to the early volumes, by J. Loth, will be found in Arch. f. celt. Lex. vol. i. See also H. Sweet, " Spoken N. Welsh," in Trans, of the London Phil. Soc., 1882-1884; T. Darlington, "Some Dialectal Boundaries in Mid- Wales," in Trans, of the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, 1900-1901; and M. Nettlau, Beitrdge zur cymrischen Grammatik (Leipzig, 1887), also in Rev. celt. vol. ix. (J. M. J.) WALEWSKI, ALEXANDRE FLORIAN JOSEPH COLONNA, COMTE (1810-1868), French politician and diplomatist, was born at Walewice near Warsaw on the 4th of May 1810, the son of Napoleon I. and his mistress Marie, Countess Walewska. At fourteen Walewski refused to enter the Russian army, escaping to London and thence to Paris, where the French government refused his extradition to the Russian authorities. Louis Philippe sent him to Poland in 1830, and he was then entrusted by the leaders of the Polish revolution with a mission to London. After the fall of Warsaw he took out letters of naturalization in France and entered the French army, seeing some service in Algeria. In 183-7 ne resigned his commission and began to write for the stage and for the press. He is said to have collaborated with the elder Dumas in Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle, and a comedy of his, L'Ecole du monde, was produced at the Theatre Franoais in 1840. In that year his paper, Le Messager des chambres, was taken over by Thiers, who sent him on a mission to Egypt, and under the Guizot ministry he was sent to Buenos Aires to co-operate with the British minister Lord Howden (Sir J. Caradoc). The accession of Louis Napoleon to the supreme power in France guaranteed his career. He was sent as envoy extra- ordinary to Florence, to Naples and then to London, where he announced the coup d'etat to Palmerston (?.».). In 1855 Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of foreign affairs, and acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Paris next year. When he left the Foreign Office in 1860 it was to become minister of state, an office which he held until 1863. Senator from 1855 to 1865, he entered the Corps Lfigislatif in 1865, and was installed, by the emperor's interest, as president of the Chamber. A revolt against his authority two years later sent him back to the Senate. He died at Strassburg on the 27th of October 1868. He had been created a duke in 1866, was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts and a grand cross of the Legion of Honour. WALFISH BAY, a harbour of South-West Africa with a coast-line of 20 m. terminated southward by Pelican Point in 22° 54' S., 14° 27' E. It belongs to Great Britain, together with a strip of territory extending 15 m. along the coast south of Pelican Point and with a depth inland from 10 to 15 m. The total area is 430 sq. m. Except seaward Walfish Bay is sur- rounded by German South-West Africa. The northern boundary is the Swakop river; east and south there are no natural frontiers. The coast district, composed of sand dunes, is succeeded by a plateau covered in part with sparse vegetation. The river Kuisip, usually dry, has its mouth in the bay — which forms the finest harbour along a coast-line of over 1000 m. The harbour is provided with a pier 200 yds. long and is safe in all weathers. It was formerly frequented by whaling vessels (hence its name). The town has a small trade with the Hereros of the adjoining German protectorate. A tramway, n m. long, runs inland to Rooikop on the German frontier. Pop. (1904), 997, including 144 whites. Walfish Bay forms a detached portion of the Cape province of the Union of South Africa. It was proclaimed British territory on the I2th of March 1878, and was annexed to Cape Colony on the 7th of August 1884 (see AFRICA, § 5). The delimitation of the southern frontier was in 1909 referred to the king of Spain as arbitrator between Great Britain and Germany. WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897), American soldier and economist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of July 1840. His father, Amasa Walker (1799-1875), was also a distinguished economist, who, retiring from commercial life in 1840, lectured on political economy in Oberlin College from 1842 to 1848, was examiner in the same subject at Harvard from 1853 to 1860, and lecturer at Amherst from 1859 to 1869. He was a delegate to the first international peace congress in London 1843, and in 1849 to the peace congress in Paris. He was secretary of state of Massachusetts from 1851 to 1853 and a representative in Congress 1862-1863. His principal work, The Science of Wealth, attained great popularity as a textbook. Francis Walker graduated at Amherst College in 1860, studied law, and fought in the Northern army during the whole of the Civil War of 1861-65, rising from the rank of sergeant-major to that of brevet brigadier-general of volunteers — awarded him at the request of General Winfield S. Hancock. As a soldier he excelled in analysis of the position and strength of the enemy. In 1864 he was captured and detained for a time in the famous Libby Prison, Richmond. After the war he became editorial writer on the Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, and in 1869 was made chief of the government bureau of statistics. He was superintendent of the ninth and tenth censuses (those of 1870 and 1880), and (1871-72) commissioner of Indian affairs. From 1873 to his death his work was educational, first as professor (1873— 1881) of political economy in the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, and then as president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. While superintendent of the census he increased the scope and accuracy of the records; and at the Institute of Technology he enlarged the resources and numbers of the institution, which had 302 students when he assumed the presidency and 1 198 at his death. In other fields he promoted common-school education (especially in manual training), the Boston park system, and the work of the public library, and took an active part in the discussion of monetary, economic, statistical and other public questions, holding many offices of honour and responsibility. As an author he wrote on governmental treatment of the Indians, The Wages Question (1876), Money (1878), Land and its Rent (1883) and general political economy (1883 and 1884), besides producing monographs on the life of General Hancock (1884) and the history of his own Second Army Corps (1886). As an economist, from the time of the appearance of his book on the subject, he so effectively combated the old theory of the " wage-fund " as to lead to its abandonment or material modifica- tion by American, students; while in his writings on finance, from 1878 to the end of his life, he advocated international WALKER, F.— WALKER, G. 271 bimelallistn, without, however, seeking to justify any one nation in ihe attempt to maintain parity between gold and silver. A collection of posthumously published Discussions in Education (1899) was made up of essays and addresses prepared after his taking the presidency of the Institute of Technology: their most noteworthy argument is that chemistry, physics and the other sciences promote a more exact and more serviceable mental training than metaphysics or rhetoric. Walker's general tendency was towards a rational conservatism. On the question of rent he called himself a " Ricardian of the Ricardians." To his Wages Question is due in great part the conception formed by English students of the place and functions of the employer in modern industrial economics. A remarkable feature of his writings is his treatment of economic tendencies not as mere abstractions, but as facts making for the happiness or misery of living men. General Walker died in Boston on the sth of January 1897. WALKER, FREDERICK (1840-1875), English subject painter, the son of a designer of jewelry, was born in Marylebone, London, on the 24th of May 1840. When very young he began to draw from the antique in the British Museum, and at the age of sixteen he was placed in the office of an architect named Baker. _ The occupation proved uncongenial; at the end of eighteen months he resumed his work from the Elgin marbles at the British Museum, and attended Leigh's life school in Newman Street. In March 1858 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy. But his study in the academy schools was disconnected, and ceased before he reached the life class, as he was anxious to begin earning his own living. As a means to this end, he turned his attention to designing for the wood-engravers, and worked three days a week for about two years in the studio of J. W. Whymper, under whose tuition he quickly mastered the tech- nicalities of drawing on wood. His earliest book illustrations appeared in 1860 in Once a Week, a periodical to which he was a prolific contributor, as also to the Cornhill Magazine, where his admirable designs appeared to the works of Thackeray and those of his daughter. These woodcuts, especially his illustra- tions to Thackeray's Adventures of Philip and Denis Duval, are among the most spirited and artistic works of their class, and entitle Walker to rank with Millais at the very head of the draughtsmen who have dealt with scenes of contemporary life. Indeed, by his contributions to Once a Week alone he made an immediate reputation as an artist of rare accomplishment, and although he was associated on that periodical with such men as Millais, Holman Hunt, Leech, Sandys, Charles Keene, Tenniel, and Du Maurier, he more than held his own against all com- petitors. In the intervals of work as a book illustrator he practised painting in water-colours, his subjects being frequently more considered and refined repetitions in colour of his black- and-white designs. Among the more notable of his productions in water-colour are " Spring," " A Fishmonger's Shop," " The Ferry," and " Philip in Church," which gained a medal in the Paris International Exhibition of 1867. He was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1864 and a full member in 1866; and in 1871 he became an associate of the Royal Academy. In this same year he was made an honorary member of the Belgian Society of Painters in Water Colours. His first oil picture, " The Lost Path," was exhibited in the Royal Academy in 1863, where it was followed in 1867 by " The Bathers," one of the artist's finest works, in 1868 by " The Vagrants," now in the National Gallery of British Art, in 1869 by " The Old Gate," and in 1870 by " The Plough," a powerful and impressive rendering of ruddy evening light, of which the landscape was studied in Somerset. In 1871 he ex- hibited his tragic life-sized figure of " A Female Prisoner at the Bar," a subject which now exists only in a finished oil study, for the painter afterwards effaced the head, with which he was dissatisfied, but was prevented by death from again completing the picture. The last of his fully successful works was " A Harbour of Refuge," shown in 1872 (also in the National Gallery of British Art); for " The Right of Way," exhibited in '875, bears evident signs of the artist's failing strength. He had suffered indeed for some years from a consumptive tendency; in 1868 he made a sea voyage, for his health's sake, to Venice, where he stayed with Orchardson and Birket Foster, and at the end of 1873 he went for a while to Algiers with J. W. North, in the hope that he might derive benefit from a change of climate. But, returning in the bitter English spring, he was again pros- trated; and on the sth of June 1875 he died of consumption at St Fillan's, Perthshire. The works of Frederick Walker are thoroughly original and individual, both in the quality of their colour and handling and in their view of nature and humanity. His colour, especially in his water-colours, is distinctive, powerful and full of delicate gradations. He had an admirable sense of design, and the figures of his peasants at their daily toil show a grace and sweep- ing largeness of line in which can be plainly traced the effect produced upon his taste by his early study of the antique; at the same time the sentiment of his subjects is unfailingly refined and poetic. His vigour of design may be seen in his poster for Wilkie Collins's The Woman in White, now in the National Gallery of British Art. See Life and Letters of Frederick Walker, A.R.A., by John George Marks (1896), a full biography of a personal rather than a critical kind. Frederick Walker and his Works, by Claude Phillips (1897), should be consulted as an excellent critical supplement to the larger volume. See also Essays on Art, by J. Comyns Carr, which includes a judicious essay on Walker. WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-1690), hero of the siege of Londonderry, was the son of George Walker, rector of Kilmore and chancellor of Armagh (d. 1677), and of Ursula, daughter of Sir John Stanhope of Melwood, and is said to have been born in 1618 in Tyrone. He was educated at Glasgow University, and appointed to the livings of Lessan and Desertlyn, in the diocese of Armagh, near Londonderry, in 1669. In 1674 he obtained that of Donaghmore, which he held with Lessan. At the outbreak of the Civil War in Ireland towards the close of 1688, Walker, though in Holy Orders and advanced in years, raised a regiment and endeavoured to concert measures with Robert Lundy, the acting governor of Londonderry, for the defence of Dungannon. But Lundy, after having sent some troops to his support, ordered their withdrawal and the abandon- ment of the place on the I4th of March 1689. On the I7th of March Walker marched with his men to Strabane, and subse- quently was ordered by Lundy to move to Rash and then to St Johnstown, 5 m. from Londonderry. On the approach of the enemy (April I3th) Walker rode hastily to Londonderry to inform Lundy, but was unable to convince him of his danger. He returned to his men at Lifford, where, on the I4th, he took part in a brush with the enemy, afterwards following the retreat of the army to Londonderry. The town was in great confusion, and Walker found the gates shut against him and his regiment. He was forced to pass the night outside, and only entered the next day " with much difficulty and some violence upon the Gentry." Immediately on his arrival he urged Lundy to take the field and refused the demand to disband his own soldiers. On the 1 7th of April Lundy determined to give up the town to James, and called a council from which Walker and others were especially excluded; but the next day the king and his troops, who had advanced to receive the surrender, were fired upon from the walls contrary to Lundy 's orders, and the arrival of Captain Adam Murray with a troop of horse saved the situation. Lundy was deprived of all power, and was allowed to escape in disguise from the town. On the igth of April Walker and Baker were chosen joint-governors. Walker commanded fifteen com- panies, amounting to 900 men, and to him was also entrusted the supervision of the commissariat. He showed great energy, courage and resource throughout the siege, and led several successful sallies. Meanwhile his duties as a clergyman were not neglected. The Nonconformists were allowed the use of the cathedral on Sunday afternoons, but in the morning Walker preached. Those few of his sermons which remain, though simple in their language, are eloquent and inspiring. Meanwhile he had to contend with jealousies and suspicions within the town; but he succeeded in dispelling all misgivings and in reaffirming his 272 WALKER, H. O.— WALKER, O. credit with the garrison. At the close of the siege, which lasted 150 days, the town was at the last extremity; but at length, on the soth of July, Walker preached the last of the sermons by which he had helped to inspire its defence. An hour afterwards the ships were seen approaching, and the town was relieved. As regards the general course of the war the importance of the successful resistance at Londonderry can hardly be exaggerated It was the first open act of hostility in Ireland against James and the disaster to his arms not only embarrassed his campaign in Ireland but prevented the expeditions to Scotland and England, and Walker's share in it was abundantly recognized. He sailed for Scotland and England on the pth of August, and was everywhere welcomed with immense public enthusiasm. On the zgth of August he was graciously received at Hampton Court by William and Mary, before whom he had with good sense refused to appear in his military costume, and delivered to them the petition from Londonderry. William presented him with £5000, part of which he appears to have given to the widow of Baker, his fellow-governor, who died during the siege. Shortly afterwards he was nominated bishop of Londonderry, but as Bishop Hopkins, whom it was determined to remove, only died three weeks before Walker, the latter was never consecrated. Walker succeeded in obtaining a grant of £1200 for Londonderry from the city companies, and on the i8th of November his petition to the House of Commons for relief for the widows, orphans, clergy and dissenting ministers was read, and the king was asked to distribute £10,000 among them (House of Commons Journals, vol. x. p. 288). On the following day Walker was called in, received the thanks of the House, and made a short and dignified reply. On the 8th of October he had been granted the degree of D.D. at Cambridge in his absence, and on his return journey to Ireland he received the same diploma at Oxford (Feb. 1690). Walker met William on his arrival in Ireland on the 1 4th of June 1690 at Belfast, and followed his army. He was present at the battle of the Boyne on the ist of July, but in what capacity, whether as spectator, as combatant or as minister to tend the wounded, is uncertain.1 He was shot through the body at the passage of the river, according to one account, while he was going to the aid of the wounded Schomberg (G. Story, A True . . . History of the A fairs in Ireland, p. 82), and died almost immediately. His remains, or what were supposed to be such, were afterwards transferred from the battlefield and buried in his own church at Donaghmore, where a monument and inscription were placed to his memory. A more conspicuous memorial was erected in Londonderry itself. Walker married Isabella Maxwell of Finnebrogue, and left several sons, four of whom during his lifetime were in the king's service, and from one of whom at least there are descendants at the present day. While in London Walker had published A True Account of the Siege of Londonderry (1689), dedicated to the king, which went through several editions and was translated for perusal abroad. This pamphlet, and the ovations received by Walker in London, excited fierce jealousies, which had been subdued in the hour of peril, but which were now formulated in the Narrative (1698) of John Mackenzie, a dissenting minister who had been present during the siege. Walker was charged with having taken too much credit to himself, and of having passed over the services and names of the nonconformists. Base insinuations were added and it was declared that Walker had never even held the post of governor. These accusations fall by the weight of their own exaggeration. On the other hand, Walker's Account, though doubtless incomplete, is written with candour and simplicity and is free from any touch of egotistical self-consciousness; and both this tract and his subse- quent Vindication (1689) are greatly superior, in their dignity and restraint, to the pamphlets of his opponents. His character was proof against the perils which attend a sudden rise to fame and popularity, and his " modesty " is especially observed by several 1 Luttrell writes in his diary, vol. 2, p. 17 (Feb. 20, 1689-1690), " Mr Walker of Londonderry has taken his leave of the king to go to Ireland on some special command," and again, vol. 2, p. 44 (May 19, 1690), " Letters from Ireland say that Dr Walker, late governor of Londonderry, had a regiment of foot given him," but there appears to be no official record of his having received a commission at this time. of his contemporaries. There exists also too much positive and independent evidence to permit any doubt whatever as to the greatness of Walker's services. Burnet, in a passage which was not included in his published history perhaps because of the con- troversy, says: "There was a minister in the place, Dr Walker, who acted a very noble part in the government and defence of the town; he was but a man of ordinary parts, but they were suited to his work, for he did wonders in this siege " (Harleian MSS., 65847, 292 b, printed by H. C. Foxcroft. Supplement to Burnet's Hist, of His, Own Times, 1902, p. 321). In the Siege of Derry (1893) the Rev. Philip Dwyer has collected the most essential facts and materials relating to Walker and the siege, and has reprinted in his volume Walker's True Account and Vindication, together with Walker's sermons, various other docu- ments and valuable notes. WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843- ), American artist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the I4th of May 1843. He was a pupil of Leon Bonnat, Paris, and painted the figure and occasional portraits, but later devoted himself almost exclusively to mural decoration. His paintings symbolizing lyric poetry, for the Congressional Library, Washington; and his decorations for the Appellate Court House, New York; Bowdoin College, Maine; the enlarged State House, Boston; the Court House, Newark, New Jersey, and the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, are among his most important works. He became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1902. WALKER, HORATIO (1858- ), American artist, was born at Listowel, Ontario, Canada, on the I2th of May 1858. When he was a child his family settled at Rochester, New York. Although entirely self-taught, he became a distinguished painter of animals, the figure and landscape. His pictures, principally of Canadian peasant life and scenes, show the influence of Troyon and Millet, mainly in their feeling for largeness of com- position, in solidity of painting and in the choice of theme. He became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1891; of the American Water Color Society and of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, London. Fe received a medal and a diploma at Chicago, 1893; and medals at Buffalo, 1901; Charleston, 1902; and St Louis, 1904. In 1888 he won the Evans prize of the American Water Color Society, New York. WALKER, JOHN (1732-1807), English actor, philologist and lexicographer, was born at Colney Hatch. Middlesex, on the i8th of March 1732. Early in life he became an actor, his theatrical engagements including one with Garrick at Drury Lane, and a long season in Dublin. In 1768 he left the stage. After some experience in conducting a school at Kensington he com- menced to teach elocution, and in this found his principal employment for the rest of his life. In 1775 he published his Rhyming Dictionary, which achieved a great success and has been repeatedly reprinted, and in 1791 his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, which achieved an even greater reputation, and has run into some forty editions. He was the friend of the leading iterary men of his time, including Johnson and Burke. He died n London on the ist of August 1807. WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699), master of University College, Oxford, was born at Darfield near Barnsley, Yorkshire, and was educated at University College, Oxford, becoming a rellow and tutor of this society and a prominent figure in uni- versity circles. In July 1648 the action of parliament deprived lim of his academic appointments, and he passed some years n teaching, studying and travelling, returning to Oxford at the restoration of 1660, and beginning a few years later to take a eading part in the work of University College. In June 1676 ic was elected to the headship of this foundation, and in this capacity he collected money for some rebuilding, and forwarded he preparation of a Latin edition of Sir John Spelman's Life of Alfred the Great, published by the college. This was the time of Titus Gates and the popish plots, and some of Walker's writings made him suspect; however, no serious steps were aken against him, although Oxford booksellers were forbidden to sell his book, The benefits of our Saviour Jesus Christ to man- kind, and he remained a Protestant, in name at least, until the accession of James II. Soon after this event he came forward as WALKER, R.— WALKER, T. 273 a Roman Catholic, and he advised the new king with regard to affairs in Oxford, being partly responsible for the tactless conduct of James in forcing a quarrel with the fellows of Magdalen College. Mass was said in his residence, and later a chapel was opened in the college for the worship of the Roman Church; he and others received a royal licence to absent themselves from the services of the English Church, and he obtained another to super- vise the printing of Roman Catholic books. In spite of growing unpopularity he remained loyal to James, and when the king fled from England Walker left Oxford, doubtless intending to join his master abroad. But in December 1688 he was arrested at Sittingbourne and was imprisoned; then, having lost his mastership, he was charged at the bar of the House of Commons with changing his religion and with other offences. Early in 1 690 he was released from his confinement, and after subsisting for some years largely on the charity of his friend and former pupil, Dr John Radcliffe, he died on the 2ist of January 1699. Walker's principal writings are: Of education, especially of young gentlemen (Oxford, 1673, and six other editions); Ars rattonis ad mentem nominalium libri tres (Oxford, 1673) ; and Greek and Roman History illustrated by Coins and Medals (London, 1692). WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658), British painter, was a contemporary and to a slight extent a follower of Van Dyck. The date of his birth is uncertain, and no details are known of his early life. Although influenced by Van Dyck's art, he had still a considerable degree of individuality and developed a sound style of his own which was more severe and restrained than that of the greater master. His greatest vogue was at the time of the Commonwealth, for in addition to several portraits of Cromwell he painted other portraits of Lambert, Ireton, Fleetwood, and many more members of the Parliamentarian party. In 1652 he was given rooms in Arundel House in the Strand, London, where he resided for the rest of his life. He died either in 1658 or in 1660, the authority for the earlier date being an inscription on an engraved portrait by Lombart. His work had much merit ; it was vigorous and showed sound study of character. Several of his paintings, among them the portrait of William Faithorne the elder, are in the National Portrait Gallery, and there are others of notable importance at Hampton Court and in the University Galleries at Oxford. One of his portraits of Cromwell is in the Pitti Palace, where it is ascribed to Lely; it was bought in the artist's lifetime, but after the Protector's death, by the grand duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany. Another is at Warwick Castle. Walker painted also Robert Cromwell and his wife Elizabeth Steward, parents of the Protector. The portrait of the latter, attended by a page who is fastening his sash at the waist (now in the National Portrait Gallery, transferred from the British Museum, to which it was bequeathed by Sir Robert Rich, Bart., descendant of Cromwell's friend, Nathaniel Rich) was called by Walpole " Crom- well and Lambert " ; but it is now certain that the page represents Cromwell's son Richard. Elizabeth Cromwell, afterwards Mrs Claypole, the Protector's daughter, also sat to him. As no complete account of Walker's work is in existence (that of Walpole being very incomplete, while Cunningham passes him over entirely), it may be added that the artist twice painted John Evelyn, in different sizes, as well as Bradshaw, John Hampden, Colonel Thomas Sanders, Cornet Joyce, and Speaker Lenthall, as well as Sir William and Lady Waller, Mrs Thomas Knight, and General George Monk, duke of Albemarle, and Sir Thomas Fairfax (engraved by Faithorne). A portrait of Secretary Thurlow, which was in the Lord Northwick Collection, was attributed to him. As Walker was in the camp of the Parliamentarians and Dobson was the court painter at Oxford, few aristocratic persons sat to the former. Exceptions are Mary Capel, duchess of Beaufort (engraved by J. Nutting), Aubrey, last earl of Oxford, and James Graham, marquess of Montrose;even a portrait of Charles I. in armour, with his hand on his helmet, is credited to Walker. Two versions, of a like size, of his own portrait exist, one at the National Portrait Gallery and the other at Oxford, engraved by Peter Lombart, and again, later, by T. Chambars. The Cromwell in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery- is a copy. Walker's copy of Titian's famous " Venus at her Toilet," highly esteemed by Charles I., is considered a work of great merit. WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869), American political leader and economist, was born in Northumberland, Pennsylvania, on the 23rd of July 1801. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1819 and practised law in Pittsburg from 1822 to 1826, when he removed to Mississippi. Though living in a slave state he was consistently opposed to slavery, but he favoured gradual rather than immediate emancipation, and in 1838 he freed his own slaves. He became prominent, politically, during the nullification excitement of 1832-1833, as a vigorous opponent of nullification, and from 1836 to 1845 he sat in the United States Senate as a Unionist Democrat. Being an ardent expansionist, he voted for the recognition of the independence of Texas in 1837 and for the joint annexation resolution of 1845, and advocated the nomination and election of James K. Polk in 1844. He was secretary of the treasury throughout the Polk administration (1845-1849) and was generally recognized as the most influential member of the cabinet. He financed the war with Mexico and drafted the bill (1849) for the establishment of the department of the interior, but his greatest work was the preparation of the famous treasury report of the 3rd of December 1845. Although inferior in intellectual quality to Alexander Hamilton's Report on Manufactures, presenting the case against free trade, it is regarded as the most powerful attack upon the protection system which has ever been made in an American state paper. The " Walker Tariff " of 1846 was based upon its principles and was in fact largely the secretary's own work. Walker at first opposed the Compromise of 1850, but was won over later by the arguments of Stephen A. Douglas. He was appointed territorial governor of Kansas in the spring of 1857 by President Buchanan, but in November of the same year resigned in disgust, owing to his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution. He did not, however, break with his party immediately, and favoured the so-called English Bill (see KANSAS) ; in fact it was partly due to his influence that a sufficient number of anti-Lecompton Democrats were induced to vote for that measure to secure its passage. He adhered to the Union cause during the Civil War and in 1863-1864 as financial agent of the United States did much to create confidence in Europe in the financial resources of the United States, and was instrumental in securing a loan of $250,000,000 ha Germany. He practised law in Washington, D.C., from 1864 until his death there on the nth of November 1869. Both during and after the Civil War he was a contributor to the Continental Monthly, which for a short time he also, with James R. Gilmore, conducted. For the tariff report see F. W. Taussig, Slate Papers and Speeches on the Tariff (Cambridge, Mass., 1892). WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805-1853), American astronomer, was born at Wilmington, Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1805. Graduating at Harvard in 1825, he was a teacher till 1835, was an actuary in 1835-1845, and then became assistant at the Washington observatory. In 1847 he took charge of the longi- tude department of the United States Coast Survey, where he was among the first to make use of the electric telegraph for the purpose of determining the difference of longitude between two stations, and he introduced the method of registering transit observations electrically by means of a chronograph. He also investigated the orbit of the newly discovered planet Neptune. He died near Cincinnati on the 3Oth of January 1853. His brother Timothy (1802-1856) was a leader of the Ohio bar. See Memoirs of the Roy. Astr. Soc. vol. xxiii. WALKER, THOMAS (1784-1836), English police magistrate, best known as author of The Original, was born on the loth of October 1784 at Charlton-cum-Hardy, near Manchester, where his father was a prosperous cotton merchant and an active Whig politician. He was educated at Cambridge and called to the bar, and after devoting some years mainly to the study of the Poor Law was made police magistrate in Lambeth in 1829. In 1835 he started his weekly publication The Original, containing his reflections on various social subjects and especially on eating and drinking; and it is in the history of gastronomy, and the art of dining, that this curious and amusing work is famous. The weekly numbers continued for six months, and subsequently were republished, after Walker's death on the 2oth of January 1836, in an American selection (1837), in editions by W. B. Jerrold (with memoir) (1874), W. A. Guy (1875), and Henry Morley (1887), and in another selection of Sir Henry Cole (" Felix Summerley"), called Aristology (1881). 274 WALKER, W.— WALL, R. WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860), American adventurer, was born in Nashville, Tennessee, on the ' 8th of May 1824. After graduating from the univer- sity of Nashville in 1838, he studied law, was admitted to the bar, and subsequently spent a year in the study of medicine at Edinburgh and Heidelberg. He prac- tised medicine for a few months in Philadelphia and then removed to New Orleans, where he engaged in journalism. In 1850 he migrated to California and engaged in newspaper work at San Francisco and later at Marysville, where he also practised law. On the iSth of October 1853 he sailed from San Francisco with a filibustering force for the conquest of Mexican territory. He landed in Lower California, and on the i8th of January 1854 he proclaimed this and the neighbouring State of Sonora an independent republic. Starvation and Mexican attacks led to the abandon- ment of this enterprise, and Walker resumed his journalistic work in California. On the 4th of May 1855, with fifty- six followers, Walker again sailed from San Francisco, this time for Nicaragua, where he had been invited by one of the belligerent factions to come to its aid. In October Walker seized a steamer on Lake Nicaragua belonging to the Accessory Transit Company, a corporation of Americans engaged in transporting freight and passengers across the isthmus, and was thus enabled to surprise and capture Granada, the capital and the stronghold of his opponents, and to make himself master of Nicaragua. Peace was then made; Patricio Rivas, who had been neutral, was made provisional president, and Walker secured the real power as commander of the troops. At this time two officials of the Transit Company determined to use Walker as their tool to get control of that corporation, then dominated by Cornelius Vanderbilt, and they advanced him funds and transported his recruits from the United States free of charge. In return for these favours, Walker seized the property of the company, on the pretext of a violation of its charter, and turned over its equipment to the men who had befriended him. On the 2oth of May 1856 the new government was formally recognized at Washington by President Pierce, and on the 3rd of June the Democratic national convention expressed its sympathy with the efforts being made to " re- generate " Nicaragua. In June Walker was chosen president of Nicaragua, and on the 22nd of September, from alleged economic necessity, and also to gain the sympathy and support of the slave states in America, he repealed the laws prohibiting slavery. Walker managed to maintain himself against a coalition of Central American states, led by Costa Rica, which was aided and abetted by agents of Cornelius Vanderbilt, until the ist of May 1857, when, to avoid capture by the natives, he surrendered to Commander Charles Henry Davis, of the United States navy, and returned to the United States. In November 1857 he sailed from Mobile with another expedition, but soon after landing at Punta Arenas he was arrested by Commodore Hiram Paulding of the American navy, and was compelled to return to the United States as a paroled prisoner. On his arrival he was released by order of President Buchanan. After several un- successful attempts to return to Central America, Walker finally sailed from Mobile in August 1860 and landed in Honduras. Here he was taken prisoner by Captain Salmon, of the British navy, and was surrendered to the Honduran authorities, by whom he was tried and condemned to be shot. He was executed on the 1 2th of September 1860. See Walker's own narrative, accurate as to details, The War in Nicaragua (Mobile, 1860) ; William V. Wells, Walker's Expedition to Nicaragua (New York, 1856) ; Charles William Doubleday, Reminis- cences of the " Filibuster " War in Nicaragua (New York, 1886), and James Jeffrey Roche, The Story of the Filibusters (London, 1 891), revised and reprinted as Byways of War (Boston, 1901). (W. O. S.) WALKING RACES, a form of athletic sports, either on road or track. Road walking is the older form of the sport. The records for the chief walking distances were as follows in 1910: — Distance. Name. Time. Date. Place. hr. min. sec. I mile A. T. Yeomans. 6 19! 1906 Bath 2 miles A. T. Yeomans. 12 53i 1906 Swansea 3 „ J. W. Raby (profes- sional) 20 2l| 1883 Lillie Bridge 4 ., 5 „ G. E. Lamer . I. W. Raby . 27 14 35 10 1905 1883 Brighton Lillie Bridge 10 „ J. W. Raby . 1 H 45 1883 Lillie Bridge 15 -, J. W. Raby . i 55 56 1883 Lillie Bridge 20 ,, W. Perkins 2 39 57 1877 Lillie Bridge 3» ,. J. Butler . . 4 29 52 1905 Putney 4° -- 50 „ IOO „ J. Butler . . J. Butler . . T. E. Hammond 6 ii 17 7 52 27 17 25 22 1905 1905 1907 Putney Putney London to Brighton and back The record distance walked in I hour was 8 m. 339 yds. by the English amateur G. E. Larner in 1905; in 8 hours, 50 m. 1190 yds. by another English amateur, J. Butler, in 1905; in 24 hours, 131 m. 58o| yds. by T. E. Hammond in 1908. About the year 1875 there was a revival of interest in pro- fessional walking, which took the form of " go-as-you-please " competitions, extending over several days, usually six. These may be classed as walking contests, for, although running was allowed, it was seldom practised, excepting for a few moments at a time, for the purpose of relief from cramped muscles. The great difficulty in competitive walking is to keep within the rules. A " fair gait " is one in which one foot touches the ground before the other leaves it, only one leg being bent in stepping, namely, that which is being put forward. WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778), diplomatist and minister in the Spanish service, belonged to a family settled in Waterford. As he was a Roman Catholic he was debarred from public service at home, and like many of his countrymen he sought his fortune in Spain. He served, probably as a soldier in one of the Irish regiments of the Spanish army, during the expedition to Sicily in 1718, and was present at the sea fight off Cape Passaro. During the following years he continued to be em- ployed as an officer, but in 1727 he was appointed secretary to the duke of Liria, son of the duke of Berwick, and Spanish ambassador at St Petersburg. Wall's knowledge of languages, his adaptability, his quick Irish wit and ready self-confidence made him a* great favourite, not only with the duke of Liria, but with other Spanish authorities. Spain was at that time much dependent on the ability of foreigners, and for a man of Wall's parts and character there were ample openings for an important and interesting career. The climate of St Petersburg seems to have been too much for him, and he soon returned to military service in Italy. It is said that when he was presented to the duke of Montemar, the Spanish general, and was asked who he was, he replied, " The most important person in the army after your excellency, for you are the head of the serpent, and I am the tail." He became known to Don Jose Patifio, the most capable minister of King Philip V., and was sent by him on a mission to Spanish America — a very rare proof of confidence towards a man of foreign origin. He is also said to have laid a plan for retaking Jamaica from the English. In 1747 he was employed in the negotiations for the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle, and in 1748 was named minister in London. In England he made himself very popular. Though an exile through the operation of the Penal Laws, and though he proved loyal to his adopted country, he was a constant partisan of an English alliance. His views recommended him to the favour of King Ferdinand VI. (1746-1759), whose policy was resolutely peaceful. In 1752 Wall was recalled from London to assist in completing a treaty of commerce with England, which was then being negotiated in Madrid. Wall now became the candidate of the English party in the Spanish court for the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs, in opposition to the leader of the French party, the marquis de la Ensenada. He obtained the place in 1752, and in 1754 he had a large share in driving Ensenada from office. He retained his position till 1 764. The despatches of the English minister, Sir Benjamin Keene, and of his WALL— WALLACE, A. R. 275 successor, Lord Bristol, contain many references to Wall. They are creditable to him. Though a constant partisan of peace and good relations with England, Wall was firm in asserting the rights of the government he served. During the early stages of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) he insisted on claiming compensation for the excesses of English privateers in Spanish waters. He frequently complained to the English ministers of the difficulties which the violence of these adventurers put in his way. As a foreigner he was suspected of undue favour to England, and was the object of incessant attacks by the French party. The new king, Charles III. (1759-1788), continued Wall in office. When war was declared by Spain in 1761 the minister carried out the policy of the king, but he confessed to the English ambassador, Lord Bristol, that he saw the failure of his efforts to preserve peace with grief. The close relations of Charles III. with the French branch of the House of Bourbon made Wall's position as foreign minister very trying. Yet the king, who detested changing his ministers, refused all his re- quests to be allowed to retire, till Wall extorted leave in 1764 by elaborately affecting a disease of the eyes which was in fact imaginary. The king gave him handsome allowances, and a grant for life of the crown land known as the Soto de Roma, near Granada, which was afterwards conferred on Godoy, and finally given to the duke of Wellington. Wall lived almost wholly at or near Granada, exercising a plentiful hospitality to all visitors, and particularly to English travellers, till his death in 1778. He left the reputation of an able minister and a very witty talker. A full account will be found in volume iv. of Coxe's Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon (London, 1815). Further details of his early career can be gathered from the Diario del viaje a Moscoyia, 1727-1730, of the duke of Liria (vol. xciii. of the Docu- mentos ineditos para la historia de Esparto), (Madrid, 1842, et seq.). WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, walk, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or wdh}, a solid structure of stone, brick or other material, used as a defensive, protecting, enclosing or dividing fence, or as the enclosing and supporting sides of a building, house or room. The Roman vallum was an earth rampart with stakes or palisades (vallus, stake; Gr. ^Xos, nail) and the Old English word was particularly applied to such earth walls; for the remains of the Roman walls in Britain see BRITAIN. The word, however, was also applied to stone defensive walls, for which the Latin word was murus. The history of the wall as a means of defence will be found in the article FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT, the architectural and constructional side under the headings ARCHITECTURE, MASONRY and BRICKWORK. In anatomy and zoology the term " wall," and also the Latin term paries, is used for an investing or enclosing structure, as in " cell-walls," walls of the abdomen, &c. In the days when footpaths were narrow and ill-paved or non-existent in the streets of towns and when the gutters were often overflowing with water and filth, the side nearest to the wall of the bordering houses was safest and cleanest, and hence to walk on that side was a privilege, hence the expressions " to take " or " to give the wall." The term " wall-rib " is given in architecture to a half-rib bedded in the wall, to carry the web or shell of the vault. In Roman and in early Romanesque work the web was laid on the top of the stone courses of the wall, which had been cut to the arched form, but as this was often irregularly done, and as sometimes the courses had sunk owing to the drying of the mortar, it was found better to provide an independent rib to carry the web; half of this rib was sunk in the wall and the other half moulded like the transverse and diagonal ribs, so that if the wall sank, or 'if it had to be taken down from any cause, the vault would still retain its position. The word " wall eye " or " wall-eyed " is applied to a con- dition of the eye, particularly of a horse, in which there is a large amount of white showing or there is absence of colour in the iris, or there is leucoma of the cornea. It is also applied to the white staring eyes of certain fishes. The word has no con- nexion with "wall " as above, but is from the Icelandic vagl- eygr, vagi, a beam, sty in the eye, and eygr, eyed. WALLABY, a native name, used in literature for any member of a section of the zoological genus Macropus, with naked muffle, frequenting forests and dense scrubs. With respect to their size they are distinguished as large wallabies and small wallabies, some of the latter being no bigger than a rabbit. From the localities in which they are found they are also called brush kangaroos. See KANGAROO. WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823- ), British natural- ist, was born at Usk, in Monmouthshire, on the 8th of January 1823. After leaving school he assisted an elder brother in his work as a land surveyor and architect, visiting various parts of England and Wales. Living in South Wales, about 1840 he began to take an interest in botany, and began the formation of a herbarium. In 1847 he took his first journey out of England, spending a week in Paris with his brother and sister. In 1844- 1845, while an English master in the Collegiate School at Leicester, he made the acquaintance of H. W. Bates, through whose in- fluence he became a beetle collector, and with whom he started in 1848 on an expedition to the Amazon. In about a year the two naturalists separated, and each wrote an account of his travels and observations. Wallace's Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro was published in 1853, a year in which he went for a fortnight's walking tour in Switzerland with an old school-fellow. On his voyage home from South America the ship was burnt and all his collections lost, except those which he had despatched beforehand. After spending a year and a half in England, during which time, besides his book on the Amazon, he published a small volume on the Palm Trees of the Amazon, he started for the Malay Archipelago, exploring, observing and collecting from 1854 to 1862. He visited Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea and the Aru and Ke Islands. His deeply interesting narrative, The Malay Archipelago, appeared in 1869, and he also published many important papers through the London scientific societies. The chief parts of his vast insect collections became the property of the late W. W. Saunders, but subsequently some of the most important groups passed into the Hope Collection of the university of Oxford and the British Museum. He discovered that the Malay Archipelago was divided into a western group of islands, which in their zoological affinities are Oriental, and an eastern, which are Australian. The Oriental Borneo and Bali are respectively divided from Celebes and Lombok by a narrow belt of sea known as " Wallace's Line," on the opposite sides of which the indigenous mammalia are as widely divergent as in any two parts of the world. Wallace became convinced of the truth of evolution, and originated the theory of natural selection during these travels. In February 1855, staying at Sarawak, in Borneo, he wrote an essay " On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species " (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1855, p. 184). He states the law as follows: " Every species has come into existence coincident both in time and space with a pre-existing closely allied species." He justly claims that such a law connected and explained a vast number of independent facts. It was, in fact, a cautious statement of a belief in evolution, and for three years from the time that he wrote the essay he tells us that " the question of how changes of species could have been brought about was rarely out of my mind." Finally, in February 1858, when he was lying muffled in blankets in the cold fit of a severe attack of intermittent fever at Ternate, in the Moluccas, he began to think of Malthus's Essay on Population, and, to use his own words, " there suddenly flashed upon me the idea of the survival of the fittest." The theory was thought out during the rest of the ague fit, drafted the same evening, written out in full in the two succeeding evenings, and sent to Darwin b,y the next post. Dar- win in England at once recognized his own theory in the manu- script essay sent by the young and almost unknown naturalist in the tropics, then a stranger to him. " I never saw a more striking coincidence," he wrote to Lyell on the very day, on the i8th of June, when he received the paper: " if Wallace had my MS. sketch written out in 1842, he could not have made a better short abstract I Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters." Under the advice of Sir Charles Lyell 276 WALLACE, L. and Sir Joseph Hooker, the essay was read, together with an abstract of Darwin's own views, as a joint paper at the Linnean Society on the ist of July 1858. The title of Wallace's section was " On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original Type." The " struggle for existence," the rate of multiplication of animals, and the dependence of their average numbers upon food supply are very clearly demonstrated, and the following conclusion was reached: " Those that prolong their existence can only be the most perfect in health and vigour; . . . the weakest and least perfectly organized must always succumb." The difference between Lamarck's theory and natural selection is very clearly pointed out. " The powerful retractile talons of the falcon and the cat tribes have not been produced or increased by the volition of those animals; but among the different varieties which occurred in the earlier and less highly organized forms of these groups, those always survived longest which had the greatest facilities for seizing their prey. Neither did the giraffe acquire its long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of more lofty shrubs, and constantly stretching its neck for the purpose, but because any varieties which occurred among its antitypes with a longer neck than usual at once sensed a fresh range of pasture over the same ground as their shorter-necked companions, and on the first scarcity of food were thereby enabled to outlive them." With such clear statements as these in the paper of the ist of July 1858, it is remarkable that even well-known naturalists should have failed to comprehend the difference between Lamarck's and the Darwin- Wallace theory. Wallace also alluded to the resemblance of animals, and more especially of insects, to their surroundings, and points out that " those races having colours best adapted to concealment from their enemies would inevitably survive the longest." In 1871 Wallace's two essays, written at Sarawak and Ternate, were published with others as a volume, Contribu- tions to the Theory of Natural Selection. Probably, next to the Origin of Species, no single work has done so much to promote clear understanding of natural selection and confidence in its truth; for in addition to these two historic essays, there are others in which the new theory is applied to the interpretation of certain classes of facts. Thus one treats of " Mimicry " in animals, another on " Instinct," another on " Birds' Nests." Each of these served as an example of what might be achieved in the light of the new doctrine, which, taught in this way and in an admirably lucid style, was easily absorbed by many who iound the more complete exposition in the Origin very hard to absorb. In this work, and in many of his subsequent publications, Wallace differs from Darwin on certain points. Thus the two concluding essays contend that man has not, like the other animals, been produced by the unaided operation of natural selection, but that other forces have also been in operation. We here see the in- fluence of his convictions on the subject of " spiritualism." More recently he expressed his dissatisfaction with the hypothesis of " sexual selection " by which Darwin sought to explain the conspicuous characters which are displayed during the courtship of animals. The expression of his opinion on both these points of divergence from Darwin will be found in Darwinism (1889), a most valuable and lucid exposition of natural selection, as suited to the later period at which it appeared as the Essays were to the ealier. Darwin died some years before the controversy upon the possibility of the hereditary transmission of acquired characters arose over the writings of Weismann, but Wallace has freely accepted the general results of the German zoologist's teaching, and in Darwinism has presented a complete theory of the causes of evolution unmixed with any trace of Lamarck's use or disuse of inheritance, or Button's hereditary effect of the direct influence of surroundings. Tropical Nature and other Essays appeared in 1878, since republished combined with the 1871 Essays, of which it formed the natural continuation. One of the greatest of his publications was the Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876), a monumental work, which every student will main- tain fully justifies its author's hope that it may bear " a similar relation to the eleventh and twelfth chapters of the Origin of Species as Mr Darwin's Animals and Plants under Domesti- cation bears to the first." Island Life, which may be regarded as a valuable supplement to the last-named work, appeared in 1880. Turning to his other writings, Wallace published Miracles and Modern Spiritualism in 1881. Here is given an account of the reasons which induced him to accept beliefs which are shared by so small a proportion of scientific men. These reasons are purely experimental, and in no way connected with Christi- anity, for he had long before given up all belief in revealed religion. In 1882 he published Land Nationalization, in which he argued the necessity of state ownership of land, a principle which he had originated long before the appearance of Henry George's work. In Forty-five Years of Registration Statistics (1885) he maintained that vaccination is useless and dangerous. Wallace also published an account of what he held to be the greatest discoveries as well as the failures of the igth century, The Wonderful Century (1899). His later works include Studies, Scientific and Social (1900), Man's Place in the Universe (1903) and his Autobiography (1905). Possessed of a bold and intensely original mind, his activities radiated in many directions, ap- parently rather attracted than repelled by the unpopularity of a subject. A non-theological Athanasius contra mundum, he has the truest missionary spirit, an intense faith which would seek to move the mountains of apathy and active opposition. Whatever may be the future history of his other views, he \\ill always be remembered as an originator of a principle more illuminating than any which has appeared since the days of Newton, as one of its two discoverers whose scientific rivalry was only the beginning of a warm and unbroken friendship. Wallace was married in 1866 to the eldest daughter of the botanist, Mr William Mitten, of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. In 1871 he built a house at Grays, Essex, in an old chalk-pit, and after living there four years, moved successively to Dorking (two years) and Croydon (three years). In 1880 he built a cottage at Godalming near the Charterhouse school, and grew nearly 1000 species of plants in the garden which he made. In 1889 he moved to Dorsetshire. After his return to England in 1862 Wallace visited the continent, especially Switzerland, for rest and change (1866, 1896) and the study of botany and glacial phenomena (August 1895). He also visited Spa, in Belgium, about 1870, and in October 1887 went for a lecturing tour in the United States. He delivered a course of six Lowell lectures in Boston, and visited New York, New Haven, Balti- more, &c., spending the winter at Washington. The following March he went to Canada and Niagara, and then made his way westwards. He saw the Yosemite Valley, the Big Trees, and botanized in the Sierra Nevada and at Gray's Peak. In July he returned to Liverpool by way of Chicago and the St Lawrence. The first Darwin medal of the Royal Society was awarded to A. R. Wallace in 1890, and he had received the Royal medal in 1868. A pension was awarded him by Mr Gladstone at the beginning of 1881. He received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1889, and of LL.D. from the university of Dublin in 1882. He was president of the Entomological Society of London in 1870-1871. Apart from Wallace's own Autobiography, a good deal of useful information is given in the biographical introduction to Wallace's Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro by the editor, Mr G. T. Bettany. WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827-1905), American soldier and author, was born at Brookville, Indiana, on the loth of April 1827, and received an academic education. He abandoned temporarily the study of law in Indianapolis to recruit a com- pany of volunteers (of which he was made' second lieutenant) for the Mexican War, and served in 1846-1847 in the First Indiana Battery. He returned to the law, but at the begin- ning of the Civil War became colonel of the Eleventh Indiana Infantry, served in the West Virginia campaign, and on the 3rd of September 1861 was appointed brigadier-general. After the capture of Fort Donelson (February 16, 1862) he was promoted to major-general (March 21, 1862), was engaged at Shiloh (April 7, 1862), and afterwards commanded the Eighth Corps WALLACE, SIR R.— WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM 277 with headquarters at Baltimore. By delaying the Confederate general J. A. Early at Monocacy (July 9, 1864) he saved Washing- ton from almost certain capture. General Wallace served as president of the court of inquiry (November 1862) which in- vestigated the conduct of General D. C. Buell, and of the court which in 1865 tried and condemned Henry Wirz, commander of the Confederate prison at Andersonville, Ga. He was also a member of the court which tried the alleged conspirators against President Lincoln. He resigned from the army in 1865 to return to the bar. He served as governor of New Mexico Terri- tory (1878-1881) and as minister to Turkey (1881-1885). Though exceedingly popular as a lecturer, his literary reputation rests upon three historical romances: The Fair God (1873), a story of the conquest of Mexico; Ben Hur (1880), a tale of the coming of Christ, which was translated into several languages and dramatized; and The Prince of India (1893), dealing with the Wandering Jew and the Byzantine empire. WALLACE, SIR RICHARD, Bart. (1818-1890), English art collector and philanthropist, was born in London on the 26th of July 1818. According to Sir Walter Armstrong (see Diet, of National Biography, art. " Wallace "), he was a natural son of Maria, marchioness of Hertford (wife of the third marquess) , under whose auspices the boy was educated, mainly at Paris; but it was generally supposed in his lifetime that he was a son of the fourth marquess (his elder by only eighteen years), and therefore her grandson. At Paris he was well known in society, and became an assiduous collector of all sorts of valuable objets d'art, but in 1857 these were sold and Wallace devoted himself to assisting the fourth marquess, who left London to reside entirely in Paris, to acquire a magnificent collection of the finest examples of painting, armour, furniture and bric-a-brac. In 1870 the marquess of Hertford died unmarried, bequeathing to Wallace an enormous property, including Hertford House and its contents, the house in Paris, and large Irish estates. Pending the reopening of Hertford House, which had been shut up since the marquess had gone to live in Paris, Wallace sent some of the finest of his pictures and other treasures to the Bethnal Green Museum for exhibition; they were then transferred to Hertford House, which had been largely transformed in order to receive them. In 187 1 he was created a baronet for his services during the siege of Paris, when he equipped several ambulances, founded the Hertford British hospital, and spent money lavishly in relief. This munificence endeared Sir Richard Wallace to the French people. From 1873 to 1885 he had a seat in parlia- ment for Lisburn, but he lived mostly in Paris, where, in the Rue Laffitte and in his villa in the Bois de Boulogne, he dwelt among art treasures not inferior to those at Hertford House. In 1878 he was made one of the British commissioners at the Paris Exhibition, and he was also a trustee of the National Gallery and a governor of the National Gallery of Ireland. He died in Paris on the zoth of July 1890. He had married in 1871 the daughter of a French officer, by whom he had a son, who, however, died in 1887; and Lady Wallace, who died in 1897, bequeathed his great art collection to the British nation. It is now housed in Hertford House, Manchester Square, which was acquired and adapted by the government for the purpose. WALLACE. SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305), the popular national hero of Scotland, is believed to have been the second son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and Auchinbothie, in Ren- frewshire. The date of his birth is not certainly ascertained, but is usually given as 1270. The only authority for the events of his early life is the metrical history of Blind Harry. That authority cannot be implicitly relied on, though we need not conclude that the minstrel invented the stories he relates. He lived about two centuries later than Wallace, during which a considerable body of legend had probably gathered round the name, and these popular " gestis " he incorporates in his narra- tive. At the same time he professes to follow as his " autour " an account that had been written in Latin by John Blair, the personal friend and chaplain of Wallace himself. As Blair's account has perished, we cannot tell how far the minstrel has faithfully followed his authority, but some comparatively recent discoveries have confirmed the truth of portions of the narrative which had previously been doubted. At best, however, his authority must be Regarded with suspicion, except when it is confirmed by other and more trustworthy evidence. Only for a period of less than two years in his life — from the beginning of the insurrection in 1297 to the battle of Falkirk — does Wallace come before us in the clearest historical light. With the exception of one or two glimpses of him that we obtain from authentic historical documents, the recorded events of his later as of his earlier life rest on no more certain authority than that of Blind Harry. In his boyhood, according to the usual accounts, he resided for some time at Dunipace, in Stirlingshire, with an uncle, who is styled " parson " of the place. By this uncle he was partially educated, and from him he imbibed an enthusiastic love of liberty. His education was continued at Dundee, where he made the acquaintance of John Blair. On account of an incident that happened at Dundee — his slaughter of a young Englishman named Selby, for an insult offered to him — he is said to have been outlawed, and so driven into rebellion against the English. Betaking himself to the wilds of the country, he gradually gathered round him a body of desperate men whom he led in various attacks upon the English. In consequence of the success of these early enterprises his following largely increased, several of the more patriotic nobles — including the steward of Scotland, Sir Andrew Moray, Sir John de Graham, Douglas the Hardy, Wishart, bishop of Glasgow, and others — having joined him. His insurrection now became more open and pronounced, and his enterprises of greater importance. An attack was made upon the English justiciar, Ormsby, who was holding his court at Scone. The justiciar himself escaped, but many of his followers were captured or slain. The burning of the Bams of Ayr, the quarters of English soldiers, in revenge for the treacherous slaughter of his uncle, Sir Ronald Crawford, and other Scottish noblemen, followed. The success of these exploits induced the English king to take measures for staying the insurrection. A large army, under the command of Sir Henry Percy and Sir Robert Clifford, was sent against the insurgents, and came up with them at Irvine. Dissensions broke out among the Scottish leaders, and all Wallace's titled friends left him and made sub- mission to Edward, except the ever faithful Sir Andrew Moray. The treaty of Irvine, by which these Scottish nobles agreed to acknowledge Edward as their sovereign lord, is printed in Rymer's Feeder a. It is dated the pth of July 1297, and is the first public document in which the name of Sir William Wallace occurs. Wallace retired to the north, and although deserted by the barons was soon at the head of a large army. The vigour and success of his operations was such that in a short time he succeeded in recovering almost all the fortresses held by the English to the north of the Forth. * He had begun the siege of Dundee when he received information that an English army, led by the earl of Surrey and Cressingham the treasurer, was on its march northward. Leaving the citizens of Dundee to continue the siege of the castle, he made a rapid march to Stirling. En- camping in the neighbourhood of the Abbey Craig — on which now stands the national monument to his memory — he watched the passage of the Forth. After an unsuccessful attempt to bring Wallace to terms, the English commander, on the morning of the nth of September 1297, began to cross the bridge. When about one half of his army had crossed, and while they were still in disorder, they were attacked with such fury by Wallace, that almost all — Cressingham among the number — were slain, or driven into the river and drowned. Those on the south side of the river were seized with panic and fled tumultuously, having first set fire to the bridge. The Scots, however, crossed by a ford , and continued the pursuit of the enemy as far as Berwick. Sir Andrew Moray fell in this battle. The results of it were im- portant. The English were everywhere driven from Scotland. To increase the alarm of the English, as well as to relieve the famine which then prevailed, Wallace organized a great raid into the north of England, in the course of which he devastated the country to the gates of Newcastle. On his return he was elected 278 WALLACE, W.— WALLACE, W. V. guardian of the kingdom. In this office he set himself to re- organize the army and to regulate the affairs of the country. His measures were marked by much wisdom and vigour, and for a short time Succeeded in securing order, even in the face of the jealousy and opposition of the nobles. Edward was in Flanders when the news of this successful revolt reached him. He hastened home, and at the head of a great army entered Scotland in July 1298. Wallace was obliged to adopt the only plan of campaign which could give any hope of success. He slowly retired before the English monarch, driving off all supplies and wasting the country. The nobles as usual for the most part deserted his standard. Those that remained thwarted his councils by their jealousies. His plan, however, came very near being successful. Edward, compelled by famine, had already given orders for a retreat when he received information of Wallace's position and intentions. The army, then at Kirkliston, was immediately set i in motion, and next morning (July 22, 1298) Wallace was brought to battle in the vicinity of Falkirk. After an obstinate fight the Scots were overpowered and defeated with great loss. Among the slain was Sir John de Graham, the bosom friend of Wallace, whose death, as Blind Harry tells, threw the hero into a frenzy of rage and grief. The account of his distress is one of the finest and most touching passages in the poem. With the remains of his army Wallace found refuge for the night in the Torwood — known to him from his boyish life at Dunipace. He then retreated to the north, burning the town and castle of Stirh'ng on his way. He resigned the office of guardian, and betook himself again to a wandering life and a desultory and predatory warfare against the English. At this point his history again becomes obscure. He is known to have paid a visit to France, with the purpose of obtaining aid for his country from the French king. This visit is narrated with many untrustworthy details by Blind Harry; but the fact is established by other and indisputable evidence. When in the winter of 1303-1304 Edward received the submission of the Scottish nobles, Wallace was expressly excepted from all terms. And after the capture of Stirling Castle and Sir William Oliphant, and the submission of Sir Simon Fraser, he was left alone, but resolute as ever in refusing allegiance to the English king. A price was set upon his head, and the English governors and captains in Scotland had orders to use every means for his capture. On the 5th of August 1305 he was taken — as is generally alleged, through treachery — at Robroyston, near Glasgow, by Sir John Menteith, carried to the castle of Dumbarton, and thence conveyed in fetters and strongly guarded to London. He reached London on the 22nd of August, and next day was taken to Westminster Hall, where he was impeached as a traitor by Sir Peter Mallorie, the king's justice. To the accusation Wallace made the simple reply that he could not be a traitor to the king of England, for he never was his subject, and never swore fealty to him. He was found guilty and condemned to death. The sentence was executed the same day with circumstances of unusual cruelty. The cause of national independence was not lost with the life of Wallace. Notwithstanding the cruelty and indignity amid which it terminated, that life was not a failure. It has been an inspira- tion to his countrymen ever since. The popular ideas regarding his stature, strength, bodily prowess and undaunted courage are confirmed by the writers nearest his own time — Wyntoun and Fordun. And indeed no man could in that age have secured the personal ascendancy which he did without the possession of these qualities. The little we know of his statesmanship during the short period he was in power gives proof of political wisdom. His patriotism was conspicuous and disinterested. He was well skilled in the modes of warfare that suited the country and the times. That he failed in freeing his country from the yoke of England was due chiefly to the jealousy with which he was regarded by the men of rank and power. But he had a nobler success in inspiring his countrymen with a spirit which made their ultimate conquest impossible. For bibliography see the article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. The principal modern lives are James Moir's (1886), and A. F. Murison's (1898). (A. F. H.) WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843), Scottish mathematician, was born on the 230! of September 1768 at Dysart in Fifeshire, where he received his school education. In 1784 his family removed to Edinburgh, where he himself was set to learn the trade of a bookbinder; but his taste for mathematics had already developed itself, and he made such use of his leisure hours that before the completion of his apprenticeship he had made considerable acquirements in geometry, algebra and astronomy. He was further assisted in his studies by John Robison (1739-1805) and John Playfair, to whom his abilities had become known. After various changes of situation, dictated mainly by a desire to gain time for study, he became assistant teacher of mathematics in the academy of Perth in 1794, and this post he exchanged in 1803 for a mathematical mastership in the Royal Military College at Great Marlow (afterwards at Sandhurst). In 1819 he was chosen to succeed John Leslie in the chair of mathematics at Edinburgh, and in 1838, when compelled by ill-health to retire, he received a government pension for life. He died in Edinburgh on the 28th of April 1843. In his earlier years Wallace was an occasional contributor to Leybourne's Malltematical Repository and the Gentleman's Mathe- matical Companion. Between 1801 and 1810 he contributed articles on " Algebra," " Conic Sections," " Trigonometry," and several others in mathematical and physical science to the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and some of these were retained in subsequent editions from the fifth to the eighth inclusive. He was also the author of the principal mathematical articles in the Edin- burgh Encyclopaedia, edited by David Brewster (1808-1830). He also contributed many important papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. See Transactions of the Roy. Ast. Soc., 1844. WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897), Scottish philosopher, was born at Cupar-Fife on the nth of May 1844, the son of a house- builder. Between the ages of sixteen and twenty-two he was educated at St Andrews, whence he proceeded as an exhibitioner in 1864 to Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first class in Moderations, and in Lit. Hum. (1867), was Gaisford prizeman in 1867 (Greek prose) and Craven Scholar in 1869. Three years later he was appointed fellow, and in 1871 librarian, of Merton College. In 1882 he was elected Whyte's professor of moral philosophy in succession to T. H. Green, and retained the position until his death. He died on the i8th of February 1897 from the effects of a bicycle accident near Oxford. His manner was some- what brusque and sarcastic, and on this account, in his under- graduate days at Balliol, he was known as " The Dorian." But he was greatly respected both as a man and as a lecturer. His philosophical works are almost entirely devoted to German, and especially to Hegelian, doctrines, which he expounded and criticized with great clearness and literary skill. In dealing with Hegel he was, unlike many other writers, successful in express- ing himself in a lucid literary manner, without artificial and incomprehensible terminology. His principal works were The Logic of Hegel (1873), which contains a translation of the Encyklopddie with an introduction, a second edition of which, with a volume entitled Prolegomena, appeared in 1892; Epicureanism (1880); Kant (Blackwood's Philosophical Classics, 1882); Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (1890); Hegel's Philo- sophy of Mind (translated from the Encyklopddie, with five intro- ductory essays) ; Lectures and Essays on Natural Theology and Ethics, being a selection from his papers edited with a biographical introduction by Edward Caird. He wrote several important articles for the gth edition of the Ency. Brit., which, with some re- vision, have been repeated in the present work. WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865), British com- poser, was born at Waterford, Ireland, his father, of Scottish family, being a regimental bandmaster. Vincent Wallace learnt as a boy to play several instruments, and became a leading violinist in Dublin. But in 1835 he married and went off to Australia, sheep farming. A concert in Sydney revived his musical passion; and having separated from his wife, he began a roving career, which had many romantic episodes, in Australia, the South Seas, India and South America. He returned to London in 1845 and made various appearances as a pianist; and in November of that year his opera Maritana was per- formed at Drury Lane with great success. This was followed by Matilda of Hungary (1847), Lurline (1860), The Amber Witch WALLACK— WALL-COVERINGS 279 (1861), Love's Triumph (1862) and The Desert Flower (1863). He also published a number of compositions for the piano, &c. Vincent Wallace was a cultivated man and an accomplished musician, whose Maritana still holds the stage, and whose work as an English operatic composer, at a period by no means encouraging to English music, has a distinct historical value. Like Balfe, he was born an Irishman, and his reputation as one of the few composers known beyond the British Isles at that time is naturally coupled with Balfe's. But he was a finer artist and a more original musician. In later years he became almost blind; and he died in poor circumstances on the I2th of October 1865, leaving a widow and two children. WALLACK, JAMES WILLIAM (c. 1794-1864), Anglo- American actor and manager, was born in London, his parents being actors. He made his first stage appearance at Drury Lane in 1807. After three years in Dublin he was again at Drury Lane until he went to America in 1818. He settled in New York permanently in 1852, the first Wallack's theatre being an old one renamed at the corner of Broome Street and Broad- way. The second, at I3th Street and Broadway, he built him- self. Wallack was an actor of the old school. Thackeray praises his Shylock, Joseph Jefferson his Don Caesar de Bazan. He married the daughter (d. 1851) of John Henry Johnstone (1740- 1828), a popular tenor and stage Irishman. Their son, JOHN LESTER WALLACK (1820-1888), was born in New York on the ist of January 1820. At one time in the English army, then on the Dublin and London stage, he made his first stage appearance in New York in 1847 under the name of John Lester as Sir Charles Coldstream, in Boucicault's adaptation of Used Up. He was manager, using the name Wallack, of the second Wallack's theatre from 1861, and in 1882 he opened the third at 3oth Street and Broadway. His greatest successes were as Charles Surface, as Benedick, and especially as Elliot Grey in his own play Rosedale, and similar light comedy and romantic parts, for which his fascinating manners and handsome person well fitted him. He married a sister (d. 1909) of Sir John Millais. He wrote his own Memories of Fifty Years. WALLAROO, a seaport of Daly county, South Australia, situated in Wallaroo Bay, on the Spencer Gulf, 123 m. by rail N.W. by N. of Adelaide. It is connected by rail with the cele- brated Wallaroo copper mines (near Kadina, at a distance of 6 m. from the port). At Wallaroo Bay are the largest smelting works in the state, ranking among the largest in the world. Gold, silver and concentrated ores are received from other parts of the continent and from Tasmania for smelting at these works, which have ample facilities for shipment. Population of town (1901) 2920; of town and mines, 4866. WALLASEY, an urban district in the Wirral parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 2 m. N.W. of Birkenhead, of which it forms a suburb. Pop. (1001) 53,579- The former marshy estuary called Wallasey Pool is occupied by the Great Float, forming an immense dock (see BIRKENHEAD). The church of St Hilary, to which is assigned a foundation in the loth century, was rebuilt in the i8th century, with the exception of the tower bearing the date 1536. It was gutted by fire in 1857, and the whole was again rebuilt in the Early English style. On the shore of the Irish Sea is Leasowe Castle, once known as Mock-Beggar Hall, and supposed to have been erected by the earls of Derby in the reign of Elizabeth, in order to witness the horse-races held here. Under Wallasey Pool are remains of a submerged forest, in which various animal skeletons have been found. At the Conquest Wallasey formed part of the possessions of Robert de Rhuddlan, and on his decease became part of the fee of Halton. In the reign of Elizabeth it had a small port, to which there belonged three barques and fourteen men. In 1668 the manor was possessed by the earl of Derby, but various parts after- wards became alienated. For a considerable time the horse-races held on what was then a common had considerable reputation, but they were discontinued in 1760. At these races the duke of Monmouth, son of Charles II., once rode his own horse and won the plate. WALLA WALLA, a city and the county-seat of Walla Walla county, Washington, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, on Mill Creek, about 200 m. S. by W. of Spokane. Pop. (1880) 3588; (1800) 4709; (1900) 10,049, °f whom 1522 were foreign- born; (1910 census) 19,364. Walla Walla is served by the Northern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Co.'s (Union Pacific) railways, and by an inlet urban electric line. In the city are a state penitentiary, Fort Walla Walla (a U.S. cavalry post), a Federal Land Office, a Young Men's Christian Association building, a Carnegie library, the State Odd Fellows' Home, and the Stubblefield Home for Widows and Orphans. Sessions of Federal District and Circuit courts are held here. Walla Walla is the seat of Whitman College (chartered, 1859; opened, 1866; rechartered, 1883), originally Congregational, but now non-sectarian, which was founded by the Rev. Gushing Eells and was named in honour of Marcus Whitman, and includes a college, a conservatory of music and a preparatory academy, and occupies a campus of 30 acres; and of Walla Walla College (Adventist). Here are also St Paul's School (Protestant Episco- pal) for girls, and St Vincent's Academy for girls and De La Salle Academy for boys (both Roman Catholic). The city is situated in a farming (especially wheat -growing), stock-raising and fruit- growing region, is a distributing centre for the adjacent territory in Washington, Oregon and Idaho, and has a large wholesale business. Among its manufactures are flour and grist-mill products, agricultural implements, lumber, foundry and machine- shop products, leather and malted liquors. The value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,485,791, 54-1% more than in 1900. The municipality owns its waterworks. In 1836 the famous missionary, Marcus Whitman, established at Waiilatpu, about 5 m. W. of the present Walla Walla, a mission of the American Board (Congregational), which in 1847 was broken up by an Indian attack, Whitman, his wife and twelve others being massacred, and the other residents being carried off as prisoners. In 1857 Fort Walla Walla was built by the United States government on the site of the present city, and about it a settlement grew up in 1857-1858. Walla Walla was laid out and organized as a town, and became the county seat in 1859; in 1862 it was chartered as a city. The name " Walla Walla " is said to be a Nez Perce Indian term meaning " a rapid stream." See W. D. Lyman, An Illustrated History of Walla. Walla County, State of Washington (1901). WALL-COVERINGS. The present article deals with this subject (see MURAL DECORATION for art and archaeology) from the practical point of view in connexion with house-furnishing. In selecting a wall-covering, the chief factors to be borne in mind are the conditions of the room, viz. the use to which it is to be put, and its lighting, aspect and outlook. Marble is one of the most beautiful materials that can be chosen for covering a wall. The variety of its natural markings and colour gives a wide choice that enables it to be employed in practically any scheme of colouring and for rooms of any aspect and of any description. The working up of the marble is done mostly by machinery ; the saws used are flat strips of steel ^*r set in the frame of a machine and worked to ana fro, sand ning- and water being constantly supplied to assist in the work of cutting. Mouldings are worked to the desired profile by rapidly revolving carborundum wheels, and are afterwards polished by hand. Marble wall-slabbing needs very careful fixing, and should be well supported by a sufficient number of cramps at a little distance from the wall, leaving a space of about half an inch at the back of the slab. Non- rusting cramps should be used, such as those made of copper or bronze. A cement made of plaster of Paris and marble dust mixed in the proportion of two parts to one should be used for fixing, as pure plaster, especially if new, is liable to swell and cause the marble to crack. Marezso and Scagliola are imitation marbles and are described in PLASTERWORK. Well-designed and properly executed mosaic is a very beautiful decorative medium, and ranks among the most permanent as well as most pleasing wall-coverings. With glass mosaic great «•«..*• ranges both of colour and of texture of surface can be obtained, different methods of preparing the glass giving a brilliant granular or quite dull surface as desired to suit the particular position of the work. Marble mosaic is used more for floors and pavings than for vertical surfaces. Most mosaic is now put together in the studio and pasted upon sheets of tough paper to which the design has previously been transferred. The whole section can thus be bedded on the prepared wall-surface with the least amount of 280 WALLENSTEIN, A. E. Metal sheeting. trouble and without any danger of its sagging. When the cement has properly set, the paper is washed off from the face of the work. Much improvement has been effected in the design and manu- facture of wall-tiles. Especially has the design of tiles reached a very _.. high level of excellence, and as a material which combines the qualities of being hard in wear, durable, damp-resist- ing and easily washable, with beauty of design, colouring and surface, tiling may perhaps be placed next in order of merit as a wall-covering to mosaic. A thin, opaque glass material, manufactured under various trade names, is now much used, especially for tiling existing walls. It has all the sanitary qualities of tiles, but is perhaps somewhat more fragile and liable to be damaged under hard wear. It is made in opal and other colours and is usually fixed with a special cement or mastic which allows for slight movements of expansion and contraction. The thickness of the material varies with different makers from J to f in. Metal sheeting, though somewhat inartistic in appearance, is useful where a durable, waterproof and sanitary wall protection is needed, and is therefore often used for sculleries, wash-houses and lavatories. Thin sheets of zinc with slightly embossed patterns and enamelled in colours can be hung upon the wall with a composition of white lead (one part) and whiting (two parts) mixed to a thick paste with varnish or gold size. Sheets of iron or steel can be more elaborately embossed and fixed to the wall with nails or screws; they are either previously enamelled or are painted after being fixed. They are used more for ceilings than for wall-coverings, but are adapted for use in either position. Tapestry of good design and workmanship is a really beautiful wall-covering. It is usually hung upon frames fitted to the wall, _ . and may either cover the entire wall surface or be fixed ™ ™ in the form of panels, friezes, dados or fillings. It is not at all a sanitary covering, for it harbours a very large quantity of dust and dirt. The same remark applies, but perhaps in a less degree, to brocades of silk and damask. These materials are of a delicate nature and become easily soiled by the fumes of gas or oil lamps. Substitutes for these materials on stout paper and on cotton are made with a prepared back to facilitate pasting and hanging, and are a very good imitation of the better material. A coarse canvas, specially prepared with a smooth back forpasting, and stained in several plain colours, can now be purchased. Having a rough surface it naturally holds the dust, but this can easily be brushed off without damaging the material. It is a pleasing wall- covering, which will stand hard wear, and it forms a good back- ground for pictures and furniture. The term " wall-paper " embraces a very large variety of materials of many kinds, designs and qualities, ranging from the cheapest machine-printed papers of the most flimsy description and often hideous design, to the Japanese and similar leather papers, skilfully modelled in relief and richly«decorated in gold and colours. The design of the paper, of whatever description it may be, should preferably be of a conventional pattern, unob- trusive and restful to the eye, and presenting no strong contrasts of colour. The wall must be treated as a background, consisting of a plane surface, and no attempt made to introduce a pictorial element into the decoration. The wall surface, regarded from the paper- hanger's point of view, is often divided into three sections, the dado or base, the field or filling, and the frieze at the top immediately beneath the cornice. This subdivision is not always adhered to, and a wall may be papered uniformly all over its surface, or may consist of dado and filling without the frieze, or frieze and filling without the dado. The division between the sections is usually formed, in the case of the frieze and filling, with a wood picture rail, and between the filling and dado with a moulded dado or chair rail. Wall-papers may be printed either in distemper colours or oil colours, and the patterns upon them are printed either by hand or by machine. There are also self-coloured papers which have different kinds of surface finish, and with some of these a pattern is formed by contrasting a smooth with a rough or granulated surface or vice versa. Typical of such papers are the ingrain papers, which have the colour penetrating through their substance. Plain filling papers are often used in conjunction with a boldly designed and strongly coloured frieze of considerable depth. The dado is either of similar plain paper or of an unobtrusive pattern. Often the filling is taken down to the skirting without the intervention of a dado rail. Papers printed in oil colours can be sized and varnished, and when treated in this way can be washed repeatedly and are very durable. This treatment gives an unpleasant glazed surface to the wall, but in spite of this it is often adopted for bathrooms, kitchens and in similar positions, because it is economical. The best papers are printed from blocks manipulated by hand. The pattern, or as much of it as is to be printed in one colour, is carved upon a pear-wood board, small and delicate members being represented by strips and dots of copper inserted in the block. With large blocks a treadle and pulley arrangement gives the work- man assistance in applying and removing the pattern, which is first fed with colour by being pressed on a felt blanket soaked in pigment and then applied to the surface of the paper to be decorated. One tint is applied at a time, and this when dry is followed by others necessary to complete the design. This drying of the previous colour ensures sharpness of outline and accuracy of colour. Designs are papers sometimes worked on the paper with stencil patterns cut out of zinc sheets. These are laid upon the paper and thick- colour applied through the perforations with a stiff brush. The cheaper wall-papers are printed by machinery. The paper is made to travel round a large drum around which are grouped the printing cylinders, each with its separate inking roller to supply the special colour for its use. On each of the wooden printing rollers is set copper " type," representing as much of the pattern as is to be printed in one colour. It is a difficult and tedious matter to get all the rollers to work together to form one perfect pattern, and when printing in several colours it may take a skilled workman a week or more to " set " his machine, a very large quantity of paper being spoilt during the process. The colours used for hand-printed work, whether applied with blocks or stencil plates, are much thicker in consistency than those for machine' work. One advantage of hand-worked paper is the comparative ease with which a paper can be matched even after it has gone out of stock. At a slight extra cost the manufacturer will print a few pieces for his customer from the blocks he has retained. With machine-printed paper this, from a practical point of view, is impossible, for it would necessitate the printer's going through the long and costly process of " setting " the machine. Wall-papers are sold in rolls called " pieces." In England the standard size for a piece of paper is 12 yds. long and 21 in. wide. The printed surface is only 20 in. in width, as a margin of half an inch is left on each edge. One or both of these plain margins must be removed prior to hanging. French wall-papers are 9 yds. long and 1 8 in. wide and only contain 40 J sq. ft. compared with 63 ft. in a piece of English paper. To ascertain the number of pieces required for a room take the superficies in feet of the surface to be covered (deduction being made for the doors, windows, &c.) and divide by 60. This gives the net amount required; an allowance of about one- seventh must be added to allow for wasf: in matching patterns and of odd lengths. If French papers are to be used the division should be 38 instead of 60, these figures representing in feet the area of the printed surface in each roll. The surface of the wall should before papering be carefully prepared so as to be quite smooth and regular. If the wall has been previously papered it should be stripped, and any irregularities filled in with stopping. To remove varnished paper use hot water to which borax has been added in the proportions of 2 oz. to each pint of water. In selecting a paper for a newly plastered wall the colour chosen should be capable of withstanding the bleaching action of the lime in the plaster. Greens, blues and pinks especially are affected in this manner. For heavy papers glue paste should be used. Papering which has become dirty may be effectually cleaned with new bread or stiff dough ; when gently rubbed over the surface in one direction this speedily removes the dirt. When the wall is damp, tinfoil, pitch-coated paper or Willesden waterproofed paper is used behind the paper to prevent the paper from becoming damaged by the wet. 0- BT-) WALLENSTEIN (properly WALDSTEIN), ALBRECHT WENZEL EUSEBIUS VON, duke of Friedland, Sagan and Mecklenburg (1583-1634), German soldier and statesman, was born of a noble but by no means wealthy or influential family at Herrmanic, Bohemia, on the isth of September 1583. His parents were Lutherans, and in early youth he attended the school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Koschumberg. After the death of his parents he was sent by his uncle, Slawata, to the Jesuit college of nobles at Olmiitz, after which he pro- fessed, but hardly accepted, the Roman Catholic faith. In 1599 he went to the university of Altdorf, which he had to leave in consequence of some boyish follies. Afterwards he studied at Bologna and Padua, and visited many places in southern and western Europe. While in Padua he gave much attention to astrology, and during the rest of his life he never wavered in the conviction that he might trust to the stars for indications as to his destiny. For some time Wallenstein served in the army of the emperor Rudolph II. in Hungary, which was commanded by a methodical professional soldier, Giorgio Basta. His personal gallantry at the siege of Gran won for him a company without purchase. In 1606 he returned to Bohemia, and soon afterwards he married an elderly widow, Lucretia Nikossie von Landeck, whose great estates in Moravia he inherited after her death in 1614. His new wealth enabled him to offer two hundred horse, splendidly equipped, to the archduke Ferdinand for his war with Venice in 1617. Wallenstein commanded them in person, and from that time he enjoyed both favour at court and popularity in the army. His wealth and influence were further increased by his marriage with Isabella Katharina, daughter of Count Harrach, a confidential adviser of the emperor Matthias. In the disturbances which broke out in Bohemia in 1618 and proved to be the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, advances WALLENSTEIN, A. E. 281 were made to Wallenstein by the revolutionary party; but he preferred to associate himself with the imperial cause, and he carried off the treasure-chest of the Moravian estates to Vienna, part of its contents being given him for the equipment of a regi- ment of cuirassiers. At the head of this regiment Wallenstein won great distinction under Buquoy in the war against Mansfeld. He was not present at the battle of the Weisser Berg, but he did brilliant service as second-in-command of the army which opposed Gabriel Bethlen in Moravia, and recovered his estates which the nationalists had seized. The battle of the Weisser Berg placed Bohemia at the mercy of the emperor Ferdinand, and Wallenstein turned the prevailing confusion to his own advantage. He secured the great estates belonging to his mother's family, and the emperor sold to him on easy terms vast tracts of confiscated lands. His possessions he was allowed to form into a territory called Friedland, and he was raised in 1622 to the rank of an imperial count palatine, in 1623 to that of a prince. In 1625 he was made duke of Friedland. Meantime he fought with skill and success against Gabriel Bethlen, and so enhanced his reputation at the dark moment when Vienna was in peril and the emperor's general Buquoy dead on the field of battle. At this stage in his life the enigma of his personality is complicated by the fact that he was not only the cold, detached visionary with vast ambitions and dreams, but also the model ruler of his principality. In everyday matters of administration he displayed vigour and foresight. He not only placed the administration of justice on a firm basis and founded schools, but by many wise measures developed agriculture and mining and manufacturing industries. At the same time he enlisted in the service of his ambition and his authority a pomp and refinement in his court which contrasted forcibly with the way of life of the smaller established rulers. When the war against the Bohemians had become a wide- spread conflagration, Ferdinand found he had no forces to oppose to the Danes and the Northern Protestants other than the Army of the League, which was not his, but the powerful and inde- pendent Maximilian's, instrument. Wallenstein saw his oppor- tunity and early in 1626 he offered to raise not a regiment or two, but a whole army for the imperial service. After some negotia- tions the offer was accepted, the understanding being that the troops were to be maintained at the cost of the countries they might occupy. Wallenstein's popularity soon brought great numbers of recruits to his standard. He soon found himself at the head of 30,000 (not long afterwards of 50,000) men. The campaigns of this army in 1625, 1626 and 1627, against Mansfeld, the Northern Protestants and Gabriel Bethlen, are described under THIRTY YEARS' WAR. Having established peace in Hungary, Wallenstein proceeded, in 1627, to clear Silesia of some remnants of Mansfeld's army; and at this time he bought from the emperor the duchy of Sagan, his outlay in the conduct of the war being taken into account in the conclusion of the bargain. He then joined Tilly in the struggle with Christian IV., and afterwards took possession of the duchy of Mecklenburg, which was granted to him in reward for his services, the hereditary dukes being displaced on the ground that they had helped the Danish king. He failed to capture Stralsund, which he besieged for several months in 1628. This important reverse caused him bitter disappointment, for he had hoped that by obtaining free access to the Baltic he might be able to make the emperor as supreme at sea as he seemed to be on land. It was a part of Wallenstein's scheme of German unity that he should obtain possession of the Hanseatic towns, and through them destroy or at least defy the naval power of the Scandinavian kingdom, the Netherlands and England. This plan was com- pletely frustrated by the resistance of Stralsund, and even more by the emperor's " Edict of Restitution " that not only rallied against him all the Protestants but brought in a great soldier and a model army, Gustavus and the Swedes. At the same time the victory of the principles of the League involved the fall of Wallenstein's influence. By his ambitions, his high dreams of unity and the incessant exactions of his army, he had made for himself a host of enemies. He was reported to have spoken of the arrogance of the princes, and it appeared probable that he would try to bring them, Catholics and Protestants alike, into rigid subjection to the crown. Again and again the emperor was advised to dismiss him. Ferdinand was very unwilling to part with one who had served him so well; but the demand was pressed so urgently in 1630 that he had no alter- native, and in September of that year envoys were sent to Wallenstein to announce his removal. Had the emperor declined to take this course, the princes would probably have combined against him; and the result would have been a civil war even more serious than that which had already brought so many disasters upon the country. Wallenstein perfectly understood this, and he therefore accepted the emperor's decision calmly, gave over his army to Tilly, and retired to Gitschin, the capital of his duchy of Friedland. There, and at his palace in Prague, he lived in an atmosphere of mysterious magnificence, the rumours of which penetrated all Germany. The enigma of his projects was intensified, and the princes who had secured his disgrace became more suspicious than ever. But ere long the emperor was forced by events to call him into the field pgain. Shortly before the dismissal of Wallenstein, Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, and it soon became obvious that he was far more formidable than the enemies with whom the emperor had yet had to contend. Tilly was defeated at Breitenfeld and on the Lech, where he received a mortal wound, and Gustavus advanced to Munich, while Bohemia was occupied by his allies the Saxons. The emperor entreated Wallenstein to come once more to his aid. Wallenstein at first declined; he had, indeed, been secretly negotiating with Gustavus Adolphus, in the hope of destroying the League and its projects and of building his new Germany without French assistance. However, he accepted Ferdinand's offers, and in the spring of 1632 he raised a fresh army as strong as the first within a few weeks and took the field. This army was placed absolutely under his control, so that he assumed the position of an independent prince rather than of a subject. His first aim was to drive the Saxons from Bohemia — an object which he accomplished without serious difficulty. Then he advanced against Gustavus Adolphus, whpm he opposed near Nuremberg and after the battle of the Alte Veste dislodged. In November came the great battle of Liitzen (q.v.), in which the imperialists were defeated, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed. To the dismay of Ferdinand, Wallenstein made no use of the opportunity provided for him by the death of the Swedish king, but withdrew to winter quarters in Bohemia. In the campaign of 1633 much astonishment was caused by his apparent unwilling- ness to attack the enemy. He was in fact preparing to desert the emperor. In the war against the Saxons he had offered them as terms of peace the revocation of the Edict. Religious toleration and the destruction of the separatist regime, as well as not inconsiderable aggrandisements for his own power, formed his programme, so far as historians have been able to reconstruct it, and becoming convinced from Ferdinand's obstinacy that the Edict would never be rescinded, he began to prepare to " force a just peace on the emperor in the interests of united Germany." With this object he entered into negotiations with Saxony, Brandenburg, Sweden and France. He had vast and vague schemes for the reorganization of the entire constitutional system of the empire, and he himself was to have supieme authority in determining the political destinies of his country. But as the mere commander of mercenaries he was trusted by no one, and could only play the part of Cassandra to the end. Irritated by the distrust excited by his proposals, and anxious to make his power felt, he at last assumed the offensive against the Swedes and Saxons, winning his last victory at Steinau on the Oder in October. He then resumed the negotiations. In December he retired with his army to Bohemia, fixing his head- quarters at Pilsen. It had soon been suspected in Vienna that Wallenstein was playing a double part, and the emperor, en- couraged by the Spaniards at his court, anxiously sought for means of getting rid of him. Wallenstein was well aware of the designs formed against him, but displayed little energy in his 282 WALLER, EDMUND attempts to thwart them. This was due in part, no doubt, to ill- health, m part to the fact that he trusted to the assurances of his astrologer, Battista Seni. He also felt confident that when the time came for his army to decide between him and the emperor the decision would be in his own favour. His principal officers assembled around him at a banquet on the 1 2th January 1634, when he submitted to them a declaration to the effect that they would remain true to him. This declara- tion they signed. More than a month later a second paper was signed; but on this occasion the officers' expression of loyalty to their general was associated with an equally emphatic expression of loyalty to their emperor. By this time Wallenstein had learned that he must act warily. On the 24th of January the emperor had signed a secret patent removing him from his command, and imperial agents had been labouring to undermine Wallen- stein's influence. On the 7th two of his officers, Piccolomini and Aldringer, had intended to seize him at Pilsen; but finding the troops there loyal to their general, they had kept quiet. But a patent charging Wallenstein and two of his officers with high treason, and naming the generals who were to assume the supreme command of the army, was signed on the i8th of February, and published in Prague. When Wallenstein heard of the publication of this patent and of the refusal of the garrison of Prague to take his orders, he realized the full extent of his danger, and on the 23rd of February, accompanied by his most intimate friends, and guarded by about 1000 men, he went from Pilsen to Eger, hoping to meet the Swedes under Duke Bernhard, who, at last convinced of his sincerity, were marching to join him. After the arrival of the party at Eger, Colonel Gordon, the commandant, and Colonels Butler and Leslie agreed to rid the emperor of his enemy. On the evening of the 25th of February Wallenstein's supporters Illo, Kinsky, Terzky and Neumann were received at a banquet by the three colonels, and then murdered. Butler, Captain Devereux and a number of soldiers hurried to the house where Wallenstein was staying, and broke into his room. He was instantly killed by a thrust of Devereux's partisan. Wallenstein was buried at Gitschin, but in 1732 the remains were removed to the castle chapel of Miinchengratz. No direct orders for the murder had been issued, but it was well understood that tidings of his death would be welcome at court. The murderers were handsomely rewarded, and their deed was commended as an act of justice. Wallenstein was tall, thin and pale, with reddish hair, and eyes of remarkable brilliancy. He was of a proud and imperious temper, and was seldom seen to laugh. He worked hard and silently. In times of supreme difficulty he listened carefully to the advice of his counsellors, but the final decision was always his own, and he rarely revealed his thoughts until the moment lor action arrived. Few generals have surpassed him in the power of quickly organizing great masses of men and of inspiring them with confidence and enthusiasm. But it is as a statesman that Wallenstein is immortal. However much or little motives of personal aggrandisement in- fluenced his schemes and his conduct, " Germany turns ever to Wallenstein as she turns to no other amongst the leaders of the Thirty Years' War. . . . Such faithfulness is not without reason. . . . Wallenstein's wildest schemes, impossible of execution by military violence, were always built upon the foundation of German unity. In the way in which he walked that unity was doubtless unobtain- able. . . . But during the long dreary years of confusion which were to follow it was something to think of the last supremely able man whose life had been spent in battling against the great evils of the land, against the spirit of religious intolerance and the spirit of division." See Forster, Albrecht von Wallenstein (1834); Aretin, Wallenstein (1846); Helbig, Wallenstein ttnd Arnim, 1632-1634 (1850), and Kaiser Ferdinand und der Herzogvon Friedland, 1633-1634 (1853); Hurter, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins (1855); Fiedler, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins (1860); L. yon Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins (3rd ed., 1872); Gindely, Geschichte des dreissigjiihrigen Kriegs (1869); J. Mitchell, Wallenstein (1840); S. R. Gardiner, Thirty Years' War. WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687), English poet, was the eldest son of Robert Waller of Coleshill (then in Herts, now in Buckinghamshire) and Anne Hampden, his wife. He was first cousin to the celebrated patriot John Hampden. He was born on the Qth of March 1606, and baptized in the parish church of Amersham. Early in his childhood his father sold his house at Coleshill and migrated to Beaconsfield. Of Waller's early education all we know is his own account that he " was bred under several ill, dull and ignorant schoolmasters, till he went to Mr Dobson at Wickham, who was a good schoolmaster and had been an Eton scholar." His father died in 1616, and the future poet's mother, a lady of rare force of character, sent him to Eton and to Cambridge. He was admitted a fellow-commoner of King's College on the 22nd of March 1620. He left without a degree, and it is believed that in 1621, at the age of only sixteen, he sat as member for Agmondesham (Amersham) in the last parliament of James I. Clarendon says that Waller was " nursed in parliaments." In that of 1624 he represented Ilchester, and in the first of Charles I. Chipping Wycombe. The first act by which Waller distinguished himself, however, was his surreptitious marriage with a wealthy ward of the Court of Aldermen, in 1631. He was brought before the Star Chamber for this offence, and heavily fined. But his own fortune was large, and all his life Waller was a wealthy man. After bearing him a son and a daughter at Beaconsfield, Mrs Waller died in 1634. It was about this time that the poet was elected into Falkland's " Club." It is supposed that about 1635 he met Lady Dorothy Sidney, eldest daughter of the earl of Leicester, who was then eighteen years of age. He formed a romantic passion for this girl, whom he celebrated under the name of Sacharissa. She rejected him, and married Lord Spencer in 1639. Disappointment, it is said, rendered Waller for a time insane, but this may well be doubted. He wrote, at all events, a long, graceful and eminently sober letter on the occasion of the wedding to the bride's sister. In 1640 Waller was once more M.P. for Amersham, and made certain speeches which attracted wide attention; later, in the Long Parliament, he represented St Ives. Waller had hitherto supported the party of Pym, but he now left him for the group of Falkland and Hyde. His speeches were much admired, and were separately printed; they are academic exercises very carefully prepared. Clarendon says that Waller spoke " upon all occasions with great sharpness and freedom." An extraordinary and obscure conspiracy against Parliament, in favour of the king, which is known as " Waller's Plot," occupied the spring of 1643, but on the 3oth of May he and his friends were arrested. In the terror of discovery, Waller was accused of displaying a very mean poltroonery, and of confessing " whatever he had said, heard, thought or seen, and all that he knew . . or suspected of others." He certainly cut a poor figure by the side of those of his companions who died for their opinions. Waller was called before the bar of the House in July, and made an abject speech of recantation. His life was spared and he was committed to the Tower, whence, on paying a fine of £10,000, he was released and banished the realm in November 1643. He married a second wife, Mary Bracey of Thame, and went over to Calais, afterwards taking up his residence at Rouen. In 1645 the Poems of Waller were first published in London, in three different editions; there has been much discussion of the order and respective authority of these issues, but nothing is decidedly known. Many of the lyrics were already set to music by Henry Lawes. In 1646 Waller travelled with Evelyn in Switzerland and Italy. During the worst period of the exile Waller managed to " keep a table " for the Royalists in Paris, although in order to do so he was obliged to sell his wife's jewels. At the close of 1651 the House of Commons revoked Waller's sentence of banishment, and he was allowed to return to Beaconsfield, where he lived very quietly until the Restoration. In. 1655 he published A Panegyric to my Lord Protector, and was made a Commissioner for Trade a month or two later. He followed this up, in 1660, by a poem To the King, upon his Majesty's Happy Return. Being challenged by Charles II. to explain why this latter piece was inferior to the eulogy of Crom- well, the poet smartly replied, " Sir, we poets never succeed so well in writing truth as in fiction." He entered the House of Commons again in 1661, as M.P. for Hastings, and Burnet has recorded that for the next quarter of a century " it was no House if Waller was not there." His sympathies were tolerant and kindly, and he constantly defended the Nonconformists. One WALLER, LEWIS— WALLER, SIR WILLIAM 283 famous speech of Waller's was: " Let us look to our Govern- ment, fleet and trade, 'tis the best advice the oldest Parliament man among you can give you, and so God bless you." After the death of his second wife, in 1677, Waller retired to his house called Hall Barn at Beaconsfield, and though he returned to London, he became more and more attached to the retirement of his woods, " where, " he said, " he found the trees as bare and withered as himself." In 1661 he had published his poem, St James' Park; in 1664 he had collected his poetical works; in 1666 appeared his Instructions to a Painter; and in 1685 his Divine Poems. The final collection of his works is dated 1686, but there were further posthumous additions made in 1690. Waller Bought a cottage at Coleshill, where he was born, meaning to die there; " a stag," he said, " when he is hunted, and near spent, always returns home." He actually died, however, at Hall Barn, with his children and his grandchildren about him, on the 2ist of October 1687, and was buried in woollen (in spite of his expressed wish), in the churchyard of Beaconsfield. Waller's lyrics were at one time admired to excess, but with the exception of " Go, lovely Rose " and one or two others, they have greatly lost their charm. He was almost destitute of imaginative invention, and his fancy was plain and trite. But he resolutely placed himself in the forefront of reaction against the violence and " conceit " into which the baser kind of English poetry was descending. A great deal of discussion, some of it absurdly violent in tone, has been expended on the question how far Waller was or was not the pioneer in introducing the classical couplet into English verse. It is, of course, obvious that Waller could not " introduce " what had been invented, and admirably exemplified, by Chaucer. But those who have pointed to smooth distichs employed by poets earlier than Waller have not given sufficient attention to the fact (exaggerated, doubtless, by critics arguing in the opposite camp) that it was he who earliest made writing in the serried couplet the habit and the fashion. Waller was writing in the regular heroic measure, afterwards carried to so high a perfection by Dryden and Pope, as early as 1623 (if not, as has been supposed, even in 1621). The only critical edition of Waller's Poetical Works is that edited, with a careful biography, by G. Thorn- Drury, in 1893. (E. G.) WALLER, LEWIS (1860- ), English actor, was born in Spain, his father being a civil engineer. He first appeared on the London stage in 1883, at Toole's, and for some years added to his reputation as a capable actor in London and the provinces. He came more particularly to the front by a fine performance as Buckingham in The Three Musketeers under Mr Beerbohm Tree's management at His Majesty's in 1895, and soon afterwards organized a company of his own, first at the Haymarket and afterwards at the Shaftesbury, Imperial, Apollo and other theatres. His fine voice and vigorous acting were well suited in his memorable production of Henry V., and he had a great success with Monsieur Beaucaire and similar plays. His wife, Mrs Lewis Waller (Florence West), also became well known as a powerful and accomplished actress. WALLER, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1597-1668), English soldier, was the son of Sir Thomas Waller, lieutenant of Dover, and was born about 1597. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and served in the Venetian army and in the Thirty Years' War. He was knighted in 1622 after taking part in Vere's expedition to the Palatinate. Little is known of his life up to 1640, when he became member of parliament for Andover. Being a strict Presbyterian by religion, and a member of the opposition in politics, he naturally threw himself with the greatest ardour into the cause of the parliament when the Civil War broke out in 1642. He was at once made a colonel, and conducted to a speedy and successful issue the siege of Portsmouth in September; and later in the year captured Farnham, Winchester and other places in the south-west. At the beginning of 1643 Waller was made a major-general and placed in charge of operations in the region of Gloucester and Bristol (see GREAT REBELLION), and he concluded his first campaign with a victory at Highnam and the capture of Hereford. He was then called upon to oppose the advance of Sir Ralph Hopton and the Royalist western army, and though more or less defeated in the hard-fought battle of Lansdown (near Bath) he shut up the enemy in Devizes. How- ever, Hopton and a relieving force from Oxford inflicted a crush- ing defeat upon Waller's army at Roundway Down. Hopton was Waller's intimate personal friend, and some correspondence passed between the opposing generals, a quotation from which (Gardiner, Civil War, i. 168) is given as illustrative of " the temper in which the nobler spirits on either side had entered on the war." " That great God," wrote Waller, " who is the searcher of my heart knows with what a sad sense I go upon this service, and with what a perfect hatred I detest this war without an enemy; but I look upon it as sent from God . . . God. . . in his good time send us the blessing of peace and in the meantime assist us to receive it ! We are both upon the stage and must act such parts as are assigned us in this tragedy, let us do it in a way of honour and without personal animosities." The destruction of his army at Roundway scarcely affected Waller's military reputation, many reproaching Essex, the commander-in-chief, for allowing the Oxford royalists to turn against Waller. The Londoners, who had called him " William the Conqueror," recognized his skill and energy so far as willingly to raise a new army for him in London and the south-eastern counties. But from this point Waller's career is one of gradual disillusionment. His new forces were distinctively local, and, like other local troops on both sides, resented long marches and hard work far from their own counties. Only at moments of imminent danger could they be trusted to do their duty. At ordinary times, e.g. at the first siege of Basing House, they mutinied in face of the enemy, deserted and even marched home in formed bodies under their own officers, and their gallantry at critical moments, such as the surprise of Alton in December 1643 and the recapture of Arundel in January 1644, but partially redeemed their general bad conduct. Waller himself, a general of the highest skill, — " the best shifter and chooser of ground " on either side, — was, like Turenne, at his best at the head of a small and highly-disciplined regular army. Only a Ccnde or a Cromwell could have enforced discipline and soldierly spirit in such men, ill-clad and unpaid as they were, and the only military quality lacking to Waller was precisely this supreme personal magnetism. In these circumstances affairs went from bad to worse. Though successful in stopping Hopton's second advance at Cheriton (March 1644), he was defeated by Charles I. in the war of manoeuvre which ended with the action of Cropredy Bridge (June), and in the second battle of Newbury in October his tactical success at the village of Speen led to nothing. His last expeditions were made into the west for the relief of Taunton, and in these he had Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. By this time the confusion in all the armed forces of the parliament had reached such a height that reforms were at last taken in hand. The original suggestion of the celebrated " New Model " army came from Waller, who wrote to the Committee of Both King- doms (July 2, 1644) to the effect that " an army compounded of these men will never go through with your service, and till you have an army merely your own that you may command, it is in a manner impossible to do anything of importance." Simultaneously with the New Model came the Self-Denying Ordinance, which required all members of parliament to lay down their military commands. Waller did so gladly — the more as he had already requested to be relieved — and his active military career came to an end. But the events of 1643-1644 had done more than embitter him. They had combined with his Pres- byterianism to make him intolerant of all that he conceived to be licence in church, state or army, and after he ceased to exercise command himself he was constantly engaged, in and out of parliament, in opposing the Independents and the army politicians, and supporting the cause of his own religious system, and later that of the Presbyterian-Royalist opposition to the Commonwealth and Protectorate regime. He was several times imprisoned between 1648 and 1639. In the latter year he was active in promoting the final negotiations for the restoration of Charles II. and reappeared in the House of Commons. He sat 284 WALLINGFORD— WALLIS, J. in the Convention Parliament, but soon retired from political life, and he died on the ipth of September 1668. See Wood's Aihenae Oxonienses, ed. Bliss, iii. 812; and two partial autobiographies, " Recollections by General Sir William Waller " (printed in The Poetry of Anna Matilda, 1788), and Vindication of the Character, &c. (1797). Sir William Waller's cousin, SIR HARDRESS WALLER (c. 1604- 1666) was also a parliamentarian of note. Knighted by Charles I. in 1629, he gained military experience in serving against the rebels in Ireland; then from 1645 to the conclusion of the Civil War he was in England commanding a regiment in the new model army. He was Colonel Pride's chief assistant when the latter " purged " the House of Commons in 1648, and he was one of the king's judges and one of those who signed the death warrant. During the next few years Waller served in Ireland, finally returning to England in 1660. After the restoration he fled to France, but soon surrendered himself to the authorities as a regicide, his life being spared owing to the efforts of his friends. He was, however, kept in prison and was still a captive when he died. See M. Noble, Lives of the Regicides (1798). WALLINGFORD, a township of New Haven county, Con- necticut, U.S.A., S.W. of the centre of the state, in the valley of the Quinnipiac river. It contains the villages of East Walling- ford, Tracy and Yalesville, and the borough of Wallingford. Pop. of the township (1900) 9001, (1910) 11,155; of the borough (1900) 6737, of whom 1796 were foreign-born and 21 were negroes, (1910) 8690. Area of the township, about 38 sq. m. The borough is 12 m. N.E. of New Haven, on a hill about ij m, long, and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway (which has stations also at East Wallingford and Yalesville) and by an interurban electric line connecting with Meriden and New Haven. The borough has a public library (1881), a Masonic Home, the Gaylord Farm Sanatorium of the New Haven County Anti-Tuberculosis Association, the Phelps School (for girls) and the Choate School (1896, for boys). Among the manufactures of the borough are sterling silver articles, plated and britannia ware, brass ware, rubber goods, cutlery and edge tools. The township of Wallingford was settled in 1670. At a meeting held in January 1766, in protest against the Stamp Act, it was declared, that " Whereas it appears from ancient Records and other Memorials of Incontestible Validity that our Ancestors with a great Sum Purchased said township, with great Peril possessed and Defended the Same, we are Born free (having never been in bondage to any), an inheritance of Inestimable Value," and a penalty of 205. was imposed upon any one who should introduce or use stamped paper or parchment. During the War of Independence patriotic sentiment here was strong and Loyalists were sometimes exiled to Wallingford, where they could have no effective influence. The borough of Wallingford was incorporated in 1853 and re-incorporated in 1868. From 1851 to 1880 there was a communistic settlement, a branch of the Oneida Community, here; its property was bought by the Masonic Order and made into the Masonic Home. See C. H. S. Davis's History of Wallingford (Meriden, 1870). WALLINGFORD, a market town and municipal borough in the Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 51 m. W. by N. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2808. It is pleasantly situated in the flat valley of the Thames, on the west (right) bank. The railway station is the terminus of a branch line from Cholsey. Of the churches only St Leonard's, retaining some Norman work and rebuilt approximately on its original plan, with an eastern apse, is of interest. The ancient castle has left only its mound and earthworks, and other works may be traced surrounding the town on the landward side. The town hall, raised on arches, dates from 1670. The large grammar school was founded in 1659. The trade of the town is principally agricultural; and malting is carried on. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 380 acres. The site of Wallingford (Warengeford, Walynford, Walyngforth) was occupied by a Romano-British settlement, though the im- posing earthworks are of uncertain date — they may be of post- Roman British origin. Wallingford was a fortified town before the Conquest, and, though burned by Sweyn in 1006, was much the largest and most important borough in Berkshire at the time of the Domesday Survey. The new castle was so extensive that eight houses had been demolished to make room for it; the market was already in existence, and perhaps also the gild merchant, which in a charter of Henry II. is said to date back to the reign of the Confessor. In the reign of Henry I. the be- ginning of decay is marked by the inability of the town " through poverty " to pay its aid. It is said to have suffered greatly from the Black Death, and its decline was accelerated by the building, in the early isth century, of two bridges near Abingdon, which diverted the main road between London and Gloucester from Wallingford. Periodical reductions in the fee farm show the gradual impoverishment of the town, and in 1636 its assessment for ship-money was only £20, while that of Reading was £220. Wallingford was a royal borough held in the reign of Henry III. by Richard, king of the Romans. Edward III. granted the fee farm to the Black Prince and his successors in the duchy of Cornwall. The earliest charters were given by Henry I. and Henry II., the latter confirming the ancient privileges of the borough, which were to be held as the citizens of Winchester held theirs, and granting to the burgesses freedom from toll through- out his dominions. These charters were confirmed and enlarged by Henry III. in 1267 and by Philip and Mary in 1557-1558. In 1648 the corporation consisted of a mayor, three aldermen, a chamberlain and sixteen burgesses. This constitution was remodelled in 1650 by a charter from Cromwell, but the governing charter until the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 was that given by Charles II. in 1663, incorporating the town under the style of a mayor, recorder, town clerk, six aldermen, two burgesses, a chamberlain and eighteen assistants of the better sort of the inhabitants. In 1571 Elizabeth issued letters patent empowering the burgesses of Wallingford to take toll of all carts passing over their bridge, in order to provide for its repair and maintenance. Wallingford sent two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832, and one from 1832 to 1885, when its representation was merged in that of the county: before 1832 the franchise was vested in the inhabitants paying scot and lot. The empress Maud took refuge at Wallingford after her escape from Oxford Castle (1142), and here peace was made between her and Stephen (1153). Wallingford Castle was one of the last fort- resses to hold out for Charles I., and during the Commonwealth it was demolished by order of the government. In 1 205 the king commanded the sheriff of Oxford to cause a fair to be held at Wallingford at Whitsun for four days, to be continued for three years. In 1227 Swyncombe fair was transferred from theleastof St Botolph to the feast of St Mark in order not to interfere with Wallingford fair. Fairs on the days of St Nicholas and of St John the Baptist were granted by Henry VII. in 1500, and the charter of 1663 provided for two markets and four annual fairs. All the latter have fallen into disuse except the Michaelmas fair, which is principally for hiring servants. During the 1 8th century the town was fairly prosperous and had a good trade in grain and malt. See Victoria County History, Berks; T. K. Hedges, The History of Wallingford (London, 1881). WALLIS, JOHN (1616-1703), English mathematician, logician and grammarian, was born on the 23rd of November 1616 at Ashford, in Kent, of which parish his father, Rev. John Wallis (1567-1622), was incumbent. After being at school at Ashford, Tenterden and Felsted, and being instructed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, he was in 1632 sent to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and afterwards was chosen fellow of Queens' College. Having been admitted to holy orders, he left the university in 1641 to act as chaplain to Sir William Darley, and in the following year accepted a similar appointment from the widow of Sir Horatio Vere. It was about this period that he displayed surprising talents in deciphering the intercepted letters and papers of the Royalists. His adherence to the parliamentary party was in 1643 rewarded by the living of St Gabriel, Fen- church Street, London. In 1644 he was appointed one of the scribes or secretaries of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster. During the same year he married Susanna Clyde, and thus WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO— WALLON 285 vacated his fellowship; but the death of his mother had left him in possession of a handsome fortune. In 1645 he attended those scientific meetings which led to the establishment of the 1 Society. When the Independents obtained the superiority Wallis adhered to the Solemn League and Covenant. The living of St Gabriel he exchanged for that of St Martin, Iron- monger Lane; and, as rector of that parish, he in 1648 sub- scribed the Remonstrance against putting Charles I. to death. No! withstanding this act of opposition, he was in June 1649 appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford. In 1654 he there took the degree of D.D., and four years later succeeded Gerard Langbaine (1600-1658) as keeper of the archives. After the restoration he was named one of the king's chaplains in ordinary. While complying with the terms of the Act of Uni- formity, Wallis seems always to have retained moderate and rational notions of ecclesiastical polity. He died at Oxford on the 28th of October 1703. The works of Wallis are numerous, and relate to a multiplicity of subjects. His Institutio logicae, published in 1687, was very popular, and in his Grammatics, linguae Anglicanae we find indica- tions of an acute and philosophic intellect. The mathematical works are published, some of them in a small 410 volume (Oxford, 1657) and a complete collection in three thick folio volumes (Oxford, 1693-1699). The third volume includes, however, some theo- logical treatises, and the first part of it is occupied with editions of treatises on harmonics and other works of Greek geometers, some of them first editions from the MSS., and in general with Latin versions and notes (Ptolemy, Porphyrius, Brienmus, Archimedes, Eutocius, Aristarchus and Pappus). The second and third volumes include also his correspondence with his contemporaries; and there is a tract on trigonometry by Caswell. Excluding all these, the mathe- matical works contained in the first and second volumes occupy about 1800 pages. The titles in the order adopted, bu^with date of publication, are as follows: " Oratio inauguralis," on his appointment (1649) as Savilian professor (1657); "Mathesis uni- versalis, seu opus arithmeticum philologice et mathematice tradi- tum, arithmeticam numerosam et speciosam aliaque continens " (1657); " Adversus Meibomium, de proportionibus dialogus " (1657); " De sectionibus conicis nova methodo expositis " (1655); " Arithmetica infinitorum, sive nova methodus inquirendi in curvilineorum quadraturam aliaque difficiliora matheseos pro- blemata " (1655); " Eclipsis Solaris observatio Oxonii habita 2° Aug. 1654" (1655); " Tractatus duo, prior de cycloide, posterior de cissoide et de curvarum turn linearum tWvvati turn super- ficierum ir\a.TvanC>" (1659); " Mechanica, sive de motu tractatus geometricus " (three parts, 1669-1670-1671); " De algebra tractatus historicus et practicus, ejusdem origir.em et progressus varios ostendens " (English, 1685); " De combinationibus alterna- tionibus et partibus aliquotis tractatus " (English, 1685) " De sectionibus angularibus tractatus" (English, 1685); " De angulo contactus et semicirculi tractatus" (1656); "Ejusdem tractatus defensio " . (1685); " De postulate quinto, et quinta definitione, lib. VI. Euclidis, disceptatio geometrica " (f 1663) ; " cuno- cuneus, seu corpus partim conum partim cuneum representans geometrice consideratum " (English, 1685); " De gravitate et gravitatione disquisitio geometrica" (1662; English, 1674); " De aestu maris hypothesis nova " (1666—1669). The Arithmetica infinitorum relates chiefly to the quadrature of curves by the so-called method of indivisibles established by Bona- ventura Cavalieri in 1629 (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). He extended the " law of continuity " as stated by Johannes Kepler; regarded the denominators of fractions as powers with negative exponents; and deduced from the quadrature of the parabola y =xm, where m is a positive integer, the area of the curves when m is negative or fractional. He attempted the quadrature of the circle by inter- polation, and arrived at the remarkable expression known as Wallis' s Theorem (see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF). In the same work Wallis obtained an expression for the length of the element of a curve, which reduced the problem of rectification to that of quadrature. The Mathesis universalis, a more elementary work, contains copious dissertations on fundamental points of algebra, arithmetic and geometry, and critical remarks. The De algebra tractatus contains (chapters Jxvi.-lxix.) the idea of the interpretation of imaginary quantities in geometry. This is given somewhat as follows: the distance represented by the square root of a negative quantity cannot be measured in the line backwards or forwards, but can be measured in the same plane above the line, or (as appears elsewhere) at right angles to the line either in the plane, or in the plane at right angles thereto. Con- sidered as a history of algebra, this work is strongly objected to by Jean Etienne Montucla on the ground of its unfairness as against the early Italian algebraists and also Franciscus Vieta and Rend Descartes and in favour of Harriot; but Augustus De Morgan, while admitting this, attributes to it considerable merit. The symbol for infinity, oo, was invented by him. The two treatises on the cycloid and on the cissoid, &c., and the Mechanica contain many results which were then new and valuable. The latter work contains elaborate investigations in regard to the centre of gravity, and it is remarkable also for the employment of the principle of virtual velocities. Among the letters in volume iii., we have one to the editor of the Acta Leipsica, giving the decipherment of two letters in secret characters. The ciphers are different, but on the same principle: the characters in each are either single digits or combinations of two or three digits, standing some of them lor letters, others for syllables or words, — the number of distinct, characters which had to be deciphered being thus very considerable. For the prolonged conflict between Hobbes and Wallis, see HOBBES, THOMAS. WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO, UVEA, or UEA, a gioup of islands in the Pacific Ocean, N.E. of Fiji, about 13° S., 176° W., with a land atea of 40 sq. m., belonging to France. It was placed under the French protectorate on the 5th of April 1887, and connected for administrative purposes with New Caledonia by decree of the 2 7th of November 1888. There is a French Resident in the islands, which are connected by a regular service with Noumea, New Caledonia. The principal islands are Uvea, of volcanic formation and surrounded with coral, and Nukuatea. The islands were discovered by Samuel Wallis in 1767, and it was a missionary, Father Bataillon. who in 1837 first brought the influence of France to bear on the natives. These, about 4500 in number, are of Polynesian race, gentle and industrious. The trade of the islands is mainly with Samoa, whence cottons and iron goods are imported, and to which copra and roots are exported. The Home Islands (Fotuna and Alofa), S.W. of the Wallis Islands, were discovered by Jacob Lemaire and Willem Cornells Schouten in 1616, and placed under the French pro- tectorate by decree of the i6th of February 1888. They have 1 500 inhabitants. WALLON, HENRI ALEXANDRE (1812-1004), French historian and statesman, was born at Valenciennes on the 23rd of December 1812. Devoting himself to a literary career, he became in 1840 professor at the Ecole Normale Superieure under the patronage of Guizot, whom he succeeded as professor at the Faculte des Lettres in 1846. His works on slavery in the French colonies (1847) and on slavery in antiquity (1848; new edition in 3 vols., 1879) led to his being placed, after the Revolution of 1848, on a commission for the regulation of labour in the French colonial possessions, and in November 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the Nord. He resigned in 1850, disapproving of the measure for the restriction of the suffrage adopted by the majority. In the same year he was elected a member of the Academic des In- scriptions, of which he became perpetual secretary in 1873. Under the empire he withdrew altogether from political life, and occupied himself entirely with his duties as a professor of history and with historical writings, the most original of which is a biography, Richard II, tpisode de la rivaliit de la France et de I'Angleterre (2 vols., 1864). Although remaining a re- publican, he exhibited decided clerical leanings in his Jeanne d'Arc (2 vols., 1860; 2nd ed., 1875); La Vie de Noire Seigneur Jesus (1865) — a reply to the Vie deJfsusofE. Renan; and Sain/ Louis el son temps (1871; 4th ed., 1802), which still ranks among hagiographical works. Returning to politics after the Franco- German War, Wallon was re-elected by the department of the Nord in 1871, took an active part in the proceedings of the Assembly, and finally immortalized himself by carrying his proposition for the establishment of the Republic with a presi- dent elected for seven years, and then eligible for re-election, which, after violent debates, was adopted by the Assembly on the 30th of January 1875. " Ma proposition," he declared, " ne proclame pas la Republique, elle la fait." Upon the defini- tive establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of Public Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but his views were too conservative for the majority of the Assembly, and he retired in May 1876. He had been chosen a life senator in December 1875. Returning to his historical studies, Wallon produced four works of great importance, though less from his part in them as author than from the documents which accompanied them: La Terreur (1873); Histoire du tribunal 286 WALLOONS revolutionnaire de Paris avec le journal de ses actes (6 vols., 1880-1882); La Revolution du 31 mai et le fedfralisme en j/pj (2 vols., 1886); Les Representants du peuple en mission et la justice revolutionnaire dans les deparlements (5 vols., 1880-1890). Besides these he published a number of articles in the Journal des savants; for many years he wrote the history of the Aca- demic des Inscriptions in the collection of Memoirs of this Academy, and he composed obituary notices of his colleagues, which were inserted in the Bulletin. He died at Paris on the I3th of November 1904. WALLOONS (Wallons, from a common Teut. word meaning " foreign," cf. Ger. welsch, Du. waalsch, Eng. Welsh), a people akin to the French, but forming a separate branch of the Romance race, inhabiting the Belgian provinces of Hainaut, Namur, Liege, parts of Luxemburg and southern Brabant, parts of the French departments of Nord and Ardennes, and a few villages in the neighbourhood of Malmedy in Rhenish Prussia. The Walloons are descended from the ancient Gallic Belgi, with an admixture of Roman elements. They are in general charac- terized by greater vivacity and adaptability than their Flemish neighbours, while they excel their French neighbours in en- durance and industry. Their numbers are reckoned in Belgium at between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000. The Walloon dialect is a distinct branch of the Romance languages, with some ad- mixture of Flemish and Low German. It was used as a literary language until the 1 5th century, when it began to be assimilated to French, by which it was ultimately superseded. Grandgagnage, De I'origine des Wallons (Liege, 1852), Vocabulaire des notns wallons, &c. (2nd ed., 1855;), and Diet, etymol. de la langue •uiallonne (t. i. and ii., 1845-1851 ; t. hi., byScheler, 1880) ; T. Dejardin, Diet, des "spots" ou proverbes wallons (1863); Van der Kmdere, Recherches surf elhnologie de la Belgique (Brussels, 1872) ; Demarteau, Le Flamand, le Wallon, Sfc. (Liege, 1889); M. Wilmotte, Le Wallon, Histoire et litterature (Brussels, 1893) ; Monseur, Le Folklore wallon (Brussels, 1892). IX.] WALLOON LITERATURE. — In medieval times various local documents in prose and verse were written by inhabitants of Liege and its diocese in a dialect of French which contained many Walloon words and phrases. It is supposed that as early as the 1 2th century the idiom of the people may have been used in songs which are now lost, unless echoes of them are preserved in the curious Noels, partly in French, partly in patois, which were orally collected by M. Doutrepont and published in 1888. Several Flemish works in old French, containing Walloon expressions, and in particular the so-called Poeme moral of the I3th century, have been claimed as precursors of a local literature, but they are really to be considered as composed in French with a certain admixture of Liegeois phrases. The earliest existing specimen of pure Walloon literature is the Ode in praise of Liege, dated 1620, and attributed to Mathias Navaeus; this was first printed in 1857 in the transactions of the Societe Liegeoise. Except a few very flat popular songs, there is nothing more until the end of the 1 7th century, when we find Lis Aiwesdi Tongue (The Waters of Tongres), an amusing lyrical satire on the pretensions of that town to be considered a Roman spa. Fifty years later the opening of a popular theatre at Liege led to the creation of a class of farces, written in Walloon; of these Li Voege di Chaud- fontaine (The Journey to Chaudfontaine) (1757), by Jean Noel Hamal, has considerable humour and vigour in its rhymed dialogue. Other successful comedies were Li Fiesse di Ho&le s'i plou, Li Ligeois 6gagi, and, above all, Lis Hypocondes, the liveliest specimen of old Walloon literature which has survived. This diverting farce describes the adventures of a party of mock- invalids, who pursue a series of intrigues at a spa. This class of dramatic literature closed with Li Malignant in 1789. In these early songs and plays the Walloon humour is displayed with great crudity; anything like sentiment or elevated feeling is unknown. The Revolution of 1789 inspired numerous Liegeois patriots with popular songs; of these pasqueyes, as they are styled, Albin Body collected more than 250, but they are almost entirely devoid of literary merit. Under their new government, Liege and Namur allowed the national patois to withdraw into the background, and it was not until the middle of the igth century that Walloon literature began seriously to be cultivated. Its only expression, for a long time, was in lyrical poetry in the form of satires and the humorous songs, called pasqueyes and cramignons. The earliest of the modern Walloon writers was Charles Nicolas Simonon (1774-1847), who celebrated in Li Coparey the ancient clock-tower of the cathedral of St Lambert, an object of reverence to the inhabitants of Liege. His poems were collected in 1845. •Henri Joseph Forir (1784-1862) was the first president of the Societe Liegeoise, and one of the protagonists of Walloon litera- ture. He published a valuable dictionary of the patois. The Cure C. E. E. Du Vivier de Streel (1790-1863) was the author of Li Panlalon traive (The Torn Trowsers), a pasqudye which still enjoys an enormous popularity among the Walloon population. The first Walloon writer of high merit, however, was Nicolas Defrecheux (1825-1874), who is the most distinguished poet whom the patois has hitherto produced. His Leyiz-m' plorer (Let me cry), when it appeared in 1854, made a wide sensation, and was the earliest expression of what is serious and tender in the Walloon nature. His Chansons wallonnes appeared in 1860. Defrecheux stands almost alone among the Walloon poets as an artist and not merely an improvisatore. His poetical works were posthumously collected in 1877. For many years, in spite of the efforts of such scholars as MM. Alphonse Le Roy and H. Gaidoz, a taste for Walloon literature remained strictly circumscribed, and was limited to a small circle of enthusiasts in Liege and Namur. In 1872 a literary club was formed, entitled the Caveau Liegeois, and this gave a very great stimulus to the cultivation of the Walloon letters. The national drama, which had been entirely neglected for more than a century, once more was called into existence through the exertions of the theatrical club, called Les Wallons. The comedies of A. M. J. Delchef (b. 1835) were acted with success, and led the way for the most important patois dramatist that Liege has produced, Edouard Remouchamps (b. 1836), who is the author of Tail I'Perriqul (1884), perhaps the most enter- taining farce in Walloon, and certainly the most popular. Remou- champs was for thirty years a prolific writer of short pieces for the stage, sentimental and farcical. After the success of this play, according to an enthusiastic chronicler, " the writers of Wallonia became legion." Their style, however, was not greatly varied, and they have mainly confined themselves to songs, satirical lampoons and farces. The founder of the Societe Liegeoise was J. F. E. Bailleux (1817-1860), to whom the revival of an interest in early Walloon literature is mainly due; in con- junction with J. V. F. J. Dehin (1800-1871) he published a translation of Lafontaine into patois. Among writers of the younger generation, special credit must be given to Henri Simon (b. 1856), for his humoristic tales and sketches; to Julien Delaite (b. 1868), for his amusing lyrics; and to Zephir Henin (b. 1866), for his prose, prose being much rarer than verse in Walloon. It would be possible to add very largely to this list, but the most notable names have been mentioned. A certain monotonous fluency is the fault of Walloon literature, which repeats its effects too constantly, and is confined within too narrow limits. A few writers, among whom Isidore Dory (b. 1833) is prominent, have endeavoured to enlarge the scope of the patois writers, but their suggestions have met with little response. When the Walloon writer desires to impart serious information or deep feeling, he resorts to the use of French. The pasqueye, which is the char- acteristic form of Walloon verse, is a kind of semi-comic and extremely familiar lyric, humorous and extravagant, a survival of the influence of Beranger on taste three-quarters of a century ago; the facility with which these songs are composed is betrayed by the enormous number of them which exist in Liege and Namur. The difficulties of Walloon literature are increased by the unfixed character of its phonetic and often extravagant orthography. AUTHORITIES. — H. Gaidoz, La Societeliegeoisedelitteraturewallonne (Liege, 1890); Alphonse Le Roy, Litterature wallonne (Brussels, 1875); Charles Defrecheux, Joseph Defrecheux et Charles Gothier, Ar.lhologie des poetes wallons (Liege, 1895); Maurice Wilmotte, Le Wallon (Brussels, 1894). (E.G.) WALLOP, SIR H.— WALMER 287 WALLOP, SIR HENRY (c. 1540-1399), English statesman, was the eldest son of Sir Oliver Wallop (d. 1566), of Farleigh Wallop, Hampshire. Having inherited the estates of his father and of his uncle, Sir John Wallop (q.v.), he was knighted in 1569 and was chosen member of parliament for Southampton in 1572. His connexion with Ireland, where the quarter part of his public lift- was passed, began in 1579, when he was appointed vice- treasurer of that country; this position was a very thankless and difficult one, and Wallop appears to have undertaken it very unwillingly. However, he reached Dublin and was soon immersed in the troubles caused by the rebellion of Gerald Fitzgerald, earl of Desmond, finding, in his own words, it was " easier to talk at home of Irish wars than to be in them." In July 1582 he and Adam Loftus, archbishop of Dublin, were appointed lords justices, and they were responsible for the government of Ireland for just two years, after which they were succeeded by Sir John Perrot. Sir Henry continued to fill the office of vice-treasurer, and at Enniscorthy, where he had secured a lease of lands, he set up a colony of Englishmen and opened up a trade with Madeira. As a member of the Irish council he quarrelled with Perrot, and then from 1589 to 1595 he was in England, entertaining the queen at Farleigh Wallop in 1591. Having returned to Ireland he was sent to Dundalk to attempt to make peace with Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, but this proved a vain errand. At length, after many entreaties, he was allowed to resign the treasurership, but before he could arrange to leave Ireland he died on the I4th of April 1599. \Vallop's eldest son, Sir Henry Wallop (1568-1642), who acted as his father's deputy in Ireland, left an only son, Robert Wallop (1601-1667). A member of parliament for nearly forty years, and a supporter of the parliamentary party, Robert was one of the judges of Charles I., although he did not sign the death warrant. He was active under the Commonwealth, being a member of nearly all the councils of state. At the restoration lie was deprived of his estates and was imprisoned, and he died in the Tower of London on the igth of November 1667. Robert's son Henry (d. 1673) was the grandfather of John Wallop, ist earl of Portsmouth. WALLOP, SIR JOHN (c. 1400-1551), English soldier and diplomatist, belonged to an old Hampshire family. Adopting the profession of arms, he commanded ships which took part in the war between England and France in 1513 and 1514; later he served the king of Portugal against the Moors, and then he fought for his own sovereign in Ireland and in France. In 1526 Wallop began his diplomatic career, being sent on an errand to Germany by Henry VIII., and from 1532 to 1541 he passed much of his time in Paris and elsewhere in France as the repre- sentative of the English king. He filled several other public positions, including that of lieutenant of Calais, before January 1541, when he was suddenly arrested on a charge of treason; his offence, however, was not serious and in the same year he was made captain of Guines. In 1 543 he led a small force to help the emperor Charles V. in his invasion of France, and he remained at his post at Guic.es until his death there on the I3th of July WALLQVIST, OLAF (1755-1800), Swedish statesman and ecclesiastic, was ordained in 1776, became doctor of philosophy in 1779, court preacher to Queen Louisa Ulrica in 1780, and bishop of Vexio in 1787. He attracted the attention of Gustavus III. by his eloquent preaching at the fashionable St Clara church at Stockholm. Gustavus at once took the young priest by the hand, appointed him, at twenty-five, one of his chaplains; made him a canon before he was thirty and a bishop at thirty-two, and finally placed him at the head of the newly appointed com- mission for reforming the ecclesiastical administration of the country. Thus at thirty-four Wallqvist had nothing more to hope for but the primacy, which would infallibly have been his also had the archbishop died during the king's lifetime. Wall- qvist was, however, much more of a politician than a churchman. His knowledge of human nature, inexhaustible energy, dauntless self-confidence and diplomatic finesse made him indispensable to Gustavus III. His seductive manners too often won over those whom his commanding eloquence failed to convince. His political career began during the mutinous riksdag of 1786, when he came boldly forward as one of the royalist leaders. But it was at the stormy riksdag of 1789 that Wallqvist put forth all his powers. The retirement of the timid primate left him without an equal in the Estate of Clergy, and it was very largely due to his co-operation that the king was able to carry through the famous '• Act of Unity and Security " which converted Sweden from a constitutional into a semi-absolute monarchy. Nevertheless, even the combative Wallqvist was appalled when on the i6th of February 1789 the king privately informed him that he meant on the following day soundly to trounce the Estate of Nobles in the presence of the three other estates and bend them to his royal will. A friend of compromise, like most of the men of his cloth, Wallqvist dissuaded all revolutionary expedients at the outset, though when the king proved immovable the bishop materially smoothed the way before him. At this memorable riksdag Wallqvist exhibited, moreover, financial ability of the highest order, and, as president of the ecclesiastical commission, assisted to equilibrate the budget and find the funds necessary for resuming the war with Russia. During the brief riksdag of 1792, as a member of the secret committee, Wallqvist was at the very centre of affairs and rendered the king essential services. Indeed it may be safely said that Gustavus III., during the last six years of his reign, mainly depended upon Wallqvist and his clerical colleague, Carl Gustaf Nordin (?.».), who were patriotic enough to subordinate even their private enmity to the royal service. During the Reuterholm (q.v.) administration, Wallqvist, like the rest of the Gustavians, was kept remote from court. In 1800 he was recalled to the political arena. But his old rivalry with Nordin was resumed at the same time, and when the latter defeated a motion of the bishop's in the Estate of Clergy, at the diet of Norrkoping, Wallqvist from sheer vexation had a stroke of apoplexy and died the same day (30th of April 1800). As bishop of Vexio, Wallqvist was remarkable for his extra- ordinary administrative ability. He did much for education and for the poorer clergy, and endowed the library of the gymnasium with 6000 volumes. As an author also he was more than dis- tinguished. His Ecclesiastica Samlingar testify to his skill and diligence as a collector of MSS., while his Minnen och Bref, ed. E. V. Montan (Stockholm, 1878), is one of the most trustworthy and circumstantial documents relating to the Gustavian era of Swedish history. See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London, 1895, vol. ii.) ; O. Wallqvists Sjdlfiografiska anteckningar (Upsala, 1850); and J. Rosengren, Om O. WaUqvist sdsom Bishop och Eforus (Vexio, 1901). (R. N. B.) WALLSEND, a municipal borough in the Tyneside parlia- mentary division of Northumberland, England, on the north bank of the Tyne, 3} m. E.N.E. of Newcastle by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 11,257; (1901) 20,918. The church of St Peter dates from 1 809. There are remains of the church of the Holy Cross in transitional Norman style. At an early period Wallsend was famous for its coal, but the name has now a general application to coal that does not go through a sieve with meshes five-eighths of an inch in size. The colliery, which was opened in 1807, has frequently been the scene of dreadful accidents, notably on the 23rd of October 1821, when 52 lives were lost. There are ship and boat building yards, engineering works, lead and copper smelting works, cement works and brick and tile works. In the river are two pontoon docks and an immense dry dock. Wallsend was incorporated in 1901, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1202 acres. Wallsend derives its modern name from its position at the eastern extremity of the Roman Hadrian's Wall; and there was a Roman fort here. It had a quay, of which remains have been discovered, and possessed a magazine of corn and other pro- visions for the supply of the stations in the interior. WALKER, a watering-place, and member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich, in the St Augustine's parliamentary division of WALMISLEY- -WALPOLE, H. Kent, England, 2 m. S. of Deal, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5248. Lower Walmer, the portion most frequented by visitors, extends northward along the coast, so as to be contiguous with Deal. Upper Walmer is a short distance inland, and below it Walmer Castle lies close to the sea. This was a blockhouse built for coast defence by Henry VIII., but became the official residence of the Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports, and was in consequence much altered from its original condition. It ceased to be the official residence in 1905, when the prince of Wales (afterwards George V.) was appointed Lord Warden, and the public was given access to those rooms which possess historical associations with former holders of the office, such as the duke of Wellington, who died here in 1852, William Pitt and others. Kingsdown, i m. south, is a decayed member of the Cinque Port of Dover. WALMISLEY, THOMAS ATTWOOD (1814-1856), English musician, was born in London, his father Thomas Forbes Wal- misley (1783-1866) being a well-known organist and composer of church music and glees. Thomas Attwood (q.v.) was his god- father, and the boy was educated in music under their tuition. He became organist at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1833, and there he soon became prominent by his anthems and other compositions. He not only took the degrees of Mus.Bac. and Mus.Doc., but also graduated at Jesus College as B.A. and M.A. In 1836 he was made professdr of music. His Cathedral Music was edited after his death by his father. WALNUT (Juglans), a botanical genus of about ten species (nat. ord. J uglandaceae) , natives of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, extending into Mexico, the West Indies and tropical South America. They are all trees, usually of large size, with alternate stalked, unequally pinnate leaves, and abounding in an aromatic resinous juice. The scars left by the fallen leaves are unusually large and prominent. The buds are not unlike those of the ash ; and it frequently happens that in the axils of the leaves, instead of one, several buds may be formed. The utility of this is seen in seasons when the shoot produced from the first bud is killed by frost; then one of the supplementary buds starts into growth, and thus replaces the injured shoot. The flowers are unisexual and monoecious, the numerous males borne in thick catkins proceeding from the side of last year's shoot. The female flowers are solitary or few in number, and borne on short terminal spikes of the present season's growth. In the male flower the receptacle is " con- crescent " or inseparate from the bract in whose axil it originates. The receptacle is, in consequence, extended more or less horizon- tally so that the flowers appear to be placed on the upper surface of horizontally spreading stalks. The perianth consists of five or six oblong greenish lobes, within which is found a tuft, con- sisting of a large number of stamens, each of which has a very short filament and an oblong two-lobed anther bursting longi- tudinally, and surmounted by an oblong lobe, which is the pro- jecting end of the connective. There is usually no trace of ovary in the male flowers, though by exception one may occasionally be formed. The female flower consists of a cup-like receptacle, inseparate from the ovary, and bearing at its upper part a bract and two bracteoles. From the margin springs a perianth of four short lobes. The one-celled ovary is immersed within the recep- tacular tube, and is surmounted by a short style with two short ribbon-like stigmatic branches. The solitary ovule springs erect from the base of the ovarian cavity. The fruit is a kind of drupe, the fleshy husk of which is the dilated receptacular tube, while the two-valved stone represents the two carpels. The solitary seed has no perisperm or albumen, but has two large and curiously crumpled cotyledons concealing the plumule, the leaves of which, even at this early stage, show traces of pinnae. The species best known is /. regia, the common walnut, a native of the mountains of Greece, of Armenia, of Afghanistan and the north-west Himalayas. Traces of the former existence of this or of a very closely allied species are found in the Post- Tertiary deposits of Provence and elsewhere, proving the former much wider extension of the species. At the present day the tree is largely cultivated in most temperate countries for the sake of its timber or for its edible nuts. The timber is specially valued for furniture and cabinet work and for gunstocks, the beauty of its markings rendering it desirable for the first-named purpose, while its strength and elasticity fit it for the second. The leaves and husk of the fruit are resinous and astringent, and are sometimes used medicinally as well as for dyeing pur- poses. A Spiritus Nucis Juglandis is given as an antispasmodic. It doubtless owes its properties to the alcohol which it contains. Sugar is also prepared from the sap in a similar manner to that obtained from the maple. The young fruits are used for pick- ling. When ripe the seeds are much esteemed as a delicacy, while in France much oil of fine quality is extracted from them by pressure. There are several varieties in cultivation, varying in the degree of hardihood, time of ripening, thickness of shell, size and other particulars. In the climate of Great Britain a late variety is preferable, as securing the young shoots against injury from frost, to which otherwise they are very subject. The kernel of the large-fruited variety is of very indifferent quality, but its large shells are made use of by the French as trinket cases. The walnut is mentioned in the earliest British botanical writings, and is supposed to have been introduced by the Romans. It grows well, and ripens its fruit in the southern and midland counties of England; but large trees may be seen as far north as Ross-shire in sheltered places. The tree succeeds in deep, sandy or calcareous loams, and in stiff loams resting on a gravelly bottom. It requires free exposure to air and light. It is propagated by seeds, and oc- casionally by budding, grafting or inarching for the perpetuation of special varieties. Seedlings should be protected from frost during the first winter. The trees form their heads naturally, and therefore little pruning is required, it being merely necessary to cut off strag- §ling growths, and to prevent the branches from interlacing. The est time for performing this is in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf. Plants raised from the seed seldom become productive till they are twenty years old. The fruit is produced at the extremities of the shoots of the preceding year; and therefore, in gathering the crop, care should be taken not to injure the young wood. In some parts of England the trees are thrashed with rods or poles to obtain the nuts, but this is not a commendable mode of collecting them. Among the American species J. nigra, the black walnut, is especi- ally noteworthy as a very handsome tree, whose timber is of great value for furniture purposes, but which is now becoming scarce. In Britain it forms a magnificent tree. The white walnut or butternut, J. cinerea, is a smaller tree, though it sometimes reaches 100 ft. in height ; its inner bark yields an extractive, juglandin, given as an hepatic stimulant and cathartic in doses of 2-5 grains. Closely allied to the walnuts, and sometimes confounded with them, are the hickories. WALPOLE, HORATIO or HORACE (1717-1797), English politician and man of letters, 4th earl of Orford — a title to which he only succeeded at the eud of his life, and by which he is little known — was born in Arlington Street, London, on the 24th of September 1717. He was the youngest of the five children of the ist earl of Orford (Sir Robert Walpole) by Catherine Shorter, but by some of the scandal-mongers of a later age, Carr, Lord Hervey, half-brother of John, Lord Hervey, afterwards second earl of Bristol, has been called his father. If this rumour be correct, no such suspicion ever entered into the mind of Horace Walpole. To his mother he erected a monument, with an inscription couched in terms of sincere affection, in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and from the beginning to the end of his public life his sarcasms never spared the Newcastles and the Hardwickes, who had shown, as he thought, lukewarmness in support of his father's ministry. On the 26th of April 1727 he was sent to Eton, where he formed what was known as the " Quadruple Alliance " with Thomas Gray, Richard West and Thomas Ashton, and became very intimate with Henry Seymour Conway, George Augustus Selwyn and the two Montagus, and in 1735 matriculated at King's College, Cambridge. Two years (1739-1741) were spent in Gray's company in the recognized grand tour of France and Italy. They stopped a few weeks in Paris, and lingered for three months at Rheims, on the pretence of learning the French language. Henry Seymour Conway, whose mother was a sister of Lady Walpole, shared their society in the French city. The WALPOLE, H. 289 other two members of this little circle next proceeded to Florence, where Walpole rested for more than a year in the villa of Horace Mann, the British envoy-extraordinary for forty-six years to the court of Tuscany. Mann's family had long been on terms of the closest intimacy with his guests, and they continued correspondents until 1786. As they never met again, their friendship, unlike most of Walpole's attachments, remained unbroken. After a short visit to Rome (March-June 1740), and after a further sojourn at Florence, Walpole and Gray parted in resentment at Reggio. Walpole in after years took the blame of this quarrel on himself, and it is generally believed that it arose from his laying too much stress on his superiority in position. In 1744 the two friends were nominally reconciled, but the breach was not cemented. Walpole came back to England on the I2th of September 1741. He had been returned to parliament on the I4thof May 1741 for the Cornish borough of Callington, over which his elder brother, through his marriage with the heiress of the Rolles, exercised supreme influence. He represented three constituencies in succession, Callington 1741-1754, the family borough of Castle Rising from 1754 to 1757, and the more important constituency of King's Lynn, for which his father had long sat in parliament, from the latter date until 1768. In that year he retired, probably because his success in political life had not equalled his expectations, but he continued until the end of his days to follow and to chronicle the acts and the speeches of both houses of parliament. Through his father's influence he had obtained three lucrative sinecures in the ex- chequer, and for many years (1745-1784) he enjoyed a share, estimated at about £1500 a year, of a second family perquisite, the collectorship of customs. These resources, with a house in Arlington Street, which was left to him by his father, enabled him, a bachelor all his days, to gratify his tastes. He acquired in 1747 the lease and in the next year purchased the reversion of the charmingly situated villa of Strawberry Hill, near Twicken- ham, on the banks of the Thames. Six years later he began a series of alterations in the Gothic style, not completed for nearly a quarter of a century later, under which the original cottage became transformed into a building without parallel in Europe. On the zsth of June 1757 he established a printing-press there, which he called " Officina Arbuteana," and many of the first editions of his own works were struck off within its walls. Through Walpole's influence Dodsley published in 1753 the clever, if eccentric, designs of Richard Bentley (the youngest child of the great scholar, and for some time a protige of Horace Walpole) for the poems of Gray. The first work printed at Strawberry Hill was two odes of Gray (8th of August 1757), and among the reprints were the Life of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Memoirs of Grammont, Hentzner's Journey into England, and Lord Whitworth's Account of Russia. The rooms of this whimsi- cal edifice were crowded with curiosities of every description, and the house and its contents were shown, by tickets to admit four persons, between 12 and 3 from May to October, but only one party was admitted on each day, and the owner, although enamoured of notoriety, simulated discontent at this limited intrusion into his privacy. Walpole paid several visits to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Madame du Deffand (q.v.) in 1765, and they corresponded until her death in 1780. His nephew, the reckless 3rd earl, died on the 5th of December 1791, and Horace succeeded to the peerage, but he never took his place in the House of Lords, and sometimes signed his name as " the uncle of the late earl of Orford." All his life long he was a victim of the gout, but he lived to extreme old age, and died unmarried, in Berkeley Square, London, to which he had re- moved in October 1779, on the 2nd of March 1797. He was buried privately at Houghton. The family estate descended to the earl of Cholmondeley, whose ancestor had married Horace Walpole's younger sister. All Walpole's printed books and manuscripts were left to Robert Berry (d. igth of May 1817) and his two daughters, Mary (1763-^852) and Agnes (1764- 1852), and Mary Berry edited the five volumes of Walpole's works which were published in 1798. Their friendship had been XXVIII. IO very dear to the declining days of Walpole, who, it has even been said, wished to marry Mary Berry. By his will each of the ladies obtained a pecuniary legacy of £4000, and for their lives the house and garden, formerly the abode of his friend Kitty Clive, which adjoined Strawberry Hill. Strawberry Hill went to Mrs Anne Darner, daughter of his lifelong friend General Conway, for her life, but it was entailed on his niece the countess dowager of Waldegrave and her heirs. The collections of Straw- berry Hill, which he had spent nearly fifty years in amassing, were dispersed under the hammer of George Robins in 1842. They are described in a catalogue of that date, and in a series of articles in the Gentleman's Magazine for that year. The pen was ever in Horace Walpole's hands, and his entire compositions would fill many volumes. His two works of imagination, the romance of the Castle of Olranto (1764) and the tragedy of the Mysterious Mother (1768), are now all but for- gotten. The Castle of Otranto, purporting to be a story translated by William Marshal, gent., from the original Italian of Onuphrio Muralto, canon of the church of St Nicholas at Otranto, was often reprinted in England, and was translated into both French and Italian. By Sir Walter Scott it was lauded to the skies for its power in raising the passions of fear and pity, but from Hazlitt it met with intense condemnation; its real importance, however, lies in the fact that it started the romantic revival. The Mysterious Mother, a tragedy too horrible for representation on any stage, was never intended for performance in public, and only fifty copies of it were printed at Strawberry Hill. By Byron, who, like Horace Walpole, affected extreme liberalism, and like him never forgot that he was born within the purple, this tragedy was pronounced " of the highest order." Several of Walpole's antiquarian works merit high praise. The volume of Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third (1760), one of the earliest attempts to rehabib'tate a character previously stamped with infamy, showed acuteness and research. These doubts provoked several answers, which are criticized in a supplement edited by Dr E. C. Hawtrey for the Philobiblon Society (1854). A work of more lasting reputation, which has retained its vitality for more than a century, is entitled Anecdotes of Painting in England, with some Account of the Principal Artists; collected by George Vertue, and now digested and published from his original manuscripts by Horace Walpole (4 vols., 1762— 1771). Its value to art students and to admirers of biographical literature demanded its frequent reproduction, and it was re- edited with additions by the Rev. James Dallaway in five volumes (1826-1828), and then again was revised and edited by R. N. Wornum in 1849. A cognate volume, also based on the materials of Vertue, is entitled the Catalogue of Engravers Born and Resident in England (1763), which, like its more famous predecessor, often passed through the press. On the Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of England (1758) Walpole spent many hours of toilsome research. The best edition is that which appeared in five volumes, in 1806, under the competent editorship of Thomas Park, who carefully verified and diligently augmented the labours of the original author. As a senator himself, or as a private person following at a distance the combats of St Stephen's, Walpole recorded in a diary the chief incidents in English politics. For twenty-seven years he studied, a silent spectator for the most part, the characters of the chief personages who trod the stage of politics, and when he quitted the scene he retained the acquaintance of many of the chief actors. If he was sometimes prejudiced, he rarely distorted the acts of those whom he disliked; and his prejudices, which lie on the surface, were mainly against those whom he considered traitors to his father. These diaries extend from 1750 to 1783, and cover a period of momentous importance in the annals of the national history. The Memoirs of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George II. was edited by Lord Holland (1846); its successor, Memoirs of the Reign of King George III., was published under the editorial care of Sir Denis Le Marchant (4 vols., 1845), and re-edited in 1894 by Mr G. F. Russell Barker; the last volumes of the series, Journal of the Reign of George III. from 1771 to 1783, were edited and illustrated by John Doran (2 vols., 1859), and were WALPOLE, SIR S.— WALPURGIS edited with an introduction by A. F. Steuart (London, 1909). To these works should be added the Reminiscences (2 vols., 1819), which Walpole wrote in 1788 for the gratification of the Misses Berry. These labours would in themselves have rendered the name of Ho/ace Walpole famous for all time, but his de- lightful Letters are the crowning glory of his life. His corre- spondents were numerous and widespread, but the chief of them were William Cole (1714-1782), the clerical antiquary of Milton; Robert Jephson, the dramatist; William Mason, the poet; Lord Hertford during his embassy in Paris; the countess of Ossory; Lord Harcourt; George Montagu, his friend at Eton; Henry Seymour Conway (1721-1795) and Sir Horace Mann. With most of these friends he quarrelled, but the friendship of the last two, in the former case through genuine liking, and in the latter through his fortunate absence from England, was never interrupted. The Letters were published at different dates, but the standard collection is that by Mrs Paget Toynbee (1903- 1905), and to it should be added the volumes of the letters addressed to Walpole by His old friend Madame du Deffand (4 vols., 1810). Dr Doran's publication, Mann and Manners at the Court of Florence (1876), is founded on the epistles sent in return to Walpole by the envoy-extraordinary. Other works relating to him are Horace Walpole and his World, by L. B. Seeley (1884); Horace Walpole, a memoir by Austin Dobson (1890 and 1893); Horace Walpole and the Strawberry Hill Press, by M. A. Havens (1901). Walpole has been called " the best letter-writer in the English language "; and few indeed are the names which can compare with his. In these compositions his very foibles are penned for our amusement, and his love of trifles — for, in the words of another Horace, he was ever " nescio quid meditans nugarum et totus in illis " — ministers to our instruction. To these friends he communicated every fashionable scandal, every social event, and the details of every political struggle in English life. The politicians and the courtiers of his day were more akin to his character than were the chief authors of his age, and the weakness of his intellectual perceptions stands out most prominently in his estimates of such writers as Johnson and Goldsmith, Gibbon and Hume. On many occasions he displayed great liberality of disposition, and he bitterly deplored for the rest of his days his neglect of the unhappy Chatterton. Chatter- ton wrote to Walpole in 1769, sending some prose and verse fragments and offering to place information on English art in Walpole's hands. Encouraged by a kindly reply, Chatterton appealed for help. Walpole made inquiries and came to the conclusion that he was an imposter. He finally returned the manuscripts in his possession, and took no notice of subsequent letters from Chatterton. Abundant information about Horace Walpole will be found in the Memoirs of him and of his contemporaries edited by Eliot Warburton (1851), J. H. Jasse's George Selwyn and his Contemporaries (4 vols., 1843-1844) and the extracts from the journals and correspondence of Miss Berry (3 vols., 1866); and it would be unpardonable to omit mention of Macaulay's sketch of Walpole's life and character. (W. P. C.) WALPOLE, SIR SPENCER (1839-1907), English historian and civil servant, was born on the 6th of February 1839. He came of the younger branch of the family of the famous Whig prime minister, being descended from his brother, the ist lord Walpole of Wolterton. He was the son of the latter's great-grandson, the Right Hon. Spencer Horatio Walpole (1807-1898), thrice home secretary under Lord Derby, and through his mother was grandson of Spencer Perceval, the Tory prime minister who was murdered in the House of Commons. He was educated at Eton, and from 1858 to 1867 was a clerk in the War Office, then be- coming'an inspector of fisheries. In 1882 he was made lieutenant- governor of the Isle of Man, and from 1893 to 1899 he was secretary to the Post Office. In 1898 he was created K.C.B. Although well known as a most efficient public servant, and in private life as the most amiable of men, Sir Spencer Walpole's real title to remembrance is as an historian. His family con- nexions gave him a natural bent to the study of public affairs, and their mingling of Whig and Tory in politics contributed, no doubt, to that quality of judicious balance — inclining, however, to the Whig or moderate Liberal side — which, together with his sanity and accuracy, is so characteristic of his writings. His principal work, the History of England from 1815 (1878-1886), in six volumes, was carried down to 1858, and was continued in his History of Twenty-Five Years (1904). Among his other publications come his lives of Spencer Perceval (1894) and Lord John Russell (1889), and a volume of valuable Studies in Bio- graphy (1906); and he wrote the section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY, dealing in detail with the reign of Queen Victoria, for the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He died on the 7th of July 1907. WALPOLE OF WOLTERTON, HORATIO, IST BARON (1678- 1757), English diplomatist, was a son of Robert Walpole of Houghton, Norfolk, and a younger brother of the great Sir Robert Walpole. The Walpoles owned land in Norfolk in the 1 2th century and took their name from Walpole, a village in the county. An early member of the family was Ralph de Walpole, bishop of Norwich from 1288 to 1299, and bishop of Ely from 1299 until his death on the 2oth of March 1302. Among its later members were three brothers, Edward (1560-1637), Richard (1564-1607) and Michael (i57o-c. 1624), all members of the Society of Jesus. Another Jesuit in the family was Henry Walpole (1558-1595), who wrote An Epitaph of the life and death of the most famous dcrk and virtuous priest Edmund Campion. After an adventurous and courageous career in the service of the order, he was arrested on landing in England, was tortured and then put to death on the I7th of April 1595.* Born at Houghton on the 8th of December 1678 and educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, Horatio Walpole became a fellow of King's and entered parliament in 1702, remaining a member for fifty-four years. In 1715, when his brother, Sir Robert, became first lord of the treasury, he was made secretary to the treasury, and in 1716, having already had some experience of the kind, he went on a diplomatic mission to The Hague. He left office with his brother in 1717, but he was soon in harness again, becoming secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1720 and secretary to the treasury a second time in 1721. In 1722 he was again at The Hague, and in 1723 he went to Paris, where in the following year he was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary. He got on intimate terms with Fleury and seconded his brother in his efforts to maintain friendly relations with France; he represented Great Britain at the congress of Soissons and helped to conclude the treaty of Seville (November 1729). He left Paris in 1730 and in 1734 went to represent his country at The Hague, where he remained until 1740, using all his influence in the cause of European peace. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742 Horatio defended his conduct in the House of Commons and also in a pamphlet, The Interest of Great Britain steadily pursued. Later he wrote an Apology, dealing with his own conduct from 1715 to 1739, and an Answer to the latter part of Lord Bolingbroke' s letters on the study of history (printed 1763). In 1756 he was created Baron Walpole of Wolterton, this being his Norfolk seat, and he died on the sth of February 1757. His eldest son, Horatio, the 2nd baron (1723- 1809), was created earl of Orford in 1806, and one of his sons was Major-General George Walpole (1758-1835), under-secretary for* foreign affairs in 1806. See W. Coxe, Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole (2nd ed., 1808); the same writer, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (1816) ; and Charles, comte de Baillon, Lord Walpole a la cour de France (1867). WALPURGIS (WALPURGA or WALBTJRGA),* ST (d. c. 780), English missionary to Germany, was born in Sussex at the beginning of the Sth century. She was the sister of Willibald, the first bishop of Eichstatt in Bavaria, and Wunnibald, first abbot of Heidenheim. Her father, Richard, is thought to have been a son of Hlothere, gth king of Kent; her mother, Winna or Wuna, a sister of St Boniface. At the instance of Boniface and Willibald she went about 750 with some other nuns to found 1 The Letters of Henry Walpole, S.J., from the original manuscripts at Stonyhurst College, were edited by the Rev. Augustus Jessopp for private circulation (1873). See the Rev. A. Jessopp, One Generation of a Norfolk House (1878). 1 French forms of the name are Gualbourg, Falbourg, Vaubourg and Avougourg. WALRAS— WALRUS 291 religious houses in Germany. Her first settlement was at Bischofsheim in the diocese of Mainz, and two years later (754) she became abbess of the Benedictine nunnery at Heidenheim in the diocese of Eichstatt. On the death of Wunnibald in 760 she succeeded him in his charge also, retaining the superintendence of both houses until her death. Her relics were translated to Eichstatt, where she was laid in a hollow rock, trom which exuded a kind of bituminous oil afterwards known as Walpurgis oil, and regarded as of miraculous efficacy against disease. It is still said to exude from the saint's bones (especially from October to February) and was chosen by Cardinal Newman as an example of a credible miracle. The cave became a place of pilgrimage, and a fine church was built over the spot. Walpurgis is commemorated at various times, but principally on the ist of May, her day taking the place of an earlier heathen festival which was characterized by various rites marking the beginning of summer. She is regarded as the protectress against magic arts (cf. the Walpurgis- Nacht dance in Goethe's Faust). In art she is represented with a crozier, and bearing in her hand a flask of balsam. Her life was written by the presbyter Wolfhard and dedicated to Erkenbald, bishop of Eichstatt (884-916). See the BoUandist Ada sanctorum, vol. lii. February 25. On Walpurgis, Willibald and Wunnibald see G. F. Browne, Boniface of Creation and his Com- panions (London, 1910), vii. WALRAS, MARIE ESPRIT LEON (1834-1910), French economist, was born at Evreux in 1834. From 1866 to 1868 he edited a journal called Le Travail, to which he contributed many valuable sociological articles. In 1870 he was appointed professor of political economy at Lausanne, a post which he retained until his retirement in 1892. He died on the 4th of January 1910. Walras is best known for his mathematical treatment of economics, and the extreme care he has shown in his works in distinguishing theory and practice. His most important works are Elements d 'economic politique pure (1874- 1877) and Theorie mathematique de la richesse sociale (1883). Of his many valuable papers contributed to various periodicals a good bibliography will be found in the Diet. Pol. Econ. iii. 654. See biographical notice in Economic Journal (March, 1910) by Vilfredo Pareto, his successor in the chair of political economy at Lausanne. WALRUS, or MORSE (Odobaenus rosmarus), a large marine mammal allied to the seals, representing a family by itself. The former word is a modification of the Scandinavian vallross or hvalros (" whale-horse "), the latter an adaptation of the Russian name for the animal. A full-grown male walrus measures from 10 to ii ft. from the nose to the end of the short tail, and is a heavy, bulky animal, especially thick about the shoulders. The head is rounded, the eyes are rather small, and there are no external ears. The muzzle is short and broad, with, on each side, a group of stiff, bristly whiskers, which become stouter and shorter in old animals. The tail scarcely projects beyond the skin. The fore-limbs are free only from the elbow; the fore- flipper is broad, flat and webbed, the five digits being of nearly equal length, but the first slightly the longest. Each digit has a small flattened nail, situated on the inner surface at a con- siderable distance from the end. The hind-limbs are enclosed in the skin of the body, almost to the heel. The free portion when expanded is fan-shaped, the two outer toes (first and fifth) being the longest, especially the latter. Flaps of skin project considerably beyond the bones of the toes. The nails of the first and fifth toes are minute and flattened; those of the second, third and fourth elongated, sub-compressed and pointed. The soles of both fore and hind feet are bare, rough and warty. The surface of the skin generally is covered with short, adpressed hair of a light yellowish-brown colour, which, on the under parts of the body and base of the flippers, passes into dark reddish-brown or chestnut. In old animals the hair becomes more scanty, sometimes almost disappearing, and the skin shows evidence of the rough life and pugnacious habits of the animal in the scars with which it is usually covered. It is everywhere more or less wrinkled, especially over the shoulders, where it is thrown into deep and heavy folds. One of the most striking characteristics of the walrus is the pair of tusks which descend almost directly downwards from the upper jaw, sometimes attaining a length of 20 in. or more. In the female they are as long or sometimes longer than in the male, but less massive. In the young of the first year they are not visible. These tusks correspond to the canine teeth of other mammals. All the other teeth, including the lower canines, are much alike — small, simple and one-rooted, and with crowns, rounded at first, but wearing to a flat or concave surface. Many of the teeth are lost early, or remain through life in a rudimentary state concealed beneath the gum. The tusks are formidable weapons of defence, but their principal use seems to be scraping and digging among sand and shingle for the molluscs and crus- taceans on which the walrus feeds. They are said also to aid in climbing up the slippery rocks and ledges of ice on which so much of the animal's lite is passed. Walruses are more or less gregarious in their habits, being met with generally in companies or herds of various sizes. They are only found near the coast or on large masses of floating ice, and rarely far out in the open sea; and, though often moving from one part of their feeding-ground to another, have no regular migrations. Their young are bora between April and June, The Atlantic Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus). usually but one at a time, never more than two. Their strong affection for their young, and their sympathy for each other in danger, have been noticed by all who have had the opportunity of observing them in their haunts. When one is wounded the whole herd usually join in defence. Although harmless and in- offensive when not molested, they exhibit considerable fierceness when attacked, using their tusks with tremendous effect either on human enemies who come into too close quarters or on polar bears, the only other adversary they can meet with in their own natural territory. The voice, a loud roaring, which can be heard at a great distance, is described by Dr Kane as " something between the mooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a mastiff, very round and full, with its bark or detached notes repeated rather quickly seven or nine times in succession." The principal food of the walrus consists of bivalve molluscs, especially Mya truncaia and Saxicava rugosa, two species very abundant in the Arctic regions, which it digs up from the mud and sand in which they lie buried at the bottom of the sea by means of its tusks. It crushes and removes the shells by the aid of its grinding teeth and tongue, and swallows only the soft parts of the animal. It also feeds on other molluscs, sand-worms, star- fishes and shrimps. Portions of various kinds of seaweed have been found in its stomach, but whether swallowed intentionally or not is doubtful. The commercial products of the walrus are its oil, hide (used to manufacture harness and sole-leather and twisted into tiller- ropes) and tusks. The ivory of the latter is, however, inferior in quality to that of the elephant. Its flesh forms an important article of food to the Eskimo and Chukchi. Of the coast tribes of the last-named people the walrus formed the chief means of support. 292 WALSALL— WALSH, PETER Walruses are confined to the northern circumpolar regions, extending apparently as far north as explorers have penetrated. On the Atlantic coast of America the Atlantic species was met with in the i6th century as low as the southern coast of Nova Scotia, and in the last century was common in the Gulf of St Lawrence and on the shores of Labrador. It still inhabits the coast round Hudson's Bay, Davis Strait and Greenland, where, however, its numbers are decreasing. It is not found on the Arctic coast of America between the 97th and 1 58th meridians. In Europe, occasional stragglers have reached the British Isles; and it was formerly abundant on the coasts of Finmark. It is rare in Iceland, but Spitzbergen, Novaia Zemblia and the western part of the north coast of Siberia are constant places of resort. The North Pacific, including both sides of Bering Strait, northern Kamchatka, Alaska and the Pribyloff Islands are also the haunts of numerous walruses, which are isolated from those of the North Atlantic by long stretches of coast in Siberia and North America where they do not occur. The Pacific walrus appears to be as large as, if not larger than, that of the Atlantic; its tusks are longer and more slender, and curved inwards; and the whiskers are smaller, and the muzzle relatively deeper and broader. These and certain other differences have led to its being considered specifically distinct, under the name of Odo- baenus obesus. Its habits appear to be similar to those of the Atlantic form. Though formerly found in immense herds, it is becoming scarce, as the methods of destruction used by American whalers are more certain than those of the Chukchi, to whom the walrus long afforded the principal means of subsistence. Fossil remains of walruses and closely allied animals have been found in the United States, and in England, Belgium and France, in deposits of late Tertiary age. (W. H. F.; R. L.*) WALSALL, a market town and municipal, county and parlia- mentary borough of Staffordshire, England, on the northern edge of the Black Country, and on a tributary stream of the Tame. Pop. (1891) 71,789; (1901) 86,430. It is 120^ m. N.W. from London by the London & North-Western railway, on which system it is a centre of several branches, and is served by the Birmingham-Wolverhampton branch of the Midland railway and by canals. The town, though of ancient foundation, is modern in appearance. The central part stands high on a ridge at the northward termination of which is the church of St Matthew, dating in part from the isth century, but almost wholly rebuilt. The council house and town hall was completed in 1905; there are two theatres, a free library and museum, and an institute of science and art. Recreation grounds include a picturesque arboretum, Reed's Wood and Palpey Park. Queen Mary's Schools are a foundation of 1554; here are be- lieved to have been educated John Hough (1651-1743), the presi- dent of Magdalen College, Oxford, whom James II. sought to eject from office, afterwards bishop of Oxford, Lichfield, and Worce- ster; and John, Lord Somers (1651-1716), Lord Keeper and Lord Chancellor of England. There are large charities, and Walsall was the scene of the charitable work of Sister Dora (Miss Pattison) whom a statue commemorates. Coal, limestone and ironstone are mined in the neighbourhood. The most important products are saddlery and leather-work, horses' bits and all metal harness fittings; there are iron and brass foundries, and locks, keys, bolts and other hardware are made, both in Walsall and at Bloxwich, a large industrial suburb. Three annual fairs are held. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 7480 acres. Walsall (Waleshales, Wahha.ll, Walsaler) is included in the list of lands given in 996 to the church of Wolverhampton, which, however, did not retain it long. It was granted by Henry II. to Herbert Ruffus, and Henry III. confirmed it to his grandson (1227). Later the manor passed to the Bassets and the Beau- champs, and Warwick the King-maker held it in right of his wife. Henry VIII. granted it (1538) to Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland. William Ruffus in the reign of John granted to the burgesses, in consideration of a fine of 1 2 marks silver and of a rent of i2' which come before him. In default of practical minister. knowledge, it would be as impossible for him to decide where garrisons should be stationed, what fortifications were necessary, what roads should be constructed, or how the lines of communication should be protected, as to frame a plan of campaign for the invasion of a hostile state. His foresight, his prevision of the accidents inevitable in war, would necessarily be far inferior to those of men who had spent their lives in applying strategical principles to concrete cases; and it is exceedingly unlikely that he would be as prolific of strategical expedients as those familiar with their employment. Nevertheless, a minister of war cannot divest himself of his responsibility for the conduct of military operations. In the first place, he is directly responsible that plans of campaign to meet every possible contingency are worked out in time of peace. In the second place, he is directly responsible that the advice on which he acts should be the best procurable. It is essential, therefore, that he should be capable of forming an independent opinion on the merits of the military projects which may be submitted to him, and also on the merits of those who have to execute them. Pitt knew enough of war and men to select Wolfe for the command in Canada. Canning and Castlereagh, in spite of the opposition of the king, sent Wellington, one of the youngest of the lieutenant-generals, to hold Portugal against the French. The French Directory had sufficient sense to accept Napoleon's project for the campaign of Italy in 1706. In the third place, strategy cannot move altogether untrammelled by politics and finance. But political and financial considerations may not present themselves in quite the same light to the soldier as to the statesman, and the latter is bound to make certain that they have received due attention. If, however, modifications are necessary, they should be made before the plan of campaign is finally approved; and in any case the purely military considerations should be most carefully weighed. It should be remembered that an unfavourable political situation is best redeemed by a decisive victory, while a reverse will do more to shake confidence in the Government than even the temporary surrender of some portion of the national domains. " Be sure before striking " and Reculer pour mieux sauter are both admirable maxims; but their practical application requires a thorough appreciation of the true principles of war, and a very large degree of moral courage, both in the soldier who suggests and in the statesman who approves. If, however, the soldier and the statesman are supported by an enlightened public, sufficiently acquainted with war to realize that patience is to be preferred to precipitation, that retreat, though inglorious, is not necessarily humiliating, their task is very considerably lightened. Nothing is more significant than a comparison between the Paris press in 1870 and the American Confederate press in 1864. In the one case, even after the disastrous results of the first encounters had proved the superior strength and readiness of the enemy, the French people, with all the heat of presumptuous ignorance, cried out for more battles, for an immediate offensive, for a desperate defence of the frontier provinces. So fierce was their clamour that both the generals and the government hesitated, until it was too late, to advise the retreat of Bazainc's army; and when that army had been cut off at Metz, the pressure of public opinion was so great that the last reserve of France was despatched to Sedan on one of the maddest enterprises ever undertaken by a civilized state. In 1864, on the other hand, while Lee in Virginia and Johnston in the west were retreating from position to position, and the huge hosts of the Union were gradually converging on the very heart of the Confederacy, the Southern press, aware that every backward step made the Federal task more difficult, had nothing but praise for the caution which controlled the movements of their armies. But the Southern press, in three crowded years of conflict, had learned something of war. In 1866 and 1870 the German press was so carefully muzzled that even had there been occasion it could have done nothing to prejudice public opinion. Thus both the sovereign and the generals were backed by the popular support that they so richly merited; but it may be remarked that the relations between the army and the government were char- acterized by a harmony which has been seldom seen. The old king, in his dual capacity as head of the state and commander- in-chief, had the last word to say, not only in the selection of the superior officers, but in approving every important operation. With an adviser like Moltke at his elbow, it might appear that these were mere matters of form. Moltke, however, assures us that the king was by no means a figurehead. Although most careful not to assert his authority in a way that would embarrass his chief of staff, and always ready to yield,his own judgment 3o8 WAR [GENERAL PRINCIPLES to sound reasons, he expressed, nevertheless, a perfectly inde- pendent opinion on every proposal placed before him, and on very many occasions made most useful suggestions. And at the same time, while systematically refraining from all inter- ference after military operations had once begun, he never permitted military considerations to override the demands of policy. In 1866, when it was manifestly of the first importance, from a military point of view, that the Prussian army should be concentrated in a position which would enable it to cross the border immediately war was declared, the political situation was so strained that it was even more important to prevent the enemy from setting foot at any single point on Prussian territory. The army, hi consequence, was dispersed instead of being con- centrated, and the ultimate offensive became a difficult and hazardous operation. It is true that the king was an able and experienced soldier. Nevertheless, the wise restraint he displayed in the course of two great campaigns, as well as the skill with which he adjusted conflicting factors, are an admirable example of judicious statesmanship. The duration of a campaign is largely affected by the deadly properties of modern firearms. It is true that the losses in battle are relatively less that in the days of Brown Bess and the smooth-bore cannon, and almost in- significant when compared with the fearful carnage wrought by sword and spear. The reason is simple. A battlefield in the old days, except at close quarters, was a comparatively safe locality, and the greater part of the troops engaged were seldom exposed for a long time together to a hot and continuous fire. To-day death has a far wider range, and the strain on the nerves is consequently far more severe. De- moralization, therefore, sets in at an earlier period, and it is more complete. When troops once realize their inferiority, they can no longer be depended on. It is not the losses they have actually suffered, but those that they expect to suffer, that affect them. Unless discipline and national spirit are of superior quality, unless the soldier is animated by something higher than the mere habit of mechanical obedience, panic, shirking and wholesale surrender will be the ordinary features of a campaign. These phenomena made themselves apparent, though in a less degree, as long ago as the American Civil War, when the weapon of the infantry was the muzzle-loading rifle, firing at most two rounds a minute, and when the projectiles of the artillery were hardly more destructive than the stone shot of Mons Meg. With the magazine rifle, machine guns, shrapnel and high explosives they have become more pronounced than even at Vionvilie or Plevna. "The retreat of the 38th (Prussian) Brigade," writes Captain Hoenig, an eye-witness of the former battle, " forms the most awful drama of the great war. It had lost 53 % of its strength, and the proportion of killed to wounded was as 3 to 4. Strong men collapsed inanimate. ... I saw men cry like children, others fell prone without a sound; in most the need of water thrust forth all other instincts; the body demanded its rights. ' Water, water,' was the only intelligible cry that broke from those moving phantoms. The enemy's lead poured like hail upon the wretched remnant of the brigade; yet they moved only slowly to the rear, their head bent in utter weariness; their features distorted under the thick dust that had gathered on faces dripping with sweat. The strain was beyond endurance. The soldier was no longer a receptive being; he was oblivious of everything, great or small. His comrades or his superiors he no longer recognized; and yet he was the same man who but a short time before had marched across the battlefield shouting his marching chorus. A few active squadrons, and not a man would have escaped ! Only he who had seen men in such circumstances, and observed their bearing, knows the dreadful imprint that their features leave upon the memory. Madness is there, the madness that arises from bodily exhaustion combined with the most abject terror. . . . I do not shrink," he adds, "from confessing that the fire of Mars-la-Tour affected my nerves for months." If such are the results of ill-success, a whole army might be reduced to the condition of the 38th Brigade in the first month of the campaign, and it is thus perfectly clear that some small mistake in conduct, some trifling deficiency in preparation, an ill-conceived order or a few hours' delay in bringing up a reinforcement may have the most terrible consequences. The importance, nay the necessity, that the people, as a governing body, should keep as watchful an eye on its armed forces and the national defences as on diplomacy or legislation is fully realized, naturally enough, only by those nations whose instincts of self-preservation, by reason of the configuration of their frontiers or their political situation, are strongly developed. Yet even to maritime empires, to Great Britain or indeed to the United States, an efficient army is of the first necessity. Their land frontiers are vulnerable. They may have ^"l 'aad to deal with rebellion, and a navy is not all-powerful, Torce."7 even for the defence of coasts and commerce. It can protect, but it cannot destroy. Without the help of an army, it can neither complete the rain of the enemy's fleet nor prevent its resuscitation. Without the help of an army it can hardly force a hostile power to ask for terms. Exhaustion is the object of its warfare; hut exhaustion, unless accelerated by crushing blows, is an exceedingly slow process. In the spring of 1861 the blockade was established in American waters along the coasts of the Southern Confederacy, and maintained with increasing stringency from month to month. Yet it was not till the spring of 1865 that the colours of the Union floated from the capitol of Richmond, and it was the army which placed them there. A state, then., which should rely on naval strength alone, could look forward to no other than a protracted war, and a protracted war between two great powers is antagonistic to the interests of the civilized world. With the nations armed to the teeth, and dominated to a greater or smaller extent by a militant spirit; with commerce and finance dependent for health and security on universal peace, foreign intervention is a mere question of time. Nor would public opinion, either in Great Britain or America, be content with a purely defensive policy, even if such policy were practic- able. Putting aside the tedium and the dangers of an intermin- able campaign, the national pride would never be brought to confess that it was incapable of the same resolute effort as much smaller communities. "An army, and a strong army," would be the general cry. Nor would such an army be difficult to create. Enormous numbers would not be needed. An army supported by an invincible navy possesses a strength which is out of all proportion to its size. Even to those who rely on the big bat- talions and huge fortresses, the amphibious power of a great maritime state, if intelligently directed, may be a most formidable menace; while to the state itself it is an extraordinary security. The history of Great Britain is one long illustration. Captain Mahan points .out that there are always dominant positions, outside the frontiers of a maritime state, which, in the interests of commerce, as well as of supremacy at sea, should never be allowed to pass into the possession of a powerful neighbour. Great Britain, always dependent for her prosperity on narrow seas, has long been familiar with the importance of the positions that command these waterways. In one respect at least her policy has been consistent. She has spared no effort to secure such positions for herself, or, if that has been impracticable, at least to draw their teeth. Gibraltar, Malta, St Lucia, Aden, Egypt, Cyprus are conspicuous instances; but above all stands Antwerp. In perhaps the most original passage of Alison's monumental work the constant influence of Antwerp on the destinies of the United Kingdom is vividly portrayed. " Nature has framed the Scheldt to be the rival of the Thames. Flowing throueh a country excelling even the midland counties of England in wealth and resources, adjoining cities equal to any in Europe in arts and commerce; the artery at once of Flanders and Holland, of Brabant and Luxemburg, it is fitted to be the great organ of communication between the fertile fields and rich manufacturing towns of the Low Countries and other maritime states of the world." Antwerp, moreover, the key of the great estuary, is eminently adapted for the establishment of a vast naval arsenal, such as it became under Philip II. of GENERAL PRINCIPLES] WAR 309 Spain and again under the first Napoleon. " It is the point," continues the historian, " from which in every age the independ- ence of these kingdoms has been seriously menaced. Sensible of her danger, it had been the fixed policy of Great Britain for centuries to prevent this formidable outwork from falling into the hands of her enemies, and the best days of her history are chiefly occupied with the struggle to ward off such a disaster." In ascribing, however, every great war in which Great Britain has been engaged to this cause alone he has gone too far. The security of India has been a motive of equal strength. Never- theless, it was to protect Antwerp from the French that Charles II. sided with the Dutch in 1670; that Anne declared war on Louis XIV. in 1704; that Chatham supported Prussia in 1742; that Pitt, fifty years later, took up arms against the Revolution. The trophies of the British army in the great war with France were characteristic of the amphibious power. The troops took inter more battleships than colours, and almost as many action* ot naval arsenals as land fortresses. Many were the naval and blows they struck at the maritime strength of France imtary an(j ner anjes- ^ut had the expedition which landed " on the Isle of Walcheren in 1809 been as vigorously conducted as it was wisely conceived, it would have hit Napoleon far harder than even the seizure of the Danish fleet at Copen- hagen. The great dockyard that the emperor had constructed on the Scheldt held the nucleus of a powerful fleet. Eight line- of-battle ships and ten frigates lay in mid-channel. Twenty vessels of different classes were on the slips, and in the magazines and storehouses had been accumulated sufficient material to equip all these and twenty more. The" destruction of Antwerp — and for a full week it was at Lord Chatham's mercy — would have freed scores of British frigates to protect British commerce; Wellington, in his great campaign of 1813, could not have had to complain that, for the first time, the communication by sea of a British army was insecure; the Americans, in the war which broke out in 1812, would have been more vigorously opposed; and Napoleon, who, while Antwerp was his, never altogether abandoned hope of overmastering Great Britain on her own element, might, on his own confession, have relinquished the useless struggle with the great sea power. The expedition failed, and failed disastrously. But for all that, fulfilling as it did the great maxim that the naval strength of the enemy should be the first objective of the forces of the maritime power, both by land and sea, it was a strategical stroke of the highest order. The predominant part played by the army under Wellington in Spain and Belgium has tended to obscure the principle that governed its employment in the war of 1793-1815. The army, in the opinion of the country, was first and foremost the auxiliary of the fleet; and only when the naval strength of the enemy had been destroyed was it used in the ordinary manner, i.e. in the invasion of the hostile territory and in lending aid to the forces of confederate powers. Events proved that these principles were absolutely sound. It was not in the narrow seas alone that the army rendered good service to the navy. Depriving France of her colonies, occupying her ports in foreign waters, ousting her from commanding posts along the trade routes, it contributed not only to her exhaustion, but to the protection of British commerce and to the permanent establishment of maritime supremacy. Few of these operations are of sufficient magnitude to attract much notice from the ordinary historian, yet it is impossible to overrate their effect. To the possession of the dominant positions that were captured by the army, Great Britain, in no small degree, is indebted for the present security of her vast dominions. The keynote of the fierce struggle with the French Empire was the possession of India. Before he became First Consul, Napoleon had realized that India was the throne of Asia; that whoever should sit on that throne, master of the commerce of the East, of the richest and most natural market for the products of the West, and of the hardiest and most en- lightened nations of the golden hemisphere, would be master of more than half the globe. But his prescience was not surer than the instinct of the British people. Vague and shadowy indeed were their dreams of empire, yet the presentiment of future greatness, based on the foothold they had already gained in Hindustan, seems always to have controlled the national policy. They knew as well as Napoleon that Malta and Egypt, to use his own phrase, were merely the outworks of their strong- hold in the East; and that if those outworks fell into the hands of France, a great army of warlike Mahommedans, led by French generals, stiffened by a French army corps, and gathering impetus from the accession of every tribe it passed through, might march unopposed across the Indus. So, from first to last, the least threat against Egypt and Malta sufficed to awaken their apprehensions; and in their knowledge that India was the ultimate objective of all his schemes is to be found the explanation of the stubbornness with which they fought Napoleon. It is not to be denied that in thwarting the ambition of their mighty rival, or perhaps in furthering their own, the navy was the chief instrument; but in thrusting the French from Egypt, in adding Ceylon, Mauritius and Cape Colony to the outworks, the army, small as it was then, compared with the great hosts of the Continent, did much both for the making and the security of the British Empire. But the scope of the military operations of a maritime state is by no means limited to the capture of colonies, naval arsenals and coaling-stations. Timely diversions, by attracting a large portion of the enemy's fighting strength on the mainland, may give valuable aid to the armies of an ally. The Peninsular War is a conspicuous example. According to Napoleon, the necessity of maintaining his grip on Spain deprived him of 180,000 good soldiers during the disastrous campaign of 1813; and those soldiers, who would have made Dresden a decisive instead of a barren victory, were held fast by Wellington. Again, it was the news of Vittoria that made it useless for the emperor to propose terms of peace, and so escape from the coils that strangled him at Leipzig. Nor is the reinforcement supplied by a small army based upon the sea to be despised. In 1793 a British contingent under the duke of York formed part of the allied forces which, had the British government forborne to interfere, would in all probability have captured Paris. Twenty-two years later, under wiser auspices, another contingent, although numbering no more than 30,000 men, took a decisive part in the war of nations, and the blunders of the older generation were more' than repaired at Waterloo. Nevertheless, the strength of the amphibious power has been more effectively displayed than in the campaign of 1815. Intervention at the most critical period of a war has produced greater results than the provision of a contingent at the outset. In 1781 the disembarkation of a French army at Yorktown, Virginia, rendered certain the independence of the United States; and in 1878, when the Russian invaders were already in sight of Constantinople, the arrival of the British fleet in the Dardanelles, following the mobilization of an ex- peditionary force, at once arrested their further progress. Had the British Cabinet of 1807 realized the preponderating strength which even a small army, if rightly used, draws from the com- mand of the sea, the campaign of Eylau would in all probability have been as disastrous to Napoleon as that of Leipzig. The presence of 20,000 men at the great battle would have surely turned the scale in favour of the allies. Yet, although the men were available, although a few months later 27,000 were assembled in the Baltic for the coercion of Denmark, his Majesty's ministers, forgetful of Marlborough's glories, were so imbued with the idea that the British army was too insignificant to take pan in a Continental war, that the opportunity was let slip. It is a sufficiently remarkable fact that the successive governments of that era, although they realized very clearly that the first duty of the army was to support the operations and complete the triumph of the navy, never seemed to have grasped the principles which should have controlled its use when the com- mand of the sea had been attained. The march of the Allies on Paris in 1793 was brought to a standstill because the British Cabinet considered that the contingent would be better em- ployed in besieging Dunkirk. After the failure of the expedition 310 WAR [GENERAL PRINCIPLES under Sir John Moore to achieve the impossible, and in con- junction with the Spaniards drive the French from the Peninsula, the ministry abandoned all idea of intervention on the main theatre, although, as we have seen, had such intervention been well timed, it might easily have changed the current of events. It is true that when the main theatre is occupied by huge armies, as was the case during the whole of the Napoleonic conflict, the value of a comparatively small force, however sudden its appear- ance, is by no means easily realized. For instance, it would seem at first sight that a British contingent of 100,000 men would be almost lost amid the millions that would take part in the decisive conflicts of a European war. It is remembered, however, that with enormous masses of men the difficulties of supply are very great. Steam has done much to lighten them, and the numbers at the point of collision will be far greater than it was possible to assemble in the days of Napoleon. Nevertheless, the lines of communication, especially railways, will require more men to guard them than heretofore, for they are far more vulnerable. The longer, therefore, the lines of communication, the smaller the numbers on the field of battle. Moreover, the great hosts of the Continent, not only for convenience of supply, but for con- venience of manoeuvre, will deploy several armies on a broad front. At some one point, then, a reinforcement of even one or two army corps might turn the scale. The objections, however, to intervention of this character are numerous. Between allied armies, especially if one is far larger than the other, there is certain to be friction, Weakness as was the case in the Crimea; and the question of "armies. supply is not easily settled. If, however, the decisive point is near the coast, as in the campaign of Eylau, the army of the maritime power, possessing its own base, can render effective aid without embarrassment either to itself or its ally. But, under all other conditions, independent opera- tions of a secondary nature are distinctly to be preferred. Such was clearly the opinion of the British ministries during the war with France. They recognized that by giving vitality and backbone to popular risings even a small army might create useful diversions. But their idea of a diversion was a series of isolated efforts, made at far-distant points; and even so late as 1813 they were oblivious of the self-evident facts that for a diversion to be really effective it must be made in such strength as to constitute a serious threat, and that it should be directed against some vital point. Fortunately for Europe, Wellington foresaw that the permanent occupation of Portugal, and the presence of a British army in close proximity to the southern frontier of France, would be a menace which it would be im- possible for Napoleon to disregard. Yet with what difficulty he induced the government to adopt his views, and how luke- warm was their support, is exposed in the many volumes of his despatches. In all history there are few more glaring instances of incompetent statesmanship than the proposal of the cabinet of 1813, at the moment Wellington was contemplating the campaign that was to expel the French from Spain, and was asking for more men, more money and more material, to detach a large force in the vague hope of exciting a revolution in southern Italy. Whether the improvement in communications, as well as the increase in the size of armies, have not greatly weakened the value of diversions on the mainland, it is difficult to say. Railways may enable the defender to concentrate his forces so rapidly that even the landing may be opposed, and with the enormous numbers at his command he may well be able to spare a considerable force from the main theatre. It is possible to conceive that a small army, even if it completed its embarka- tion, might find itself shut up in an entrenched position by a force little larger than itself. If, however, the diversion were made at a crisis of the campaign, the sudden appearance of a new army might be decisive of the war. Otherwise, the army would probably do more good if it refrained from landing and confined itself to threats. So long as it was hidden by the horizon, it would be invested with the terrors of the unknown. The enemy's knowledge that at any moment a well-equipped force, supported by a powerful fleet, might suddenly descend upon some prosperous port or important arsenal, would compel him to maintain large garrisons along the whole seaboard. The strength of these garrisons, in all probability, would be much larger in the aggregate than the force which menaced them, and the latter would thus exercise a far greater disintegrat- ing effect on the enemy's armed strength than by adding a few thousand men to the hosts of its ally. On theatres of war which are only thinly populated or half civilized, a descent from the sea might easily produce a complete change in the situation. The occupation of Plevna, in close proximity to the Russian line of communications and to the single bridge across the Danube, brought the Russian advance through Bulgaria to a sudden stop, and relieved all pressure on Turkey proper. The deadlock which ensued is suggestive. Let us suppose that the invaders' line of communications had been a railway, and Plevna situated near the coast. Supplied from the sea, with unlimited facilities for reinforcement, Osman's ring of earthworks would have been absolutely impregnable; and had the ring been pushed so far inland as to secure scope for offensive action, the Russians, in all human probability, would never have crossed the Balkans. It is perfectly possible, then, that if an army lands within reach of a precarious line of communications it may compel the enemy, although far superior in numbers, to renounce all enterprises against distant points. Railways in war are good servants, but bad masters. In some respects they are far superior to a network of highroads. Two trains will supply the daily needs of 100,000 men several hundred miles distant from their base. But the road-bed is easily destroyed; the convoy system is impractic- able, and the regular course of traffic is susceptible to the slightest threat. So, when railways become the principal factors, as when an army finds itself dependent on a long and exposed line, a powerful aggressive combination becomes a matter of the utmost difficulty. The whole attention of the commander will be given to the security of his supplies, and even if he is not thrown on the defensive by the enemy's activity, his liberty of action will be exceedingly circumscribed. The relative values of the different kinds of communications have a most important bearing on the art of war. A great waterway, such as the Nile, the Mississippi, the Danube or the Ganges, is safer and surer than a railway. But railways are far more numerous than navigable rivers, and a series of parallel lines is thus a better means of supplying a large army. But neither railways nor waterways as lines of supply or of operation are r*e seaas to be compared with the sea. Before the war of 1870, for instance, a study of the French railway system enabled Moltke to forecast, with absolute accuracy, the direction of Napoleon's advance, the distribution of his forces, and the extent of front that they would occupy. In a war, therefore, between two Continental powers, the staff on either side would have no difficulty in determining the line of attack; the locality for concentration would be at once made clear; and as the carrying capacity of all railways is well known, the numbers that would be encountered at any one point along the front might be easily calculated. But if the enemy's army, supported by a powerful fleet, were to advance across blue water, the case would be very different. Its movements would be veiled in the most complete secrecy. It would be impossible to do more than guess at its objective. It might strike at any point along hundreds of miles of coast, or it might shift from one point to another, perhaps far distant, in absolute security; it could bewilder the enemy with feints, and cause him to disperse his forces over the whole seaboard. Surprise and freedom of movement are pre-eminently the weapons of the power that commands the sea. Witness the War of Secession. McClellan, in 1862, by the adroit transfer of 120,000 men down the reaches of Chesapeake to the Virginia Peninsula, had Richmond at his mercy. Grant in 1864, by continually changing his line of communication from one river to another, made more progress in a month than his predecessors had done in two years. Sher- man's great march across Georgia would have been impossible had not a Federal fleet been ready to receive him when he reached GENERAL PRINCIPLES] WAR phiblous the Atlantic; and, throughout the war, the knowledge that at any moment a vast fleet of transports might appear off any one of the ports on their enormous seaboard prevented the Con- federates, notwithstanding that the garrisons were reduced to a most dangerous extent, from massing their full strength for a decisive effort. The power of striking like " a bolt from the blue " is of the very greatest value in war. Surprise was the foundation of almost all the grand strategical combinations of the past, as it will be of those to come. The first thought and the last of the great general is to outwit his adversary, and to strike where he is least expected. And the measures he adopts 1.11. .1 i • • i to accomplish his purpose are not easily divined. What soldier in Europe anticipated Marlborough's march to the Danube and Blenheim field ? What other brain besides Napoleon's dreamt of the passage of the Alps before Marengo? Was there a single general of Prussia before Jena who foresaw that the French would march north from the Bavarian frontier, uncovering the roads to the Rhine, and risking utter destruction in case of defeat? Who believed, in the early June of 1815, that an army 130,000 strong would dare to invade a country defended by two armies that mustered together over 200,000 unbeaten soldiers? To what Federal soldier did it occur, on the morning of Chancellorsville, that Lee, confronted by 90,000 Northerners, would detach the half of his own small force of 50,000 to attack his enemy in flank and rear? The very course which appeared to ordinary minds so beset by difficulties and dangers as to be outside the pale of practical strategy has, over and over again, been that which led to decisive victory; and if there is one lesson more valuable than another as regards national defence, it is that preparation cannot be too careful or precautions overdone. Overwhelming numbers, adequately trained, commanded and equipped, are the only means of ensuring absolute security. But a numerical preponder- ance, either by land or sea. over all possible hostile combina- tions, is unattainable, and in default the only sound policy is to take timely and ample precautions against all enterprises which are even remotely possible. There is nothing more to be dreaded in war than the combined labours of a thoroughly well-trained general staff, except the intellect and audacity of a great strategist. The ordinary mind, even if it does not snr'nk from great danger, sees no way of surmount- strattgy. ing great difficulties; and any operation which involves both vast dangers and vast difficulties it scoffs at as chimerical. The heaven-born strategist, on the other hand, " takes no counsel of his fears." Knowing that success is seldom to be won without incurring risks, he is always greatly daring; and by the skill with which he overcomes all obstacles, and even uses them, as Hannibal and Napoleon did the Alps, and as some great captain of the future may use the sea, to further his purpose and surprise his adversary, he shows his superiority to the common herd. It is repeated ad nauseam that in consequence of the vastly improved means of transmitting information, surprise on a large scale is no longer to be feared. It is to be remembered, however, that the means of concentrating troops and ships are far speedier than of old; that false informa- tion can be far more readily distributed; and also, that if there is one thing more certain than another, it is that the great strategist, surprise being still the most deadly of all weapons, will devote the whole force of his intellect to the problem of bringing it about. Nor is it to be disguised that amphibious power is a far more terrible weapon than even in the days when it crushed Napoleon. Commerce has increased by leaps and bounds, and it is no longer confined within territorial limits. The arteries vital to the existence of civilized communities stretch over every ocean. States which in 1800 rated their maritime traffic at a few hundred thousand pounds sterling, value it now at many millions. Others, whose flags, fifty years ago, were almost unknown on the high seas, possess to-day great fleets of merchantmen; and those who fifty years ago were self-dependent, rely in great part, for the maintenance of their prosperity, on their intercourse with distant continents. There is no great power, and few small ones, to whom the loss of its sea-borne trade would be other than a most deadly blow; and there is no great power that is not far more vulnerable than when Great Britain, single-handed, held her own against a European coalition. Colonies, commercial ports, dockyards, coaling-stations are so many hostages to fortune. Year by year they become more numerous. Year by year, as commercial rivalry grows more acute, they become more intimately bound up with the prosperity and prestige of their mother-countries. And to what end? To exist as pledges of peace, auspicia melioris aevi, or to fall an easy prey to the power that is supreme at sea and can strike hard on land ? Even the baldest and briefest discussion of the vast subject of war would be incomplete without some reference to the relative merits of professional and unprofessional soldiers. Voluntary service still holds its ground in the Anglo-Saxon states; and both the United Kingdom «*>»«/ and America will have to a great extent to rely, in tno'"- case of conflicts which tax all their resources, on troops who have neither the practice nor the discipline of their standing armies. What will be the value of these amateurs when pitted against regulars? Putting the question of moral aside, as leading us too far afield, it is clear that the individual amateur must depend upon his training. If, like the majority of the Boers, he is a good shot, a good scout, a good skirmisher and, if mounted, a good horseman and horsemaster, he is undeniably a most useful soldier. But whether amateurs en masse, that is, when organized into battalions and brigades, are thoroughly trustworthy, depends on the quality of their officers. With good officers, and a certain amount of previous training, there is no reason why bodies of infantry, artillery or mounted infantry, composed entirely of unprofessional soldiers, should not do excellent service in the field. Where they are likely to fail is in discipline; and it would appear that at the beginning of a campaign they are more liable to panic, less resolute in attack, less enduring under heavy losses and great hardships, and much slower in manoeuvre than the professionals. To a certain extent this is inevitable; and it has a most important bearing on the value of the citizen soldier, for the beginning of a campaign is a most critical phase. In short, troops who are only half-trained or have been hastily raised may be a positive danger to the army to which they belong; and the shelter of stout earthworks is the only place for them. Yet the presence of a certain number of experienced fighting men in the ranks may make all the difference; and, in any case, it is probable that battalions com- posed of unprofessional soldiers, the free citizens of a free and prosperous state, are little if at all inferior, as fighting units, to battalions composed of conscripts. But it is to be understood that the men possess the qualifications referred to above, that the officers are accustomed to command and have a good practical knowledge of their duties in the field. A mob, however patriotic, carrying small-bore rifles is no more likely to hold its own to-day against well-led regulars than did the mob carrying pikes and flint-locks in the past. A small body of resolute civilians, well- armed and skilful marksmen, might easily on their own ground defeat the same number of trained soldiers, especially if the latter were badly led. But in a war of masses, the power of combination, of rapid and orderly movement, and of tactical manoeuvring is bound to tell. (G.F.R.H.) LITERATURE. — On the general principles of War, see C. v. Clause- witz, Vom Kriege (Eng. trans. On War, new ed. 1906) ; C. v. B(inder)- K(rieglstein), Gtist and Staff im Kriege (1895): Ardant du Picq, Etudes sur le combat; W. Bagehot, Physics and Politics; G. le Bon, Psychologie des faults and Psychologie de I' education; F. N. Maude, War and the World's Life (1907); Berndt, Zahl im Kriege (statistical tables); Biottot, Les Grands Inspires — Jeanne d'Arc; C. W. C. Oman, Art of War; M. Jahns, Gesch. der KriegsvnssenschafUn; v. der Goltz, Volk in Waff en (Eng. trans., Nation in Arms); A. T. Mahan, Influence of Sea Power on History; C. E. Callwell, Military Opera- tions and Maritime Preponderance; P.H. Colomb, Naval Warfare; Stewart Murray, Future Peace of the Anglo-Saxons; H. Spenser Wilkinson, The Brain of an Army, War and Policy, &c. ; and works mentioned in the bibliography to the article ARMY. 312 WAR [LAWS OF WAR II. LAWS op WAR The law of war, in strict usage, does not apply to all armed conflicts, but only to such conflicts as, by the usage of states, CivHwar constitute war- War exists when the organized armed as atet'n- forces of one state are opposed to the organized armed guished forces of another state. War also exists within the lrom bounds of a single state when organized armed forces, rebellion. ^ sufficient power to make the issue doubtful, place themselves in opposition to the armed forces of the existing government. If the disaffected forces are in a state of flagrant inferiority in comparison with those of the existing govern- ment there is not a state of war but of rebellion. The combatants in civil war are entitled to treatment in accordance with the law of war. Rebels, as outlaws, have no rights. In the South African campaign (1899-1902) the question arose whether the manifest inferiority of the Boer forces, the possession by the British forces of the seats of government, and their practical occupation of the whole country, did not put an end to the state of war and con- stitute the Boer fighting forces rebels against a new existing government which had proclaimed annexation of the conquered states. The action of the British commanders is a precedent in favour of the view that the fighting forces of an invaded state are entitled to belligerent rights, though in a state of hopeless in- feriority, so long as they remain in the field in organized bands. In this, as in many cases which have formed international usage, the danger of reprisals more than the logic of principles has dictated a different line of conduct from that which the strict principles of law suggested. A somewhat similar, but more complicated situation, arose out of the cession by Spain to the United States of the Philippine Islands. The insurgents being in possession of them at the time, Spain ceded what she did not in fact possess. Thus it has been contended that the position of the insurgents became that of belligerents defending their country against conquest by invading forces. Wars have been classed in different ways — wars of intervention, wars of conquest, wars of defence, wars of independence, just wars, unjust wars, and so on; but the law of war totem*, applies to them all without distinction. States do not sit as judges over each other, but treat war, subject to their own interest, as a fact. Interest, however, with the increasing development of international relations is becoming a more important factor in the determination of the attitude of the neutral onlooker (see NEUTRALITY). In the Chino- Japanese War (1894-95) the Japanese had to decide whether the Chinese were entitled to treatment under the European law of war. Japan had acceded to the ™"wlth Geneva Convention (see below) in 1886, and to the peop/eT" Declaration of Paris (see below) in 1887. China was a party to. neither, and observed the provisions of neither. Japan, nevertheless, as related by her learned judicial advisers, Professors Ariga and Takahashi, observed towards the Chinese forces, combatant and non-combatant, all the rules of European International Law without resorting to the reprisals to which Chinese barbarities provoked her. The position of neutral governments towards insurgent forces is always a delicate one. If they are not recognized as Neutral belligerents by the state against which they are position arrayed, the state in question theoretically accepts towards responsibility for the consequences of their acts in lurgeats. respect of neutrai states. A neutral state may be satisfied with this responsibility, or it may recognize the bel- ligerent character of the insurgents. If, however, it does not, the insurgent forces cannot exercise rights of war against neutral property without exposing themselves to treatment as outlaws and pirates. A case of such treatment occurred in September 1902 in connexion with a then pending revolution in Hayti. A German cruiser, the " Panther," treated an insurgent gunboat, the " Crete-a-Pierrot," as a pirate vessel,1 and sank her for having stopped and confiscated arms and ammunition found among the cargo of the German steamer 1 The Times (gth September 1902). Effect of recogni- tion of belliger- ency. " Markomannia " on the ground that they were contraband destined for the armed forces of the existing Haytian govern- ment. The " Crete-a-Pierrot " had for some years formed part of the Haytian navy, and was commanded by Admiral Killick, who had been an admiral of that navy. There had been no recognition of the belligerency of the insurgents. No state seems to have made any observations on the incident, which may be ta"ken to be in accordance with current international usage. A well-known instance of a neutral government recognizing insurgent forces as belligerent, in spite of the denial of that character to them by the state against which they British re- are carrying on hostilities, occurred in the North cognition American Civil War. The right asserted by Great ofthe Co"m Britain to recognize the belligerency of the Con- federate forces was based on the contention that British com- mercial interests were very largely affected by the blockade of the Southern ports. It is agreed, however, among jurists that, where the interests of neighbouring states are not affected, the recognition of an insurgent's belligerency is needless interference.2 The recognition of belligerency does not entail recognition of the belligerent as a sovereign state. It goes no farther than its immediate purpose. The belligerent armies are lawful combatants, not bandits. Supplies taken from invaded territory are requisitions, not robbery. The belligerent ships of war are lawful cruisers, not pirates; and their captures, made hi accordance with maritime law, are good prize; and their blockades, if effectual, must be respected by neutrals. But this does not suffice to invest the belligerent with the attributes of independent sovereignty for such objects as negotiation of treaties, and the accrediting of diplomatic and consular agents. This was the attitude of Great Britain and France towards the Confederates in the American Civil War. The position of a vassal state or a colony carrying on foreign war without the consent of the suzerain or parent state might involve still more complicated issues.3 Civilized warfare, the textbooks tell us, is confined, as far as possible, to disablement of the armed forces of the enemy; otherwise war would continue till one of the parties was exterminated. " It is with good reason," observes ^^"aaa Vattel, " that this practice has grown into a custom civilians. with the nations of Europe, at least with those that keep up regular standing armies or bodies of militia. The troops alone carry on war, while the rest of the nation remain in peace " (Law of Nations, iii. 226). Modern notions of patriotism do not, however, view this total and unconditional abstention of the 1 It is also agreed that, as the existence of belligerency imposes burdens and liabilities upon neutral subjects, a state engaged in civil war has no right, in endeavouring to effect its warlike objects, to em- ploy measures against foreign vessels, which, though sanctioned in time of peace, are not recognized in time of war. In other words, it cannot enjoy at one and the same moment the rights of both peace and war. Thus, in 1861, when the government of New Granada, during a civil war, announced that certain ports would be closed, not by blockade, but by order, Lord John Russell said that " it was perfectly competent to the government of a country in a state of tranquillity to say which ports should be open to trade, and which should be closed ; but in the event of insurrection, or civil war in that country, it was not competent for its government to close ports which were de facto in the hands of the insurgents; and that such a proceeding would be an invasion of international law relating to blockade " (Hansard, clxiii., 1846). Subsequently the government of the United States proposed to adopt the same measure against the ports of the Southern States, upon which Lord John Russell wrote to Lord Lyons that " Her Majesty's government entirely concur with the French government in the opinion that a decree closing the Southern ports would be entirely illegal, and would be an evasion of that recognized maxim of the law of nations that the ports of a belligerent can only be closed by an effective blockade " (State Papers, North America, No. I, 1862). In neither case was the order carried out. When in 1885 the President of Colombia, during the existence of civil war, declared several ports to be closed without instituting a blockade, Mr T. F. Bayard, Secretary of State of the United States, in a despatch of 24th April of that year, fully acknowledged the principle of this contention by refusing to acknowledge the closure. ' In the Servo-Bulgarian War of 1885 the Sultan, though suzerain of Bulgaria, was unmoved by the invasion of his vassal's dominions. LAWS OF WAR] WAR civilian population as any longer possible. They have found, to some extent, expression in the following Articles of the Hague War-Regulations: — " Art. i. The laws, rights and duties of war apply not only to an army, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the follow- ing conditions: (a) To be commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates; (ft) to have a fixed distinctive emblem recog- nizable at a distance ; (c) to carry arms openly ; and (d) to conduct their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. In countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or form part of it, they are included under the denomination ' army.' " Art. 2. The population of a territory not under occupation, who, on the enemy's approach, spontaneously take up arms to resist the invading troops without having had time to organize themselves in accordance with Article I, shall be regarded as belligerent if they carry arms openly, and if they respect the laws and customs of war." l The only alteration made by the revised Convention of Nov. zyth, 1907, as compared with that of 1899 is the insertion in Art. 2 of the words in italics. By these provisions, irregular combatants whom both the government of the United States in the American Civil War and the German government in the Franco-German War refused to regard as legitimate belligerents, are now made legally so.2 1 The preamble of the Convention refers specially to Articles I and 2 in the following terms: " In the view of the High Contracting Parties, these provisions, the drafting of which has been inspired by the desire to diminish the evils of war so far as military necessities permit, are destined to serve as general rules of conduct for bel- ligerents in their relations with each other and with populations; " It has not, however, been possible to agree forthwith on provi- sions embracing all the circumstances which occur in practice ; " On the other hand, it could not be intended by the High Con- tracting Parties that the cases not provided for should, for want of a written provision, be left to the arbitrary judgment of the military commanders ; " Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued, the High Contracting Parties think it expedient to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them, populations and belligerents remain under the protection and empire of the principles of international law, as they result from the usages established among civilized nations, from the laws of humanity, and the requirements of the public conscience; " They declare that it is in this sense especially that Articles I and 2 of the regulations adopted must be understood." 1 The instructions for the government of armies of the United States in the field, issued in 1863, provided: — " Men or squads of men who commit hostilities, whether by fighting or inroads for destruction or plunder, or by raids of any kind, without commission, without being part and portion of the organized hostile army, and without sharing continuously in the war, but who do so with intermitting returns to their homes and avocation, or with the occasional assumption of the semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting themselves of the character or appearance of soldiers — such men or squads of men are not public enemies, and therefore, if captured, are not entitled to the privilege of prisoners of war, but shall be treated summarily as highway robbers or pirates." Germany seven years later declined to recognize the regular bands of francs-tireurs unless each individual member of them had been personally called out by legal authority, and wore a uniform or badge, irremovable and sufficient to distinguish him a.t a distance. The older publicists were, on the whole, strongly opposed to the legaliza- tion of irregular troops. Hallock settles the question in a summary way by calling those who engage in partisan warfare, robbers and murderers, and declaring that when captured they are to be treated as criminals (International Law, chap, xviii. s. 8). It is«easy to understand the unfavourable opinion of partisan bands usually ex- pressed by the military authorities when the enormous power for damage of modern arms is considered. At the Brussels Conference of 1874 the representatives of the great military Powers of the Continent naturally desired to keep spontaneous movements within the narrowest possible bounds, while the delegates from the secondary states, who have to rely for their defence chiefly upon the patriotism of their people, endeavoured to widen the right of resistance to an invader. Finally the Conference adopted the provisions which were later formally recognized at the Hague Conference (see British State Papers Miscellaneous, No. I, 1875, pp. 252-257). It is noteworthy that both at the Brussels and the Hague Conferences the British delegate ranged himself on the side of the smaller states in favour of the recognition of guerrilla bands. At the Hague Conference Sir John Ardagh gave notice of his intention to propose an additional Article, to the effect that nothing in the Regulations should " be considered as tending to diminish or suppress the right which belongs to the population of an invaded country patriotically to oppose the most energetic resistance by every legitimate means." The upshot of this notice was to cause the insertion of a proviso in the preamble of the Connected with the position of private persons in time of war is that of their property in invaded territory, a subject which has often been misunderstood. Assertions Eaemy as to its immunity from capture in warfare on land property have been made which are historically inaccurate °" i"v»<^ This is to be created at the commencement of tton office hostilities, in each of the belligerent states and, when necessary, in the neutral countries on whose territory prisoners, belligerents have been received. It is intended to answer all inquiries about prisoners of war, and is to be furnished by the various services concerned with all the necessary informa- tion to enable it to keep an individual return for each prisoner of war. It is to be kept informed of internments and changes, liberations on parole, evasions, admissions into hospital, deaths, &c. It is also the duty of the bureau to receive and collect all objects of personal use, valuables, letters, &c., found on the battlefields or left by prisoners who have died in hospital or ambulance, and to transmit them to those interested. Letters, money orders and valuables, as well as postal parcels destined for the prisoners of war or despatched by them, are to be free of all postal duties both in the countries of origin and destination, as well as in those they pass through. Gifts and relief in kind for prisoners of war are to be admitted free of all duties of entry, as well as of payments for carriage by the government railways. Furthermore, relief societies for prisoners of war, regularly con- stituted with the object of charity, are to receive every facility, within the bounds of military requirements and societies, administrative regulations, for the effective accom- plishment of their task. Delegates of these societies are to be admitted to the places of internment for the distribution of relief, as also to the halting-places of repatriated prisoners, " if furnished with a personal permit by the military authorities, and on giving an engagement in writing to comply with all their regulations for order and police." The obligations of belligerents with regard to sick and wounded in war on land are now governed by the Geneva Convention of k July 6th, 1906. By this Convention ambulances and wounded, military hospitals, their medical and administrative staff and chaplains are " respected and protected under all circumstances," and the use of a uniform flag and arm-badge bearing a red cross are required as a distinguishing mark of their character. A Convention, accepted at the Peace Conferences, has now adapted the principles of the Geneva Convention to maritime warfare. This new Convention provides that — Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assist- ing the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the com- mencement or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are employed, are to be respected and cannot be captured while hostilities last. As regards hospital-ships equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private individuals or officially recognized relief societies, they likewise are to be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent or neutral power to which they belong shall have given them an official commission and notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed. The belligerents have the right to control and visit them; they can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain course, and put a commissioner on board ; they can even detain them, if important circumstances require it. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war. Lastly, neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be captured for GO doing. The following prohibitions are also placed by the Hague Regulations on the means of injuring the enemy: — To employ poison or poisoned arms. iKluHn, To k'11 or w°und treacherously individuals belonging to ent-mv * e nos.l''e nation or army. siege', bom- ^° H'" or w°und an enemy who, having laid down arms lardmeats OT "avlng n° longer means of defence, has surrendered at discretion. To declare that no quarter will be given. To employ arms, projectiles or material of a nature to cause superfluous injury. To make improper use of a flag of truce, the national flag or military ensigns and the enemy's uniform, as well as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention. To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war; to attack or bombard towns, villages, habitations or buildings which are not defended. Hunt of To pillage a town or place, even when taken by assault. w"' Ruses of war and the employment of methods necessary to obtain information about the enemy and the country, on the contrary, are considered allowable. A spy is one who, acting clandestinely, or on false pretences, obtains, or seeks to obtain, information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party (the Hague War-Regulations, Art. 29). Spkt. Thus, soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated into the zone of operations of a hostile army to obtain information are not considered spies. Similarly, the following are not considered spies: soldiers or civilians, carrying out their mission openly, charged with the delivery of despatches destined either for their own army or for that of the enemy. To this class belong likewise individuals sent in balloons to deliver despatches, and generally to maintain communication be- tween the various parts of an army or a territory (ib.). A spy taken in the act cannot be punished without previous trial, and a spy who, after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is subsequently captured by the enemy, is a prisoner of war, and not punishable for his previous acts of espionage.1 In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps are to be taken to spare as far as possible buildings devoted to religion, art, science and charity, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not used at the same time for military purposes; but the besieged are to indicate these buildings or places by some particular and visible signs and notify them to the assailants. A new Convention respecting bombardments by naval forces was adopted by the Hague Conference of 1907, forbidding the bombardment of undefended " ports, towns, villages, dwellings or buildings," unless after a formal summons the local authorities decline to comply with requisitions for provisions or supplies necessary for the immediate use of the naval force before the place in question. But they may not be bombarded on account of failure to pay money contributions. On the other hand, the prohibition does not apply to military works, depots of arms, &c., or ships of war in a harbour. Another new Convention adopted at the Hague in 1907 dealt with the laying of automatic submarine contact mines. Its main provisions are as follows: — It is forbidden : 1. To lay unanchored automatic contact mines, except when they are so constructed as to become harmless one hour at most after the person who laid them ceases to control them; 2. To lay anchored automatic contact mines which do not become harmless as soon as they have broken loose from their moorings; 3. To use torpedoes which do not become harmless when they have missed their mark (Art. i). It is forbidden to lay automatic contact mines off the coast and ports of the enemy, with the sole object cf intercepting commercial shipping (Art. 2). When anchored automatic contact mines are employed, every possible precaution must be taken for the security of peaceful shipping. The belligerents undertake to do their utmost to render these mines harmless within a limited time, and, should they cease to be under surveillance, to notify the danger zones as soon as military exigencies permit, by a notice addressed to shipowners, which must also be communicated to the Governments through the diplomatic channel. (Art. 3.) Neutral Powers which lay automatic contact mines off their coasts must observe the same rules and take the same precautions as are imposed on belligerents. The neutral Power must inform shipowners, by a notice issued in advance, where automatic contact mines have been laid. This notice must be communicated at once to the Governments through the diplomatic channel. (Art. 4.) At the close of the war. the Contracting Powers undertake to do their utmost to remove the mines which they have laid, each Power removing its own mines. As regards anchored automatic contact mines laid by one of the belligerents off the coast of the other, their position must be notified to the other party by the Power which laid them, and each Power must proceed witn the least possible delay to remove the mines in its own waters. (Art. 5-) 1 See, as to Flags of Truce, Art. 32 of the Hague Regulations. 316 WARANGAL— WARBECK, PERKIN The Contracting Powers which dp not at present own perfected mines of the pattern contemplated in the present Convention, and which, consequently, could not at present carry out the rules laid down in Articles I and 3, undertake to convert the materiel of their mines as soon as possible so as to bring it into conformity with the foregoing requirements. (Art. 6.) Territory is considered as occupied when it is actually under the authority of the hostile army. The authority having passed Occupa- "lto tne hands of the occupant, the latter takes all tton at possible steps to re-establish public order and safety. hostile Compulsion of the population of occupied territory to territory. tajie part jn n^^ry operations against their own country, or even give information respecting the army of the other belligerent and pressure to take the oath to the hostile power are prohibited. Private property must be respected, save in case of military necessity (Arts. 46 and 52). The property of religious, charitable and educational institutions, and of art and science, even when state property, are assimilated to private property, and all seizure of, and destruction or intentional damage done to such institutions, to historical monuments, works of art or science is prohibited (Art. 56). Practice as regards declarations of war has hitherto varied. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 was preceded by a deliberate declaration. In the war between Japan and China there was no declaration. (See Ariga, La Guerre sino-japonaise, Paris, 1896). The delivery of an ultimatum specifying those terms, the compliance with which is demanded within a specified time, is practically a conditional declaration of war which becomes absolute in case of non-compliance. Thus the note communicated by the United States to Spain on 2oth April 1898 demanded practice. *ne " immediate withdrawal of all the land and sea forces from Cuba," and gave Spain three days to accept these terms. On the evening of 2 2nd April the United States seized several Spanish vessels, and hostilities were thus opened. In the case of the Transvaal War, the declaration also took the form of an ultimatum. A special Hague convention adopted at the Conference of 1907 now provides that hostilities " must not commence without previous and explicit warning in the form of a reasoned declaration of war or of an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war." It also provides that the existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral powers and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the receipt of the notification which may be given by telegraph. Most of the good effect of the provision, however, is negatived by the qualification that neutral powers cannot rely on the absence of notification if it is clearly established that they were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war. Too much confidence must not be placed in regulations con- cerning the conduct of war. Military necessity, the heat of action, the violence of the feelings which come into law of war. P^av w*^ always at times defeat the most skilfully- ' combined rules diplomacy can devise. Still, such rules are a sign of conditions of public opinion which serve as a restraint upon the commission of barbarities among civilized peoples. The European operations in China consequent on the " Boxer " rising showed how distance from European criticism tends to loosen that restraint. On the other hand, it was signifi- cant that both the United States and Spain, who were not parties to the Declaration of Paris, found themselves, in a war confined to them, under the necessity of observing provisions which the majority of civilized states have agreed to respect. (T. BA.) WARANGAL, an ancient town of India, in the Nizam's Dominions or Hyderabad state, 86 m. N.E. of Hyderabad city. It was the capital of a Hindu kingdom in the 1 2th century, but little remains to denote its former grandeur except a fort and four gateways of a temple of Siva. Warangal has given its name to a district and a division of the state. WARASDIN (Hungarian, Varasd; Croatian, VaraZdin), a royal free town of Hungary, and capital of the county of Warasdin, in Croatia-Slavonia ; on the right bank of the Drave, 62 m. by rail N.N.E. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 12,930. Warasdin is the seat of a district court, and possesses an old castle, a cathedral and several churches, monasteries and schools. It carries on a brisk trade in timber, wine, fruit, tobacco, spirits, stoneware and silk. Coal is also mined in the Warasdin Mountains. The celebrated sulphur baths of Constantins-Bad or Toplitz, known to the Romans as Thermae Constanlianae, lie about 10 m. S. WARBECK, PERKIN (c. 1474-1499), pretender to the throne of England, was the son of Jehan de Werbecque, a poor burgess of Tournay in Flanders and of his wife Katherine de Faro. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but as he represented himself as having been nine years old in 1483, it must have taken place in, or close on, 1474. His confession made at the end of his life was an account of his early years which is to some extent supported by other testimony. The names of his father and other relations whom he mentions have been found in the municipal records of Tournay, and the official description of them agrees with his statements. According to this version, which may be accepted as substantially true, he was brought up at Antwerp by a cousin Jehan Stienbecks, and served a succession of em- ployers as a boy servant. He was for a time with an Englishman John Strewe at Middleburg, and then accompanied Lady Brampton, the wife of an exiled partisan of the house of York, to Portugal. He was for a year employed by a Portuguese knight whom he described as having only one eye, and whom he names Vacz deCogna (Vaz daCunha?). In 1491 he was at Cork as the servant of a Breton silk merchant Pregent (Pierre Jean) Meno. Ireland was strongly attached to the house of York, and was full of intrigue against King Henry VII. Perkin says that the people seeing him dressed in the silks of his master took him for a person of distinction, and insisted that he must be either the son of George, duke of Clarence, or a bastard of Richard III. He was more or less encouraged by the earls of Desmond and Kildare. The facts are ill recorded, but it is safe to presume that intriguers who wished to disturb the government of Henry VII. took advantage of a popular delusion, and made use of the lad as a tool. At this time he spoke English badly. By 1492 he had become sufficiently notorious to attract the attention of King Henry's government and of foreign sovereigns. He was in that year summoned to Flanders by Margaret , the widowed duchess of Burgundy, and sister of Edward IV., who was the main support of the Yorkist exiles, and who was the enemy of Henry VII. for family reasons and for personal reasons also, for she wished to extort from him the payment of the balance of her dowry. She found the impostor useful as a means of injuring the king of England. Several European sovereigns were moved to help him by the same kind of reason. The suppositions that he was the son of Clarence or of Richard III. were discarded in favour of the more useful hypothesis that he was Richard, duke of York, the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., murdered in the Tower. Charles VIII., king of France, the counsellors of the youthful duke of Burgundy, the duke's father Maximilian, king of the Romans, and James IV. of Scotland, none of whom can have been really deceived, took up his cause more or less actively. He was entertained in France, and was taken by Maximilian to attend the funeral of the emperor Frederick III. in 1493. At Vienna he was treated as the lawful king of England. He was naturally the cause of considerable anxiety to the English govern- ment, which was well acquainted with his real history, and made attempts to get him seized. His protectors entered into negotia- tions which in fact turned on the question whether more was to be gained by supporting him, or by giving him up. An appeal to Isabella, queen of Castile, met with no response. In July 1495 he was provided with a few ships and men by Maximilian, now emperor, and he appeared on the coast of Kent. No move- ment in his favour took place. A few of his followers who landed were cut off, and he went on to Ireland to join the earl of Desmond in Munster. After an unsuccessful attack on Waterford in August, he fled to Scotland. Here King James IV. showed him favour, and arranged a marriage for him with Catherine Gordon, daughter of the earl of Huntly. He was helped to make a short inroad into Northumberland, but the intervention of the Spanish government brought about a peace between England and Scotland. In 1497 Perkin was sent on his travels again with WARBLER— WARBURTON, B. E. G. 31? two or three small vessels, and accompanied by his wife, who had borne him one or two children. After some obscure adven- tures in Ireland, he landed at Whitesand Bay, near the Land's End, on the 7th of September, and was joined by a crowd of the country people, who had been recently in revolt against excessive taxation. He advanced to Exeter, but was unable to master the town. On the approach of the royal troops he deserted his followers, and ran for refuge to the sanctuary of Beaulieu in Hampshire. He then surrendered. His wife was kindly treated and placed in the household of Henry's queen Elizabeth. Perkin was compelled to make two ignominious public confessions at Westminster, and in Cheapside on the isth and igth of June 1498. On the 23rd of November 1499 he was hanged on a charge of endeavouring to escape from the Tower with the imprisoned earl of Warwick. See James Gairdner, Richard the Third, and the Story of Perkin Warbeck (Cambridge, 1898). WARBLER, in ornithology, the name bestowed in 1773 by T. Pennant (Genera of Birds, p. 35) on the birds removed, in 1769, by J. A. Scopoli from the Linnaean genus Motacilla (cf. WAGTAIL) to one founded and called by him Sylvia — the last being a word employed by several of the older writers in an indefinite way — that is to say, on all the species of Motacilla which were not wagtails. " Warbler " has long been used by English technical writers as the equivalent of Sylvia, and is now applied to all members of the sub-family Sylviinae of the thrushes (q.v.), and in the combination " American warblers " to the distinct passerine family Mniotiltidae. The true warblers (Sylviinae) are generally smaller than the true thrushes Turdinae (see THRUSHES), with, for the most part, a weak and slender bill. They seldom fly far, except when migrating, but frequent undergrowth and herbage, living on insects, larvae and fruit. The song is unusually clear and very sweet, with frequently a metallic sound, as in the grasshopper warbler. The nest is usually cup-shaped and well lined, and from three to six eggs (twelverin Regulus), usually spotted, are laid. The true warblers are chiefly Old World, visiting the southern Old World in winter, but members of the sub-family occur in New Zealand, Polynesia and Panama. Amongst the commonest in England is the well-known sedge-bird or sedge- warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, whose chattering song resounds in summer-time from almost every wet ditch in most parts of Britain. As is the case with so many of its allies, the skulking habits of the bird cause it to be far more often heard than seen; but, with a little patience, it may be generally observed flitting about the uppermost twigs of the bushes it frequents, and its mottled back and the yellowish-white streak over its eye serve to distinguish it from its ally the reed-wren or reed- warbler, A. streperus, which is clad in a wholly mouse-coloured suit. But this last can also be recognized by its different sone, and com- paratively seldom does it stray from the reed-beds which are its favourite haunts. In them generally it builds one of the most beautiful of nests, made of the seed-branches of the reed and long grass, wound horizontally round and round so as to include in its substance the living stems of three or four reeds, between which it is suspended at a convenient height above the water, and the structure is so deep that the eggs do not roll out when its props are shaken by the wind. Of very similar habits is the reed-thrush or great reed- warbler, A. arundinaceus, a loud-voiced species, abundant on the Continent but very rarely straying to England. Much interest also attaches to the species known as Savi's warbler, Locustella luscini- oides, which was only recognized as a constant inhabitant of th< Fen district of England a few years before its haunts were destroyec by drainage. The last example known to have been obtained in this country was killed in 1856. The nest of this species is peculiar placed on the ground and formed of the blades of a species of Glyceria so skilfully entwined as to be a very permanent structure, and it is a curious fact that its nests were well known to the sedge-cutters of the district which it most frequented, as those of a bird with which they were unacquainted, long before the builder was recognized by naturalists. In coloration the bird somewhat resembles a nightingale (whence its specific name), and its song differs from that of any of those before mentioned, being a long smooth trill, pitched higher bu1 possessing more tone than that of the grasshopper-warbler Locustella naevius — which is a widely-distributed species throughout the British Isles, not only limited to marshy sites, but affecting also dry soils inhabiting indifferently many kinds of places where there is tanglec and thick herbage, heather or brushwood. In those parts of Englam where it was formerly most abundant it was known as the reeler or reel-bird, from its song resembling the whirring noise of the reel a one time used by the spinners of wool. The precise determination o this bird — the grasshopper lark, as it was long called in books, though ts notes if once heard can never be mistaken for those of a grass- topper or cricket, and it has no affinity to the larks — as an English pecies is due to the discernment of Gilbert White in 1768. In its labits it is one of the most retiring of birds, keeping in the closest helter, so that it may be within a very short distance of an eager naturalist without his being able to see it — the olive-colour, streaked with dark brown, of its upper plumage helping to make it invisible. The nest is very artfully concealed in the thickest herbage. The oreign forms of aquatic warblers are far too numerous to be here mentioned. The members of the typical genus Sylvia, which includes some of the sweetest singers, are treated of under WHITETHROAT; and the willow- and wood-wrens under WREN. The Australian genus Malurus, to which belong the birds known as " superb warblers," not inaptly so named, since in beauty they surpass any others of heir presumed allies, is now placed in with the Old World fly- catchers in the family Musicapidae. Part of the plumage of the cocks n breeding-dress is generally some shade of intense blue, and is so glossy as to resemble enamel, while black, white, chestnut or scarlet, is well as green and lilac, are also present in one species or another, so as to heighten the effect. But, as already stated, there are system- atists who would raise this genus, which contains some 15 species, :o the rank of a distinct family, though on what grounds it is hard ;o say. The birds known as " American warblers," formjng what is now recognized as a distinct family, Mniotiltidae, remain for considera- :ion. They possess but nine instead of ten primaries, and are peculiar to the New World. More than 130 species have been described, and these have been grouped in 20 genera or more, of which members of all but three are at least summer-visitants to North America. As. a whole they are much more brightly coloured than the Sylviinae, for, though the particular genus Mniotilta (from which the family takes its name) is one of the most abnormal— its colours being plain black and white, and its habits rather resembling those of a Tree-creeper (g.t>.) — mother groups chestnut, bluish-grey and green appear, the last varying from an olive to a saffron tint, and in some groups the yellow predominates to an extent that has gained for its wearers, belonging to the genus Dendroeca, the name of golden " warblers. In the genus Setophaga, the members of which deserve to be called " fly-catching " warblers, the plumage of the males at least presents yellow, orange, scarlet or crimson. The Mniotiltidae contain forms exhibiting quite as many diverse modes of life as do the Sylviinae. Some are exclusively aquatic in their predilections, others affect dry soils, brushwood, forests and so on. Almost all the genera are essentially migratory, but a large proportion of the species of Dendroeca, Setophaga, and especially Basileuterus, seem never to leave their Neotropical home; while the genera Leucopeza, Teretristis and Microligia, comprising in all but 5 species, are peculiar to the Antilles. The rest are for the most part natives of North America, where a few attain a very high latitude,1 penetrating in summer even beyond the Arctic Circle, and thence migrate southward at the end of summer or in the fall of the year, some reaching Peru and Brazil, but a few, as, for instance, Parula pitiayumi and Geothlypis velata, seem to be resident in the country last named. (A. N.) WARBURTON, BARTHOLOMEW ELLIOTT GEORGE (1810- 1852), usually known as Eliot Warburton, British traveller and novelist, was born in- 1810 near Tullamore, Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the Irish bar in 1837. He contracted lasting friendships with Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and A. W. Kinglake, and gave up his practice as a barrister for travel and literature. He made a hit with his first book, The Crescent and the Cross. It was an account of his travels in 1843 in Turkey, Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and fairly divided public attention with Kinglake's Eothen, which appeared in the same year, 1844. Interest was centred in the East at the time, and Warburton had popular sympathy with him in his eloquent advocacy of the annexation of Egypt; but, apart from this consideration, the spirited narrative of his adventures and the picturesque sketches of Eastern life and character were more than sufficient to justify the success of the book. His most substantial work was a Memoir of Prince Rupert and Ike Cavaliers (1849), enriched with original documents, and written with eloquent partiality for the subject. This was followed in 1850 by Reginald Hastings, a novel, the scenes of which were laid in the same period of civil war, and, in 1851, by another historical novel, Darien, or The Merchant Prince. He was sent by the Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company to explore the isthmus of Darien and to negotiate a treaty with the Indian tribes. He sailed on this 1 Seven species have been recorded as wandering to Greenland, and one, Dendroeca virens, is said to have occurred in Europe (ffov- mannia, 1858, p. 425). 3i8 WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR R.— WARBURTON, W. mission in the " Amazon," which perished by fire with nearly all on board on the 4th of January 1852. His brother, Major George Warburton (1816-1857), wrote Hochelaga, or England in the New World (1846), and The Conquest of Canada (1849). WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR ROBERT (1842-1899), Anglo- Indian soldier and administrator, was the son of an artillery officer who had been taken prisoner at Kabul in 1842, and escaped through the good offices of an Afghan princess. He married this lady, and she transmitted to their son that power of exercising influence over the tribes of the north-west frontier which stood him in good stead during his long service in India. Warburton entered the Royal Artillery in 1861, took part in the Abyssinian War of 1867-68, and then joined the Bengal Staff Corps. He served with distinction in the expedition against the Utman Khel in 1878 and in the Afghan War of 1878-80. Very soon after the British government had made permanent arrange- ments for keeping open the Khyber Pass, Warburton was appointed to take charge of it as political officer. This post he held, discharging its duties with conspicuous ability, between 1879 and 1882 with intervals of other duty, and continuously from 1882 until 1890. He turned the rude levies which formed the Khyber Rifles into a fine corps, ready to serve the Indian government wherever they might be required. He made the road safe, kept the Afridis friendly, and won the thanks of the Punjab government, expressed in a special order upon his retire- ment, for his good work. When the Afridis began to cause anxiety in 1897, Colonel Warburton was asked by the govern- ment of India if he would assist in quieting the excitement amongst them. He declared himself ready to do so, but in the meantime the trouble had come to a head. Colonel Warburton took part in the campaign which followed; at its close his active career ended. He occupied his leisure in retirement by writing his memoirs, Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). He died at Kensington on the 2 2nd of April 1899. WARBURTON, WILLIAM (1698-1779), English critic and divine, bishop of Gloucester, was born at Newark on the 24th of December 1698. His father belonged to an old Cheshire family and was town clerk of Newark. William was educated at Oakham and Newark grammar schools, and in 1714 he was articled to Mr Kirke, attorney at East Markham, in Nottingham- shire. After serving his time he returned to Newark with the intention of practising as a solicitor; but, having given some time to the study of Latin and Greek, he left the law and was ordained deacon by the archbishop of York in 1723, and in 1727 received priest's orders from the bishop of London. He had occupied the interval in various literary labours, the most important being the notes he contributed to Theobald's edition of Shakespeare, and an anonymous share in a pamphlet on the jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, The Legal Judicature in Chancery stated (1727). This was an answer to another anony- mous pamphlet, written by Philip Yorke, afterwards Lord Chan- cellor Hardwicke, who replied in an enlarged edition (1728) of his original Discourse of the Judicial Authority . . . of Master of the Rolls. Warburtcn now received from Sir Robert Sutton the small living of Greasley, in Nottinghamshire, exchanged next year for that of Brant Broughton, Lincolnshire. He held in addition, from 1730, the living of Frisby in Lincolnshire. In 1728 he was made an honorary M.A. of Cambridge. At Brant Broughton for eighteen years he spent his time in study, the first result of which was his treatise on the Alliance between Church and Stale (1736). The book brought Warburton into favour at court, and he probably only missed immediate preferment by the death of Queen Caroline. His next and best-known work, Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on the Principles of a Religious Deist ( 2 vols., 1737-1741), preserves his name as the author of the most daring and ingenious of theological paradoxes. The deists had made the absence of any inculcation of the doctrine of a future life an objection to the divine authority of the Mosaic writings. Warburton boldly admitted the fact and turned it against the adversary by maintaining that no merely human legislator would have omitted such a sanction of morality. The author's extraordinary power, learning and originality were acknowledged on all hands, though he excited censure and suspicion by his tenderness to the alleged heresies of Conyers Middleton. The book aroused much controversy. In a pamphlet of " Remarks " (1742), he replied to John Tillard, and Remarks on Several Occasional Reflections (1744-1745) was an answer to Akenside, Conyers Middleton (who had up to this time been his friend), Richard Pococke, Nicholas Mann, Richard Grey, Henry Stebbing and other of his critics. As he characterized his opponents in general as the " pestilent herd of libertine scribblers with which the island is overrun," it is no matter of surprise that the book made him many bitter enemies. Either in quest of paradox, or actually unable to recognize the real tendencies of Pope's Essay on Man, he entered upon its defence against the Examen of Jean Pierre de Crousaz, in a series of articles (1738-1739) contributed to The Works of the Learned. Whether Pope had really understood the tendency of his own work has always been doubtful, but there is no question that he was glad of an apologist, and that Warburton's jeu d'esprit in the long run did more for his fortunes than all his erudition. It occasioned a sincere friendship between him and Pope, whom he persuaded to add a fourth book to the Dunciad, and en- couraged to substitute Gibber for Theobald as the hero of the poem in the edition of 1743 published under the editorship of Warburton. Pope bequeathed him the copyright and the editorship of his works, and contributed even more to his advance- ment by introducing him to Murray, afterwards Lord Mansfield, who obtained for him in 1746 the preachership of Lincoln's Inn, and to Ralph Allen, who, says Johnson, " gave him his niece and his estate, and, by consequence, a bishopric." The marriage took place in 1745, and from that time Warburton resided principally at his father-in-law's estate at Prior Park, in Gloucestershire, which he inherited on Allen's death in 1764. In 1747 appeared his edition of Shakespeare, into which, as he expressed it, Pope's earlier edition was melted down. He had previously entrusted notes and emendations on Shakespeare to Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose unauthorized use of them led to a heated controversy. As early as 1727 Warburton had corre- sponded with Theobald on Shakespearean subjects. He now accused him of stealing his ideas and denied his critical ability. Theobald's superiority to Warburton as a Shakespearean critic has long since been acknowledged. Warburton was further kept busy by the attacks on his Divine Legation from all quarters, by a dispute with Bolingbroke respecting Pope's behaviour in the affair of Bolingbroke's Patriot King, by his edition of Pope's works (1751) and by a vindication hi 1750 of the alleged miracu- lous interruption of the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem undertaken by Julian, in answer to Conyers Middleton. ' War- burton's manner of dealing with opponents was both insolent and rancorous, but it did him no disservice. He became pre- bendary of Gloucester in 1753, chaplain to the king in 1754, prebendary of Durham in 1755, dean of Bristol in 1757, and in 1759 bishop of Gloucester. He continued to write so long as the infirmities of age allowed, collecting and publishing his sermons, and toiling to complete the Divine Legation, further fragments of which were published with his posthumous Works. He wrote a defence of revealed religion in his View of Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy (1754), and Hume's Natural History of Religion called forth some Remarks ..." by a gentleman of Cambridge " from Warburton, in which his friend and biographer, Richard Hurd, had a share (1757). He made in 1762 a vigorous attack on Methodism under the title of The Doctrine of Grace. He also engaged in a keen controversy with Robert Lowth, afterwards bishop of London, on the book of Job, in which Lowth brought home charges of lack of scholarship and of insolence that admitted of no denial. His last important act was to found in 1768 the Warburtonian lecture at Lincoln's Inn, "to prove the truth of revealed religion . . . from the completion of the prophecies of the Old and New Testament which relate to the Christian Church, especially to the apostacy of Papal Rome." He died at Gloucester on the yth of June 1779. Warburton was undoubtedly a great man, but his intellect, marred by wilfulness and the passion for WARD, A. W.— WARD, E. S. P. paradox, effected no result in any degree adequate to its power. He was a warm and constant friend, and gave many proofs of gratitude to his benefactors. Warburton's works were edited (7 vols., 1788) by Bishop Hurd with a biographical preface, and the correspondence between the two friends — an important contribution to the literary history of the • period — was edited by Dr Parr in 1808. Warburton's life was also written by John Selby Watson in 1863, and Mark Pattison made him the subject of an essay in 1889. See also I. D'Israeli, Quarrels of Authors (1814); and especially John Nichols, Literary Anecdotes (1812-1815), vol. v., and Illustrations (1817-1858), vol. ii., for his correspondence with William Stukeley, Peter des Maizeaux, Thomas Birch, John Jortin and Lewis Theobald. WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- ), English historian and man of letters, was born at Hampstead, London, on the 2nd of December 1837, and was educated in Germany and at the university of Cambridge. In 1866 he was appointed pro- fessor of history and English literature in Owens College, Man- chester, and was principal from 1890 to 1897, when he retired. He took an active part in the foundation of Victoria University, of which he was vice-chancellor from 1886 to 1890 and from 1894 to 1896. In 1897 the freedom of the city of Manchester was conferred upon him, and in 1900 he was elected master of Peter- house, Cambridge. His most important work is his standard History of English Dramatic Literature to the Age of Queen Anne (1875), re-edited after a thorough revision in three volumes in 1899. He also wrote The House of Austria in the Thirty Years' War (1869), Great Britain and Hanover (1899), The Eleclress Sophia and the Hanoverian Succession (1903); he edited Crabbe's Poems (2 vols., 1905-1906) and Pope's Poetical Works (1869); he wrote the volumes on Chaucer and Dickens in the " English Men of Letters " series, translated Curtius's History of Greece (5 vols., 1868-1873); ne was one °f tne editors of the Cambridge Modern History, and with A. R. Waller edited the Cambridge History of English Literature (1907, &c.). For the gth edition of the Ency. Brit, he wrote the article DRAMA, and biographies of Ben Jonson and other dramatists; and he became an important contributor to the present work. WARD, ARTEMUS, the pen-name of Charles Farrar Browne (1834-1867), American humorous writer, was born in Waterford, Maine. He- began life as a compositor and became an occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858 he published in the Cleveland Plain Dealer the first of the ' Artemus Ward " series, which attained great popularity both in America and England. His separate publications were: Arlemiis Ward: his Book (New York, 1862); Artemus Ward: his Travels (New York, 1865); Artemus Ward among the Fenians (1865); Betsey Jane Ward: hur Book of Goaks (New York, 1866), generally attributed to him; Artemus Ward in London, and other Papers (New York, 1867). Artemus Ward's Lecture at the Egyptian Hall . . . and other Relics of the Humourist (London, 1869), edited by T. W. Robertson and J. C. Hotten, was published posthumously (New York, 1869). His wit largely relied on the drollery of strange spelling. In 1860 he became editor of Vanity Fair, a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time he began to appear as a lecturer, and his eccentric humour attracted large audiences. In 1866, he visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both as a lecturer and as a contributor to Punch. In the spring of the following year his health gave way, and he died of consump- tion at Southampton on the 6th of March 1867. His Complete Works, with memoir by E. P. Kingston, were published in London in the same year, and Sandwiches at New York in 1870. WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879), English historical and genre painter, was born at Pimlico, London, in 1816. Among his early boyish efforts in art was a series of clever illustrations to the Rejected Addresses of his uncles Horace and James Smith, which was followed soon afterwards by designs to some of the papers of Washington Irving. In 1830 he gained the silver palette of the Society of Arts; and in 1835, aided by Wilkie and Chantrey, he entered the schools of the Royal Academy, having in the previous year contributed to its exhibition his portrait of Mr O. Smith, the comedian, in his character of Don Quixote. In 1836 he went to Rome, where in 1838 he gained a silver medal from the Academy of St Luke for his " Cimabue and Giotto," which in the following year was exhibited at the Royal Academy. The young artist now turned his thoughts to fresco- painting, which he studied under Cornelius at Munich. In 1843 he forwarded his ;< Boadicea Animating the Britons previous to the Last Battle against the Romans " to the competition for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament — a work upon which he was afterwards engaged, having in 1853 been directed by the fine art commissioners to execute eight subjects in the corridor of the House of Commons. The success of his " Dr Johnson in Lord Chesterfield's Ante-Room " — now in the National Gallery, along with the " Disgrace of Lord Clarendon " (the smaller picture) (1846), the " South Sea Bubble" (1847), and " James II. Receiving the News of the Landing of the Prince of Orange " (1850) — secured his election as an associate of the Royal Academy in 1847, and in 1855 he gained full academic honours. Among the more important of his other works may be named " Charlotte Corday Led to Execution " (1852), the " Last Sleep of Argyll " (1854), the " Emperor of the French Receiving the Order of the Garter " (1859), painted for the queen, the " Ante- Chamber at Whitehall during the Dying Moments of Charles II." (1861), " Dr Johnson's First Interview with John Wilkes " (1865), and the " Royal Family of France in the Temple," painted in 1851, and usually considered the artist's masterpiece. He died at Windsor, on the isth of January 1879. In 1848 he had married Henrietta Ward (b. 1832), who, herself an admirable artist, was a granddaughter of James Ward, R.A. (1760-1859), the distinguished animal painter. Their son, Leslie Ward (b. 1851), became well known as " Spy " of Vanity Fair (from 1873 to 1009), and later of the World, with his character portraits of contemporary celebrities. WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911), American author and philanthropist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 3ist of August 1844. She was the granddaughter of the Rev. Moses Stuart, and the daughter of the Rev. Austin Phelps (1820-1890) who became a professor in the Andover Theological Seminary in 1848, and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps (1815-1852), who wrote Sunnyside (1851), a popular bock in its day, and other works. In 1848 she removed with her parents to Andover, where she attended private schools. When she was in her teens she wrote short stories for the Youth's Companion, The Atlantic Monthly and Harper's Magazine. She wrote many juveniles, especially Sunday-School books, such as the Tiny and the Gypsy series. In 1868 appeared in The Atlantic Monthly her short story, The Tenth of January, a narrative of the falling and burning of a cotton-mill at Lawrence, Mass., in 1860. In the same year appeared The Gates Ajar (1868), her first novel, a realistic study of life after death, which was widely read and was translated into several European languages. Her Beyond the Gates (1883), The Gates Between (1887) and Within the Gates (1901) are in the same vein. She was actively interested in charitable work, in the advancement of women and hi temperance reform. In 1888 she married Herbert Dickinson Ward (b. 1861), son of the Rev. William Hayes Ward. - Among Mrs Ward's books, in addition to those already mentioned, are: Men, Women and Ghosts (1869); The Trotty Book (1869), juvenile; Hedged in (1870); The Silent Partner (1871); Trotty's Wedding Tour and Story Book (1873), juvenile ; What to Wear (1873), essays; Poetic Studies (1875), poems; The Story of Avis (1877), Sealed Orders, and Other Stories (1879); Friends: a Duet (1881); Doctor Zay (1882); Songs of the Silent World, and Other Poems (1884); Old Maids, and Burglars in Paradise (1885); The Madonna of the Tubs (1886), a short story, Jack the Fisherman (1887), a Gloucester tragedy; The Struggle for Immortality (1889), essays; Fourteen to One, and Other Stories (1891); Austin Phelps: a Memoir (1891); Donald Marcy (1893); A Singular Life (1894), one of her best-known novels; The Supply at Saint Agatha's (1896); Chapters from a Life (1896); The Story of Jesus Christ: an Interpretation (1897); The Successors of Mary the First (iQpl); Avery (1902), first issued serially in Harper's Magazine as His Wife; TVixv (1904); The Man in the Case (1906); Walled In (1907); and Though Life Do Us Part (1908). In collaboration with her husband, she wrote two novels founded on Biblical scenes and characters, The Master of the Magicians (1890), and Come Forth (1890). Among Mr Ward's books are The New Senior at Andover (1890); The Republic without a President, and Other Short Sfories (1891) ; The Caftain of the Kttttwink WARD, J.— WARD, M. A. 320 (1892); A Dash to the Pole (1893); The White Crown, and Other Stories (1894); The Burglar who moved Paradise (1897): and 1 he Light of the World (1901). WARD, JAMES (1769-1859), English animal painter and engraver, was born in Thames Street, London, on the 23rd of October 1769. At the age of twelve he was bound apprentice with J. Raphael Smith, but he received little attention and learnt nothing from this engraver. He was afterwards in- structed for over seven years by his elder brother, William Ward, and he engraved many admirable plates, among which his " Mrs Billington," after Reynolds, occupies a very high place. He presented a complete set of his engravings, in their various states, numbering three hundred impressions, to the British Museum. While still a youth he made the acquaintance of George Morland, who afterwards married his sister; and the example of this artist's works induced him to attempt painting. His early productions were rustic subjects in the manner of Morland, which were frequently sold as the work of the more celebrated painter. His " Bull-Bait," an animated composition, introducing many figures, attracted much attention in the Royal Academy of 1797. A commission from Sir John Sinclair, president of the new agricultural society, to paint an Alderney cow, led to much similar work, and turned Ward's attention to animal-painting, a department in which he achieved his highest artistic successes. His " Landscape with Cattle," acquired for the National Gallery at a cost of £1500, was painted in 1820- 1822 at the suggestion of West, in emulation of the " Bull of Paul Potter " at the Hague. His " Boa Serpent Seizing a Horse " was executed in 1822, and his admirable " Grey Horse," shown in the Old Masters' Exhibition of 1879, dates from 1828. Ward also produced portraits, and many landscapes like the " Gordale Scar " and the " Harlech Castle " in the National Gallery. Sometimes he turned aside into the less fruitful paths of allegory, as in his unsuccessful " Pool of Bethesda " (1818), and " Triumph of the Duke of Wellington " (1818). He was a frequent contributor to the Royal Academy and the British Institution, and in 1841 he collected one hundred and forty examples of his art, and exhibited them in his house in Newman Street. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1807, and a full member in i8n,and died at Cheshunt on the 23rd of November 1859. Ward compiled an autobiography, of which an abstract was published in the Art Journal in 1849. WARD, JAMES (1843- ), English psychologist and meta- physician, was born at Hull on the 27th of January 1843. He was educated at the Liverpool Institute, at Berlin and Gottingen, and at Trinity College, Cambridge; he also worked in the physio- logical laboratory at Leipzig. He studied originally for the Congregational ministry, and for a year was minister of Emmanuel Church, Cambridge. Subsequently he devoted himself to psychological research, became fellow of his college in 1875 and university professor of mental philosophy in 1897. He was Gifford lecturer at Aberdeen in 1895-1897, and at St Andrews in 1908-1910. His work shows the influence of Leibnitz and Lotze, as well as of the biological theory of evolution. His psychology marks the definite break with the sensationalism of the English school; experience is interpreted as a continuum into which distinctions are gradually introduced by the action of selective attention; the implication of the subject in experience is emphasized; and the operation in development of subjective as well as natural, selection is maintained. In his metaphysica work the analysis of scientific concepts leads to a criticism ol naturalism and of dualism, and to a view of reality as a unit> which implies both subjective and objective factors. This view is further worked out, through criticism of pluralism and as a theistic interpretation of the world, in his St Andrews Gifford Lectures (the Realm of Ends) . Beside the article " Psychology " in the Ency. Brit, (gth, loth am nth ed.) he has published Naturalism and Agnosticism (1809, 3rd ed. 1007), besides numerous articles in the Journal of Physiology Mind, and the British Journal of Psychology. WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910), American sculptor, was born in Urbana, Ohio, on the 29th of June 1830 lis education was received in the village schools. He studied nder Henry K. Brown, of New York, in 1850-1857, and by 861, when he opened a studio in New York, he had executed usts of Joshua R. Giddings, Alexander H. Stephens, and Hannibal lamlin, prepared the first sketch for the " Indian Hunter," nd made studies among the Indians themselves for the work. . n 1863 he became a member of the National Academy of Design New York), and he was its president in 1872-1873. Among his jest-known statues are the " Indian Hunter," finished in 1864 Central Park, New York); Washington, heroic size (on the teps of the U.S. Sub-Treasury, Wall Street, New York); Henry Ward Beecher (Brooklyn); an equestrian statue of General George H. Thomas (Washington); Israel Putnam (Hartford); and the seated statue of Horace Greeley, the founder of the New York Tribune, in front of the office of that newspaper. In 1896 ic was elected president of the newly organized National Sculp- ure Society (New York). Unlike his fellow-countryman, W. W. Story, he acquired his training, his inspiration and his themes rom his own country. He died in New York on the ist of Vlay 1910. WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841- ), American geologist and sociologist, was born hi Joliet, Illinois, on the i8th of June 1841. He graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) Jniversity in 1869 and from the law school of the same university n 1871, his education having been delayed by his service in the Union army during the Civil War. In 1865-1872 he was employed hi the United States Treasury Department, and aecame assistant geologist in 1881 and geologist in 1888 to the U.S. Geological Survey. In 1884-1886 he was professor of aotany in Columbian University. He wrote much on paleo- Dotany, including A Sketch of Paleobotany (1885), The Geographi- cal Distribution of Fossil Plants (1888) and The Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States (1905). He is better known, however, for his work in sociology, in which, modifying Herbert Spencer and refuting the Spencerian individualism, he paralleled social with psychological and physical phenomena. His more important works are: Dynamic Sociology (1883, 2nd ed. 1897), Psychic Factors of Civilization (1897), Outlines of Sociology (1898), Sociology and Economics (1899), Pure Sociology (1903)1 and, with J. Q. Dealy, Text-Book of Sociology (1905). See an appreciation by L. Gumplowicz, in Die Zeit (Vienna, aoth Aug. 1904); reprinted in English in vol. x. of The American Journal of Sociology. WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD] (1851- ), British novelist, was born on the nth of June 1851 at Hobart, Tasmania, where her father, Thomas Arnold (1824- 1900), was then an inspector of schools. Thomas Arnold was a son of Arnold of Rugby, and a brother of the poet Matthew Arnold. As a scholar of University College, Oxford, at the crisis of the Oxford Movement, he had begun h'fe as a Liberal of the school of Jowett, Stanley and Clough. In 1856 he became a Roman Catholic, relinquished his inspectorship of schools in Tasmania, and was appointed professor of English literature at Dublin, thence following Newman to Birmingham, where he published his Manual of English Literature. After a brief period of unrest he reverted to the English Church, and went to Oxford, where he lived twenty years, editing The Select Works of Wyclif and Beowulf for the Clarendon Press, Henry of Hunting- don and Symeon of Durham for the " Rolls " series, and, with W. E. Addis, the Catholic Dictionary. In 1877 he reverted once more to the Roman Catholic Church, and was appointed fellow of the new Royal University of Ireland, dying in Dubh'n on the 1 2th of November 1900. His daughter was brought up mainly at Oxford, and her early associations with a life of scholarship and religious conflict are deeply marked in her own later literary career. She was brought into close connexion during this period with Edward Hartopp Cradock, who was principal of Brasenose College from 1853 till his death in 1886, and some of whose characteristics went to the portrait of the " Squire " in Robert Elsmere. In 1872 she married Thomas Humphry Ward (b. 1845), then fellow and tutor of Brasenose, and one of the authors of the Oxford Spectator. Mr Humphry Ward, a son of the WARD, S.— WARD, W. G. 321 Rev. Henry Ward, Vicar of St Barnabas, King's Square, London, E.G., remained at Oxford till 1880, and then went to London to take up literary work; with the help of the chief critics of the day he brought out the important selections of English verse called The English Poets (4 vols., 1880-1881). He joined the staff of The Times and wrote much for that paper, becoming its principal art critic. He also published Humphry Sandwith, a Memoir (1884); and he edited Men of the Reign (1885), English Art in the Public Gatkries of London (1886), Men of the Time (1887), and, with the help of Matthew Arnold, Huxley, Lord Wolseley, H. S. Maine and others, The Reign of Queen Victoria: a Survey of Fifty Years of Progress (1887). Mrs Humphry Ward at first devoted herself to Spanish litera- ture, and contributed articles on Spanish subjects to the Diction- ary of Christian Biography, edited by Dr William Smith and Dr Henry Wace. She wrote also for MacmUlan's Magazine. In 1881 she published her first book, Milly and Oily, a child's story illustrated by Lady (then Mrs) Alma-Tadema. This was followed in 1884 by a more ambitious, though slight, study of modern life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an actress. In 1885 Mrs Ward published an admirable translation of the Journal of the Swiss philosopher Amiel, with a critical introduction, which showed her delicate appreciation of the subtleties of speculative thought. It was no bad preparation for her next book, which was to make her famous. In February 1888 appeared Robert Elsmere, a powerful novel, tracing the mental evolution of an English clergyman, of high character and conscience and of intellectual leanings, constrained to surrender his own orthodoxy to the influence of the " higher criticism." The character of Elsmere owed much to reminiscences both of T. H. Green, the philosopher, and of J. R. Green, the historian. Largely in consequence of a review by W. E. Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century (May 1888, " Robert Elsmere and the Battle of Belief "), the book became the talk of the civilized world. It ran in five months through seven editions in three-volume form, and the cheap American editions had an enormous sale. It was translated into several European languages, and was the subject of articles in learned foreign reviews. Robert Elsmere is in itself a fine story, notably in its picture of the emotional conflict between Elsmere and his wife, whose over-narrow orthodoxy brings her religious faith and their mutual love to a terrible impasse; but it was the detailed discussion of the " higher criticism " of the day, and its influence on Christian belief, rather than its power as a piece of dramatic fiction, that gave the book its exceptional vogue. It started, as no academic work could have done, a popular discussion on historic and essential Christianity. In 1890 Mrs Ward took a prominent part in founding Univer- sity Hall, an " Elsmerian " settlement for working and teaching among the poor. Her next novel, David Grieve, was published in 1892. In Marcella (1894), and its sequel Sir George Tressady (1896), she broke new ground in the novel of modern politics and socialism, the fruk of observation and reflection at Univer- sity Hall. In 1895 had appeared the short tragedy, the Story of Bessie Costrell. Mrs Ward's next long novel, Helbeck of Bannisdale (1898), treated of the clash between the ascetic ideal of Roman Catholicism and modern life. The element of Catholic and humanistic ideals entered also into Eleanor (1900), in which, however, the author relied less on the interest of a thesis and more on the ordinary arts of the novelist. Eleanor was dramatized and played at the Court Theatre in 1902. In Lady Rose's Daughter (1903) — dramatized as Agatha in 1905 — and The Marriage of William Aske (1905), modern tales founded on the stories respectively of Mile de Lespinasse and Lady Caroline Lamb, she relied entirely and with success upon social portraiture. Later novels were Fenwick's Career (1906), Diana Mallory (1908), Daphne (1909) and Canadian Born (1910). Mrs Ward's eminence among latter-day women-novelists arises from her high conception of the art of fiction and her strong grasp of intellectual and social problems, her descriptive power (finely shown in the first part of Robert Elsmere) and her command of a broad and vigorous prose style. But her xxvm. ii activities were not confined to literature. She was the originator in England of the Vacation Schools, which have done much to educate the poorest children of the community upon rational lines. She also took a leading part in the movement for op- posing the grant of the parliamentary suffrage to women, whilst encouraging their active participation in the work of local government. She was one of the founders of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League in 1908, and both spoke and wrote repeatedly in support of its tenets. See for bibliography up to June 1904, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxxi. (N.S.) pp. 294 and 299. (H. CH.) WARD, SETH (1617-1689), English bishop, was born in Hert- fordshire, and educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he became fellow in 1640. In 1643 he was chosen univer- sity mathematical lecturer, but he was deprived of his fellowship next year for opposing the Solemn League and Covenant. In 1649 he became Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, and gained a high reputation by his theory of planetary motion, propounded in the works entitled In Ismaelis Bullialdi astro- nomiae philolaicae fundamenta inquisitio brevis (Oxford, 1653), and Astronomia geometrica (London, 1656). About this time he was engaged in a philosophical controversy with Thomas Hobbes. He was one of the original members of the Royal Society. In 1659 he was appointed master of Trinity College, Oxford, but not having the statutory qualifications he resigned in 1660. Charles II. appointed him to the livings of St Lawrence Jewry in London, and Uplowman, Devonshire, in 1661. He also became dean of Exeter (1661) and rector of Breock, Corn- wall (1662). In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of Exeter, and in 1667 he was translated to the see of Salisbury. The office of chancellor of the Order of the Garter was conferred on him in 1671. In his diocese he showed great severity to nonconformists, and rigidly enforced the act prohibiting con- venticles. He spent a great deal of money on the restoration of the cathedrals of Worcester and Salisbury. He died at Knights- bridge on the 6th of January 1688/1689. WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826), English mezzotint-engraver, an elder brother of James Ward (?.».), was born in London in 1766. He was the most distinguished pupil of J. Raphael Smith, and executed a great part of many of the plates which bear the name of that excellent engraver. In 1795 he began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, of which in 1814 he was elected an associate engraver. He also held the appointment of mezzotint-engraver to the prince regent and the duke of York. He executed six plates after Reynolds, engraved many of the works of his brother- in-law, George Morland, and his mezzotints after Andrew Geddes, which include the full-lengths of Sir David Wilkie and of Patrick Brydone, are of great merit. His engravings are full of artistic spirit, and show fine feeling for colour; and they are excellently tender and expressive in their rendering of flesh. He died in London on the ist of December 1826. WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882), English Roman Catholic theologian, was born on the 2ist of March 1812. His career is extremely interesting as illustrating the development of religious opinion at a remarkable crisis in the history of English religious thought. Ward is described by his son and biographer as somewhat unequally gifted by nature. For pure mathematics he had a special gift — almost a passion. For history, applied mathematics — for anything, in fact, outside the exact sciences — he felt something approaching to contempt. He was endowed with a strong sense of humour and a love of paradox carried to an extreme. He went up to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1830, but his father's subsequent pecuniary embarrassments compelled him in 1833 to try for a scholarship at Lincoln College, which he succeeded in obtaining. His examination for mathematical honours exhibited some of the peculiarities of his character and mental powers. Four out. of his five papers on applied mathe- matics were sent up absolutely blank. Honours, however, were not refused him, and in 1834 he obtained an open fellowship at Balliol. In the previous year the Tractarian movement had commenced, and Ward's relations with that movement were as original as the rest of his life. He was attracted to it by his 322 WARD— WARDLAW, LADY hatred of moderation and what he called " respectability " in any shape — a characteristic of which some amusing instances have been handed down. He was repelled from it by the conception he had formed of the character of Newman, whom he regarded as a mere antiquary. When, however, he was at length persuaded by a friend to go and hear Newman preach, he at once became a disciple. But he had, as Newman afterwards said of him, " struck into the movement at an angle." He had no taste for historical investigations. He treated the question at issue as one of pure logic, and disliking the Reformers, the right of private judgment which Protestants claimed, and the somewhat prosaic uniformity of the English Church, he flung himself into a general campaign against Protestantism in general and the Anglican form of it in particular. He nevertheless took deacon's orders in 1838 and priest's orders in 1840. In 1839 Ward became the editor of the British Critic, the organ of the Tractarian party, and he excited suspicion among the adherents of the Tractarians themselves by his violent denuncia- tions of the Church to which he still belonged. In 1841 he urged the publication of the celebrated "Tract XC.," and wrote in defence of it. From that period Ward and his associates worked undisguisedly for union with the Church of Rome, and in 1844 he published his Ideal of a Christian Church, in which he openly contended that the only hope for the Church of England lay in submission to the Church of Rome. This publication brought to a height the storm which had long been gathering. The university of Oxford was invited, on the i3th of February 1845, to condemn " Tract XC.," to censure the Ideal, and to degrade Ward from his degrees. The two latter propositions were carried and " Tract XC." only escaped censure by the non placet of the proctors, Guillemard and Church. The condemnation precipitated an exodus to Rome. Ward left the Church of England in September 1845, and was followed by many others, including Newman himself. After his reception into the Church of Rome, Ward gave himself up to ethics, metaphysics and moral philosophy. He wrote articles on free will, the philosophy of theism, on science, prayer and miracles for the Dublin Review. He also dealt with the condemnation of Pope Honorius, carried on a controversial correspondence with John Stuart Mill, and took a leading part in the discussions of the Metaphysical Society, founded by Mr James Knowles, of which Tennyson, Huxley and Martineau were also prominent members. He was a vehement opponent of Liberal Catholicism. In 1851 he was made professor of moral philosophy at St Edmund's College, Ware, and was advanced to the chair of dogmatic theology in 1852. In 1868 he became editor of the Dublin Review. He gave a vigorous support to the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility in 1870. After his admission into the Roman Catholic Church he had, rather to the dismay of his friends, entered the married state, and for a time had to struggle with poverty. But his circum- stances afterwards improved. He died on the 6th of July 1882. (J= J- L.*) See William George Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889); and William George Ward and the Catholic Revival (1893), by his son, Wilfrid Philip Ward (b. 1856), who has also written the Life and Times of Cardinal Wiseman; and Ten Personal Studies (1908). WARD, that which guards or watches and that which is guarded or watched. The word is a doublet of " guard," which was adapted from the French comparatively late into English. Both are to be referred to the Teutonic root war-, to protect, defend, cf. " wary," " warn," " beware," O. Eng. weard, Ger. warten, &c., and the English " guardian," " garrison," &c. The principal applications of the term are, in architecture, to the inner courts of a fortified place; at Windsor Castle they are called the upper and lower wards (see BAILEY, CASTLE); to a ridge of metal inside a lock blocking the passage of any key which has not a corresponding slot into which the ridge fits, the slot in the key being also called " ward " (see LOCKS). Another branch of meaning is to be found in the use of the word for a division into which a borough is divided for the purpose of election of councillors, or a parish for election of guardians. It was also the term used as equivalent to " hundred " in Northumberland and Cumberland. To this branch belongs the use for the various large or small separate rooms in a hospital, asylum, &c., where patients are received and treated. The most general meaning of the word is for a minor or person who is under a guardianship (see INFANT, MARRIAGE and ROMAN LAW). WARDEN, a custodian, defender, guardian (see GUARDIAN, a word with which it is etymologically identical). The word is frequently employed in the ordinary sense of a watchman or guardian, but more usually in England in the sense of a chief or head official. The lords wardens of the marches, for example, were powerful nobles appointed to guard the borders of Scotland and of Wales; they held their lands per baroniam, the king's writ not running against them, and they had extensive rights of administrating justice. The chief officer of the ancient stan- naries of Cornwall has the title of lord warden (see STANNARIES), as has also the governor of Dover Castle (see CINQUE PORTS). Warden was until 1870 the alternative title of the master of the mint, and " warden of the standards " the title of the head of the Standards office (see STANDARDS). The principal or head of several of the colleges of Oxford University is also termed warden. WARDHA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur division of the Central Provinces, which take their name from the Wardha river. The town is situated 49 m. S.W. of Nagpur by rail. Pop. (1901) 9872. It was laid out in 1866, shortly after the district was first constituted. It is an important centre of the cotton trade. The DISTRICT OF WARDHA has an area of 2428 sq. m. It is hilly in the north, and intersected by spurs from the Satpura range. The central portion includes the three peaks of Malegaon (1726 ft.), Nandgaon (1874 ft.), and Jaitgarh (2086 ft.). From this cluster of hills numerous small streams lead to the Wardha river on the one side, while on the other the Dham, Bor, and Asoda flow down the length of the district in a south-easterly direction. The Wardha, and its affluent the Wanna, are the only rivers of any importance. To the south the country spreads out in an undulating plain, intersected by watercourses, and broken here and there by isolated hills rising abruptly from the surface. In general the lowlands are well wooded. Leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals and wild hog abound in the district; other animals found are the spotted deer, nilgai and antelope. The district is subject to great variations of climate, and the rainfall at Wardha town averages 41 in. In 1901 the population was 385,103, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The principal crops are cotton, millet, wheat and oil-seeds. This region supplies the cotton known in the market as Hinganghat. There are cotton-mills at Hinganghat and Palgaon, and many factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The district is traversed by the Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway. A branch runs from Wardha town past Hinganghat to the Warora coal-field in the district of Chanda. The history of Wardha forms part of that of Nagpur district, from which it was separated in 1862 for administrative purposes. See Wardha District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1906). WARDLAW, ELIZABETH, LADY (1677-1727), reputed author of Hardyknule, second daughter of Sir Charles Halket, was born in April 1677. She married in 1696 Sir Henry Wardlaw, Bart., of Pitreavie. The ballad of Hardyknute, published in 1719 as an old poem, was supposed to have been discovered by her in a vault at Dunfermline, but no MS. was ever produced; and in the 1767 edition of Percy's Reliques the poem was ascribed to her. The beautiful ballad of Sir Patrick Spens (F. J. Child, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, ii. 17) has been also asserted to be her work, one of the supporters of the theory being Robert Chambers (Remarks on Scottish Ballads, 1859). The level of accomplishment in Hardyknute, however, gives no reason for supposing that Lady Wardlaw was capable of producing Sir Patrick Spens. See Norval Clyne, The Romantic Scottish Ballads and the Lady Wardlaw Heresy (1859), and J. H. Watkins, Early Scottish Ballads (Glasgow, 1867). WARDLAW, H.— WAREHAM 323 WARDLAW, HENRY (d. 1440), Scottish prelate, was a son of Sir Andrew Wardlaw and a nephew of Walter Wardlaw (d. 1390), bishop of Glasgow, who is said to have been made a cardinal by the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1381. Educated at the universities of Oxford and of Paris, Henry Wardlaw returned to Scotland about 1385, and owing to his influential connexions received many benefices in the Church. He passed some time at Avignon, and it was whilst he was residing at the 1 court that he was chosen bishop of St Andrews, being vcrated in 1403. Returning to Scotland he acted as tutor to the future king, James I., and finished the work of restoring his cathedral. Then having helped to bring about the release of James from his captivity in England, he crowned this king in May 1424, and afterwards acted as one of his principal ad- visers. He appears to have been an excellent bishop, although he tried to suppress the teaching of John Wycliffe by burning Ivocates. He died on the 6th of April 1440. Wardlaw's chief title to fame is the fact that he was the founder of the university of St Andrews, the first Scottish university. He •••\ the charter of foundation in February 1411, and the privileges of the new seat of learning were confirmed by a bull of Pope Benedict XIII., dated the 28th of August 1413. The university was to be " an impregnable rampart of doctors and masters to resist heresy." WARDROBE, a portable upright cupboard for storing clothes. The earliest wardrobe was a chest, and it was not until some degree of luxury was attained in regal palaces and the castles of powerful nobles that separate accommodation was provided for the sumptuous apparel of the great. The name of wardrobe was then given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with cupboards and lockers — the drawer is a comparatively modern invention. From these cupboards and lockers the modern wardrobe, with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers, .-.lowly evolved. In its movable form as an oak " hanging cupboard " it dates back to the early 1 7th century. For probably a hundred years such pieces, massive and cumbrous in form, but often with well-carved fronts, were made in fair numbers; then the gradual diminution in the use of oak for cabinet-making produced a change of fashion. Walnut succeeded oak as the favourite material for furniture, but hanging wardrobes in walnut appear to have been made very rarely, although clothes presses, with drawers and sliding trays, were frequent. During a large portion of the iSth century the tallboy (q.v.) was much used for storing clothes. Towards its end, however, the wardrobe began to develop into its modern form, with a hanging cup- board at each side, a press in the upper part of the central portion and drawers below. As a rule it was of mahogany, but so soon as satinwood and other hitherto scarce finely grained foreign woods began to be obtainable in considerable quantities, many elaborately and even magnificently inlaid wardrobes were made. Where Chippendale and his school had carved, Sheraton and Hepplewhite and their contemporaries obtained their effects by the artistic employment of deftly contrasted and highly polished woods. The first step in the evolution of the wardrobe was taken when the central doors, which had hitherto enclosed merely the upper part, were carried to the floor, covering the drawers as well as the sliding shelves, and were fitted with mirrors. WARD- ROOM (i.e. the room of the guard), the cabin occupied by the commissioned officers, except the captain, in a man-of- war. In the wooden line-of-battle ships it was above the gun- room. WARE, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, on the river Lea, 22 m. N. of London by a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5573. The church of St Mary is a cruciform Decorated and Perpendicular building of flint and stone, con- sisting of chancel (built, it is supposed, by Lady Margaret Beaufort, countess of Richmcnd, and mother of Henry VII.), lady chapel to the south (c. 1380), nave of five bays of the time of Richard II., transepts, aisles, south porch and embattled tower of the time of Edward III. There is an elaborate Perpendicular font. The modern mansion of The Priory, to the west of the town, occupies the site of a priory of the order of St Francis, founded, according to Dugdale, by Hugh de Grant- maisnil, lord of Ware. A portion of the original building is incorporated in the modern one. Among public buildings are the corn exchange and the town-hall, which includes a literary institute and library. The famous " Great Bed of Ware," referred to in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, which formerly was at the Saracen's Head in Ware, has been removed to Rye House, 2 m. distant, the scene of the Rye House plot of 1683 against Charles II. The town possesses breweries and brick-fields, and there is a large trade in malt, assisted by the navigation of the Lea to London. Near the village of Great Amwell (i m. S.E.) are the sources of the New River, formed in 1606-1612 to supply London with water; and on a small island in the stream stands a monument to Sir Hugh Myddleton, through whose exertions this work was carried out. WARE, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., traversed by the Ware river, and about 25 m. E.N.E. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 4817, (1800) 7329, (1000) 8263, of whom 3263 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 8774. Area 29-3 sq. m. The township is served by the Boston & Albany and Boston &"Maine railways, and by two interurban electric lines. Its average elevation is about 550 ft. above sea-level. There is a public library (14,225 volumes in 1910). In 1905 the value of the factory products was $3,783,696, 23-2% more than in 1900. Among the manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, and boots and shoes. The township owns and operates its waterworks. Because of its hard and rough soil, Ware was not settled as early as the surrounding townships, the first per- manent settlement being made in 1730. It was incorporated in 1742 as a precinct, in 1761 as a district (formed from parts of Brookfield, Palmer and Western, now Warren, and certain common lands), and in 1775 as a separate township. In 1823 additions were made from Brookfield and Western. WAREHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the eastern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, i2ijm. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2003. It lies between the rivers Frome and Piddle, i| m. above their outflow into Poole harbour. The town is of high antiquity, and is partially surrounded by earth- works probably of British construction. The church of St Mary contains a chapel dedicated to St Edward, commemorating that Edward who was murdered at Corfe Castle in this neigh- bourhood, whose body lay here before its removal to Shaftes- bury. It also possesses a remarkable Norman font of lead. Two other ancient churches remain, but are not used for worship. There are ruins of a priory dedicated to SS. Mary, Peter and Ethelwold, and the site of the old castle may be traced. The town and neighbourhood have been long noted for their lime and cement, and large quantities of potters', pipe, fire and other kinds of clay are sent to Staffordshire and to foreign countries. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors. Area 251 acres. Owing to its situation as a key of Purbeck, the site of Ware- ham (Werhant, Warham) has been occupied from early times. The earthworks, of British origin, were modified in almost every successive age. That Wareham was a pre-Saxon town is evident from Asser's statement that its British name was Durngucir. The early chroniclers declare that St Aldhelm founded a church near Wareham about 701, and perhaps the pricry, which is mentioned as existing in 876, when the Danes retired from Cambridge to a strong position in this fort. Their occupation was not lengthy. Having made terms with Alfred, they broke the conditions and returned to Cambridge. In the following year they were again at Wareham, which they made their headquarters. Eeorhtric, the immediate predecessor of Ecgbert, was buried here. Further incursions made by the Danes in 098 and in 1015 under Canute probably resulted in the destruction of the priory, on the site of which a later house was founded in the I2th century as a cell of the Norman abbey of Lysa, and in the decayed condition of Wareham in 1086, when 203 houses 324 WARENNE, EARLS— WAR GAME were ruined or waste, the result of misfortune, poverty and fire. The early castle, which existed before 1086, was important during the civil wars of Stephen's reign; in 1142 Robert, earl of Gloucester, on his departure for France, committed it to his son's charge. Stephen, however, surprised and took it, but it surrendered to the earl in the same year on the king's refusal to send it aid. John fortified it against Louis of France in 1216, and during the civil wars it was the scene of much fighting, being stormed by the parliamentary forces in 1644. Wareham was accounted a borough in Domesday Book, and the burgesses in 1176 paid 20 marks for a default. In 1180-1181 they rendered account of 5 marks for erecting a gild without licence. The fee-farm of the borough was obtained in 1211, on a fine of 100 marks. The constitution of Wareham underwent a change during the years 1326-1338, when the governing body of the bailiffs and commonalty were replaced by the mayor and bailiffs. In 1587 Elizabeth granted certain privileges to Wareham, but it was not incorporated until 1703, when the existing fairs for April 6 and August 23 were granted. The port was important throughout the middle ages, and was required to furnish four ships for the French war in 1334. Considerable trade was carried on with France and Spain, cloth, Purbeck stone and, later, clay being largely exported. WARENNE, EARLS. The Warennes derived their surname from the river of Guarenne or Varenne and the little town of the same name near Arques in Normandy. William de Warenne, who crossed with William I. in 1066, was a distant cousin of the Conqueror, his grandmother having been the sister of Gunnora, wife of Richard I. of Normandy: De Warenne received as his share of English spoil some 300 manors in Yorkshire, Norfolk, Surrey and Sussex, including Lewes Castle. He was wounded at the siege of Pevensey and died in 1089, a year after he had received the title of earl of Surrey. Both he and his successors were more commonly styled Earl Warenne than earl of Surrey. His wife Gundrada, described on her monument as stirps ducum,1 appears to have been a sister of Gharbod, earl of Chester. Their son William, 2nd earl (c. 1071-1138), was a suitor for the hand of Matilda of Scotland, afterwards queen of Henry I. He was temporarily deprived of his earldom in 1101 for his support of Robert, duke of Normandy, but he commanded at the battle of Tenchebrai (1106), and was governor of Rouen in 1135. He carried off Elizabeth of Vermandois, granddaughter of Henry I. of France, and wife of Robert, count of Meulan, and married her in 1118 after her husband's death. William de Warenne, 3rd earl (d. 1148), was, with his half- brother, Robert de Beaumont, early of Leicester, present at the battle of Lincoln, where his flight early in the day contributed to Stephen's defeat. He remained faithful to the queen during Stephen's imprisonment, and in 1146 he took the cross, and was killed near Laodicea in January 1 148. His daughter and heiress, Isabel, married in 1153 William de Blois, second son of King Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne, and in 1163 Hamelin Plantagenet, natural son of Geoffrey, count of Anjou. Both Isabel's husbands appear to have borne the title of Earl Warenne. Earl Hamelin was one of those who at the council of Northampton denounced Becket as a traitor; he remained faithful to his half-brother, Henry II., during the trouble with the king's sons, and in Richard I.'s absence on the crusade he supported the government against the intrigues of Prince John. William de Warenne (d. 1240), son of Isabel and Hamelin, who succeeded to the earldom in 1202, enjoyed the special confidence of King John. In 1212, when a general rebellion was appre- hended, John committed to him the custody of the northern shires; and he remained faithful to his master throughout the troubles which preceded the signing of the Charter. In 1216, as the king's situation became desperate, the earl repented of his loyalty, and, shortly before the death of John, made terms with Prince Louis. He returned, however, to his lawful allegiance im- mediately upon the accession of Henry III., and was, during his minority, a loyal supporter of the crown. He disliked, however, 1 See R. E. Chester Watson, " Gundrada," in the Jnl. of the Arch. Inst., xli. p. 1 08. the royal favourites who came into power after 1227, and used his influence to protect Hubert de Burgh when the latter had been removed from office by their efforts (1232). Warenne's relations with the king became strained in course of time. In 1238 he was evidently regarded as a leader of the baronial opposition, for the great council appointed him as one of the treasurers who were to prevent the king from squandering the subsidy voted in that year. His son John de Warenne (c. 1231-1304) succeeded in 1240, and at a later date bore the style of earl of Surrey and Sussex. In the battle of Lewes (1264) he fought under Prince Edward, and on the defeat of the royal army fled with the queen to France. His estates were confiscated but were subsequently restored. He served in Edward I.'s Welsh campaigns, and took a s£ill more prominent part in Scottish affairs, being the king's lieutenant in Scotland in 1296-1297. In September 1297 he advanced to Stirling, and, giving way to the clamour of his soldiers, was defeated by William Wallace on the nth. He invaded Scotland early the next year with a fresh army, and, joining Edward in the second expedition of that year, commanded the rear at Falkirk By his first wife, Alice of Lusignan, half-sister of Henry III., Eari Warenne had three children — Alice, who married Henry Percy, father of the ist baron Percy; Isabella, who married John Baliol, afterwards king of Scots; and William, who pre- deceased his father, leaving a son John. John de Warenne (1286-1347) succeeded his grandfather in 1304, and was knighted along with the prince of Wales in 1306, two days after his marriage with the prince's niece, Joanna, daughter of Eleanor of England, countess of Bar. From that time onwards he was much engaged in the Scottish wars, in which he had a personal interest, since John Baliol was his cousin and at one time his ward. As there were no children of his marriage, his nephew, Richard Fitzalan II., earl of Arundel (c. 1307-1376), became heir to his estates and the earldom of Surrey. His northern estates reverted to the crown, and the southern estates held by Joanna of Bar during her lifetime passed to Fitzalan. The Warrens of Poynton, barons of Stock- port, descended from one of Earl Warenne's illegitimate sons by Isabella de Holland. Earl Warenne had received from Edward Baliol the Scottish earldom of Strathearn, but seems never to have established effective possession. See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896) ; and John Watson, Memoirs of the Ancient Earls of Warren or Surrey (2 vols., Warrington, 1782). WAR GAME, or (in its German form) KRIEGSPIEL, a scientific game, played by representing the positions and movements of troops on a map. Kriegspiel is, as the name indicates, of German origin. A form of it, invented by Marshal Keith, and called Kriegs-schachsspiel (War Chess), was in vogue in the 1 8th century. In its present form it was invented by von Reisswitz (1794-1827), a Prussian officer, in 1824. As a game it quickly became fashionable at the German courts, and as a means of instruction it was promptly introduced into the Prussian army, whence it has spread to all the armies of the world. The idea of it has been applied also to naval warfare in recent times, the most usual form of naval war game being that designed by F. T. Jane about 1898. In the military game the positions of troops are marked on maps, movements are made under regulations and the whole or portions of past campaigns can be reproduced in outline of fair accuracy, or more usually hypothetical manoeuvres may be formulated for study and instruction. The materials required are at least three copies of the same map, drawn to such scale as may be suitable to the magnitude of the operations to be represented. If the scheme is one for small numbers of troops, maps of large scale are essential, as small features of the ground largely influence the action of small bodies, and it is only on large-scale maps that the real influence of small features can readily be appreciated. Conversely, with large bodies, maps on a diminished scale are convenient. A great amount of detail is necessary in all maps drawn for military purposes; heights, roads, buildings, water-courses, fences and the nature of the WARGLA— WARHAM 325 ground, all enter into the question of the feasibility or the reverse of military operations; and where the map is the actual field of manoeuvre, the features of the natural field must be adequately supplied. Blocks, cut or moulded to scale, represent the different units of the combatants; and are coloured (generally red and blue) to distinguish the opposing forces. Some pairs of dividers and a few measures of the same scale as the maps employed complete the material outfit. Printed regulations for the conduct of kriegspiel are of small value; and although rules have been drafted at various times and in many languages, they have generally been allowed to lapSe, practice having proved that the decision of a competent umpire is of more value, as to the sound- ness or unsoundness of a military manoeuvre, than a code of regulations which inevitably lack elasticity. The usual course of procedure varies but little in the different countries in which the system has been employed. The central map screened from the view of the combatants is used by the umpire, who places on it the forces of both sides; copies are on eirher hand behind screens or in adjoining rooms, and on them representative blocks are placed in positions which agree with the information possessed by each respective commander. A scheme is formulated such as may occur in war, and a " General Idea " or "Narrative" is the common property of both sides. This contains those items of common knowledge which would be in the possession of either commander in the field. The General Idea is supplemented by " special ideas," issued one to each of the combatants, supplying the information which a commander might reasonably be expected to have of the details of his own force. A third series of instruc- tions is issued, entitled " Orders," which define to each commander the object to be attained ; and on receipt of these he is required to draft specific orders, such as, in manoeuvre or in war, would be considered necessary for issue to field units in the assumed circum- stances. Then the game begins. The units of artillery, cavalry, infantry or train-wagons advance or retreat at a rate approxi- mately regulated to their normal pace. Information gained by advancing patrols is brought at realistic speed to its destination ; and no alteration in the ordered movements of a unit is allowed, till ex- piration of the calculated time for the transmission of the intelligence and for the issue of fresh orders. So the exercise progresses, each movement is marked, and periodically the blocks on the three maps are placed as they would be at a simultaneous moment. Smaller units yield to larger ones of the enemy; equal forces, if unassisted by superiority of position," contain "one another, and are practically neutralized till reinforcements arrive and equilibrium is overthrown. The decisions of the umpire are all-important, and it is he who makes or mars the value of the instruction. Some axioms must be universally accepted for the guidance both of himself and of the players. A force arrayed within effective range on the flank of an equal and hostile force has the better position of the two. Artillery in position with an unimpeded glacis is a terrible task for a frontal attack. Cavalry, as such, is ineffective in woodlands, marshes or a country broken up by cross hedges or wire fencing. Infantry in masses is an ideal target for efficient artillery, and in scattered bodies affords opportunities for attack by well-handled cavalry. The just application of the ideas contained in these few sentences to the varying stages of a combat is no mean task for a cultured soldier. One of many difficulties encountered in war is the lack of accurate information. Any one man's view of details spread over large areas of country is extremely limited; and even with the greatest pre- cautions against unreality, a commander's information is vastly more accurate over the extended units of his mimic force at kriegspiel than when the forces so represented are men, horses and machines, wrapped in dust or in smoke, and partially obscured by accidents of the ground too insignificant for reproduction on the map. Yet whilst accepting a certain unreality in kriegspiel, and to a less_ degree in field manoeuvres, both by one and the other military training and education are furthered. The framing of orders follows identical lines at kriegspiel, at manoeuvres or in war. The movement of troops in mimic warfare should be brought to harmonize as far as possible with reality. Up to a point this is relatively easy, and depends chiefly on the quality of the umpiring. But directly the close contact of important bodies of troops is represented on paper, imagination, not realism, governs the results. Even this, however, can be tempered, as regards the larger problems of the tactical grouping of forces, by the wisdom and experience of the umpire. It is true that military history teems with tactical events that no map can reproduce and no seer could have prophesied. But the greater an officer's familiarity with military history, the more likely he is to provide the margin of safety against such incidents in his dispositions, and thus kriegspiel, even in the domain of general tactics, is of invaluable assistance as a means of applying sound principles, learned in other ways, to concrete cases. WARGLA, a town in the Algerian Sahara, 175 m. S.W. of Biskra on the caravan route to the Niger countries, and a starting- point for the exploration of the southern part of the Sahara. Pop. (1906) 3570, the majority of mixed Berber and negro blood. The town is walled and is entered by six gateways, which are fortified. The French fort, barracks, hospital and other buildings are south of the native town. Wargla lies in an oasis containing many palm trees. It claims to be the oldest town in the Sahara, and was for a long time self-governing, but eventually placed itself under the protection of the sultan of Morocco. The sultan, however, had ceased to have any power in the town some time previous to the French occupation. Wargla was first occupied for the French in 1853 by native allies, but it was not until 1872 that the authority of France was definitely established. The importance of the town as a trans-Saharan trade centre has greatly declined since the suppression of slave-trading by the French. The oasis in which Wargla is situated contains two or three other small fortified ksurs or villages, the largest and most picturesque being Ruissat. The total population of the oasis is about 12,000. WARHAM, WILLIAM (c. 1450-1532), archbishop of Canter- bury, belonged to a Hampshire family, and was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, afterwards practising and teaching law both in London and Oxford. Later he took holy orders, held two livings, and became master of the rolls in 1494, while Henry VII. found him a useful and clever diplomatist. He helped to arrange the marriage between Henry's son, Arthur, and Catherine of Aragon; he went to Scotland with Richard Foxe, then bishop of Durham, in 1497; and he was partly responsible for several commercial and other treaties with Flanders, Burgundy and the German king, Maximilian I. In 1502 Warham was consecrated bishop of London and became keeper of the great seal, but his tenure of both these offices was short, as in 1504 he became lord chancellor and archbishop of Canterbury. In 1509 the archbishop married and then crowned Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but gradually withdrawing into the background he resigned the office of lord chancellor in 1515, and was succeeded by Wolsey, whom he had consecrated as bishop of Lincoln in the previous year. This resignation was possibly due to his dislike of Henry's foreign policy. He was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and assisted Wolsey as assessor during the secret inquiry into the validity of Henry's marriage with Catherine in 1527. Throughout the divorce proceedings Warham's position was essentially that of an old and weary man. He was named as one of the counsellors to assist the queen, but, fearing to incur the king's displeasure and usir^ his favourite phrase ira principis mors est, he gave her very little help; and he signed the letter to Clement VII. which urged the pope to assent to Henry's wish. Afterwards it was proposed that the archbishop himself should try the case, but this suggestion came to nothing. He presided over the Convocation of 1531 when the clergy of the province of Canterbury voted £100,000 to the king in order to avoid the penalties of praemunire, and accepted Henry as supreme head of the church with the saving clause " so far as the law of Christ allows." In his con- cluding years, however, the archbishop showed rather more independence. In February 1532 he protested against all acts concerning the church passed by the parliament which met in 1529, but this did not prevent the important proceedings which secured the complete submission of the church to the state later in the same year. Against this further compliance with Henry's wishes Warham drew up a protest; he likened the action of Henry VIII. to that of Henry II., and urged Magna Carta in defence of the liberties of the church. He died on the 22nd of August 1 53 2 and was buried in Canterbury cathedral. Warham, who was chancellor of Oxford University from 1506 until his death, was munificent in his public, and moderate in his private life. As archbishop he seems to have been somewhat arbitrary, and his action led to a serious quarrel with Bishop Foxe of Winchester and others in 1 5 1 2. See VV. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (1860-1876) ; J. Gairdner in Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. fix. (1899), and The English Church in the i6th Century (1902); J. S. Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII. (1884); and A. F. Pollard, Henry VIII. (1905). 326 WARKWORTH— WARNER, O. L. WARKWORTH, a small town in the Wansbeck parliamentary division of Northumberland, England, 32 m. N. of Newcastle- upon-Tyne by the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 712. It is beautifully situated in a hollow of the river Coquet, if m. above its mouth, where on the S. bank is AMBLE, an urban district (pop. 4428), with a harbour. An ancient bridge of two arches crosses the river, with a fortified gateway on the road mounting to the castle, the site of which is surrounded on three sides by the river. Of this Norman stronghold there are fine remains, including walls, a gateway and hall; while the re- mainder, including the Lion tower and the keep, is of the i3th and i4th centuries. Roger Fitz-Richard held the manor and probably built the earliest parts of the castle in the reign of Henry II. The lordship came to the Percies in Edward III.'s reign and is still held by their descendants the dukes of North- umberland, though it passed from them temporarily after the capture of the castle by Henry IV. in 1405, and again on the fall of the house of Lancaster. The foundation of Warkworth church is attributed to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria (c. 736), who subsequently became a monk. It was the scene of a massacre by a Scottish force sent by William the Lion in 1 1 74. The church is principally of Norman and Perpendicular work, but remains of the Saxon building have been discovered. In the vicinity are remains of a Benedictine priory of the i3th century. By the side of the Coquet above the castle is the Hermitage of Wark- worth. This remarkable relic consists of an outer portion built of stone, and an inner portion hewn from the steep rock above the river. This inner part comprises a chapel and a smaller chamber, both having altars. There is an altar-tomb with a female effigy in the chapel. From the window between the inner chamber and the chapel, and from other details, the date of the work may be placed in the latter part of the I4th century, the characteristics being late Decorated. The traditional story of the origin of the hermitage, attributing it to one of the Bertrams of Bothal Castle in this county, is told in Bishop Percy's ballad The Hermit of Warkworth (1771). At Amble are ruins of a monastic toll-house, where a tax was levied on shipping; and Coquet Island, i m. off the mouth of the river, was a monastic resort from the earliest times, like the Fame and Holy Islands farther north. The harbour at Amble has an export trade in coal and bricks, coal and fireclay being extensively worked in the neighbourhood, and an import trade in timber. WARLOCK, a wizard, sorcerer or magician (see MAGIC). The word in O. Eng. is wasrloga, literally "a liar against the truth," from war, truth, cognate with Lat. verum (cf. Ger. wahr), and loga, liar, from leogan, to lie (cf. Ger. lilgcn). It was thus used with the meaning of a traitor, deceiver, a breaker of a truce. In M. Eng. it is found as a name for the devil (warloghe), the arch liar and deceiver. The use of the word for a sorcerer or wizard, one whose magic powers are gained by his league with the devil, seems to be a northern English or Scottish use. WARMINSTER, a market town in the Westbury parlia- mentary division of Wiltshire, England, xooj m. W. by S. of Lon- don by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1001) 5547. Its white stone houses form a long curve between the uplands of Salisbury Plain, which sweep away towards the north and east, and the tract of park and meadow land lying south and west. The cruciform church of St Denys has a 14th-century south porch and tower. St Lawrence's chapel, a chantry built under Edward I., was bought by the townsfolk at the Reforma- tion. Warminster has also a free school established in 1707, a missionary college, a training home for lady missionaries and a reformatory for boys. Besides a silk mill, malthouses and engineering and agricultural implement works, there is a brisk trade in farm produce. Warminster appears in Domesday, and was a royal manor whose tenant was bound to provide, when required, a night's lodging for the king and his retinue. This privilege was enforced by George III. when he visited Longleat. The meeting of roads from Bath, Frome, Shaftesbury and Salisbury made Warminster a busy coaching centre. Eastward, within 2 m., there are two great British camps: Battlesbury, almost impregnable save | on the north, where its entrenchments are double ; and Scratch- 1 bury, a line of outworks encircling an area of some 40 acres, with three entrances and a citadel in the midst. Barrows are numerous. Longleat, a seat of the marquesses of Bath, lies 5 m. S.E., surrounded by its deer park, crossed from N. to S. by a long and narrow mere. The house is one of the largest and most beautiful examples in the county, dating from the close of the i6th century. Its name is derived from the " leat " or conduit which conveyed water from Horningsham, about i m. south, to supply the mill and Austin priory founded here late in the i3th century. The monastic estates passed at the Dissolution to the Thynne family, who built Longleat. Sir Christopher Wren added certain staircases and a doorway. In 1670 the owner was the celebrated Thomas Thynne satirized in Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel, and Bishop Ken found a home at Longleat for twenty years after the loss of his bishopric. WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY (1829-1900), American essayist and novelist, was born of Puritan ancestry, in Plainfield, Massachusetts, on the I2th of September 1829. From his sixth to his fourteenth year he lived in Charlemont, Mass., the scene of the experiences pictured in his delightful study of childhood, Being a Boy (1877). HC removed thence to Cazenovia, New York, and in 1851 graduated from Hamilton College, Clinton, N.Y. He worked with a surveying party in Missouri; studied law at the university of Pennsylvania; practised in Chicago (1856-1860); was assistant editor (1860) and editor (1861- 1867) of The Hartford Press, and after The Press was merged into The Hartford Coitrant, was co-editor with Joseph R. Hawley ; in 1884 he joined the editorial staff of Harper's Magazine, for which he conducted " The Editor's Drawer " until 1892, when he took charge of " The Editor's Study." He died in Hartford on the 2oth of October 1900. He travelled widely, lectured frequently, and was actively interested in prison reform, city park supervision and other movements for the public good. He was the first president of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and, at the time of his death, was president of the American Serial Science Association. He first attracted atten- tion by the reflective sketches entitled My Summer in a Garden (1870; first published in The Hartford Courant), popular for their abounding and refined humour and mellow personal charm, their wholesome love of out-door things, their suggestive comment on life and affairs, and their delicately finished style, qualities that suggest the work of Washington Irving. Among his other works are Saunterings (descriptions of travel in eastern Europe, 1872) and Back-Log Studies (1872); Baddcck, and That Sort of Thing (1874), travels in Nova Scotia and elsewhere; My Winter on the Nile (1876); In the Levant (1876); In the Wilderness (1878); A Roundabout Journey, in Europe (1883); On Horseback, in the Southern States (1888); Studies in the South and West, •with Comments on Canada (1889); Our Italy, southern California (1891); The Relation of Literature to Life (1896); The People for Whom Shakespeare Wrote (1897); and Fashions in Literature (1902). He also edited " The American Men of Letters " series, to which he contributed an excellent biography of Washington Irving (1881), and edited a large " Library of the World's Best Literature." His other works include his graceful essays, As We Were Saying (1891) and As We Go (1893); and his novels, The Gilded Age (in collaboration with Mark Twain, 1873); Their Pilgrimage (1886); A Little Journey in the World (1889); Tlie Golden House (1894) ; and That Fortune (1889). See the biographical sketch by T. R. Lounsbury in the Complete Writings (15 vols., Hartford, 1904) of Warner. WARNER, OLIN LEVI (1844-1896), American sculptor, was born at West Suffield, Connecticut, on the 9th of April 1844. In turn an artisan and a telegraph operator, by 1869 he had earned enough money to support him through a course of study in Paris under Jouffroy and Carpeaux. He was in France when the Republic was proclaimed in 1870 and enlisted in the Foreign Legion, resuming his studies at the termination of the siege. In 1872 he removed to New York, where, however, he met with little success; he then went to his father's farm in Vermont, and worked for manufacturers of silver and plated ware as well WARNER, S.— WARRANT 327 as makers of mantel ornaments. He attracted the attention of Daniel Cottier, of the Cottier Art Galleries of New York, where Warner's work was exhibited, and some commissions gradually secured for him recognition. They were followed by busts of Alden Weir, the artist, and of Maud Morgan, the musician; some decorations for the Long Island Historical Society; statues of Governor Buckingham at the State Capitol, Hartford, Conn.; William Lloyd Garrison and General Charles Devens, at Boston; reliefs of several striking North American Indian types; a fountain for Portland, Oregon, and the designs for the bronze doors, "Tradition" and "Writing," of the Congressional Library at Washington, of which he lived to complete only the former, which contains the beautiful figures of " Imagination " and " Memory." Warner died in New York City on the I4th of August 1896. He was one of the five charter members of the Society of American Artists (1877), and in 1889 became an academician, National Academy of Design, New York. One of his best-known works is a " Diana." He designed the souvenir silver half-dollar piece for the Columbia Fair at Chicago, in 1893, making also some colossal heads of great artists for the art palace, and busts of Governors Clinton and Flower, of New York State.' WARNER, SETH (1743-1784), American Revolutionary soldier, was born in Roxbury, Connecticut, on the I7th of May 1743. He removed with his father to the " New Hampshire Grants" in 1763, and became prominent among the young men who forcibly resisted New York's claim to the territory (see VI.RMONT). At the outbreak of the War of Independence, he led the detachment of " Green Mountain Boys " which captured Crown Point (f Warwick was their cousin Robert Rich (1620-1675), eldest son of Henry, ist earl of Holland. His grandson, the 7th or 28th earl, left no issue, and the title became extinct on the death, on the isth of September 1759, of his kinsman Edward Rich, Sth or 2gth earl. It was revived two months later, when Francis Greville, Baron Brooke of Beauchamps Court (1710- J773). wr<0 had in 1746 been created Earl Brooke of Warwick Castle, became earl of Warwick. Greville was descended from Robert Greville, the 2nd baron, who was killed at Lichfield during the civil war and he represented a cadet branch of the Beauchamp family. His son George (1746-1816) became the 2nd earl of this h'ne, and the earldom has remained with his descendants, Francis Richard (b. 1853) becoming the sth earl in 1893. His wife, Frances Evelyn, countess of Warwick, daughter of Colonel the Hon. C. H. Maynard (d. 1865), inherited the estates of her grandfather, Henry Maynard, sth and last Viscount Maynard (1788-1865). She became well known in society, and later for her interest in social questions. WARWICK, SIR PHILIP (1600-1683), English writer and politician, was the son of Thomas Warwick, or Warrick, a musician, and was born in Westminster on the 24th of December 1609. Educated at Eton, he travelled abroad for some time and in 1636 became secretary to the lord high treasurer, William Juxon; later he was a member of the Long Parliament, being one of those who voted against the attainder of Stratford and who followed Charles I. to Oxford. He fought at Edgehill and was one of the king's secretaries during the negotiations with the WARWICK, EARLS OF parliament at Hampton Court, and also during those at Newport, ( 'hades speaking very highly of his services just before his execution. Remaining in England, Warwick was passively loyal to Charles II. during the Commonwealth and enjoyed the con- fidence of the royalist leaders. In 1660 the king made him a knight, and in 1661 he became a member of parliament and secretary to another lord treasurer, Thomas Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, retaining this post until the treasury was put into commission on Southampton's death in May 1667. He died on the isth of January 1683. Wai-wick's only son, the younger Philip Warwick (d. 1683), was envoy to Sweden in 1680. rwick is chiefly known for his Memoirs of the reigne of King Charles I., with a continuation to the happy restauration of King Charles II., written between 1675 and 1677 and published in London in 1701. WARWICK, RICHARD BEAUCHAMP, EARL OF (1382-1439), MIR of Thomas Beauchamp, was born at Salwarp in Worcester- shire on the 28th of January 1382, and succeeded his father in 1401. He had some service in the Welsh War, fought on the king's side at the battle of Shrewsbury on the 22nd of July 1403, at the siege of Aberystwith in 1407. In 1408 he started on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, visiting on his way Paris and Rome, and fighting victoriously in a tournament with Pandolfo I\ I alatesta at Verona. From Venice he took ship to Jaffa, whence he went to Jerusalem, and set up his arms in the temple. On his return he travelled through Lithuania, Prussia and Germany, and reached England in 1410. Two years later he was fighting in command at Calais. Up to this time Warwick's career had been that of the typical knight errant. During the reign of Henry V. his chief employment was as a trusted counsellor and diplomatist. He was an ambassador to France in September 14 1.5, and the chief English envoy to the coronation of Sigismund at Aix-la-Chapelle, and to the council of Constance in the autumn of 1414. During the campaign of Agincourt he was captain of Calais, where in April 1416 he received Sigismund with such courtly magnificence as to earn from him the title of the " Father of Courtesy." In the campaigns of 1417-18 Warwick took a prominent part, reducing Domfront and Caudebec. Then he joined the king before Rouen, and in October 1418 had charge of the negotiations with the dauphin and with Burgundy. Next year he was again the chief English spokesman in the conference at Meulan, and afterwards was Henry's representative in arrange- ing the treaty of Troyes. At the sieges of Melun in 1420, and of Mantes in 1421-22 he held high command. Warwick's sage experience made it natural that Henry V. should on his death-bed appoint him to be his son's governor. For some years to come he was engaged chiefly as a member of the council in England. In 1428 he received formal charge of the little king's education. He took Henry to France in 1430, and whilst at Rouen had the superintendence of the trial of Joan of Arc. In 1431 he defeated Pothon de Xaintrailles at Savignies. Next year he returned to England. The king's minority came nominally to an end in 1437- Warwick was then not unnaturally chosen to succeed Richard of York in the government of Normandy. He accepted loyally a service " full far from the ease of my years," and went down to Portsmouth in August, but was long detained by bad weather, " seven times shipped or ever he might pass the sea," and only reached Honfleur on the 8th of November. In Nor- mandy he ruled with vigour for eighteen months, and died at his post on the 3oth of April 1439. His body was brought home and buried at Warwick. His tomb in St Mary's church is one of the most splendid specimens of English art in the isth century. Warwick married (i) Elizabeth Berkeley, (2) Isabella Despenser. By his second wife he left an only son Henry, afterwards duke of Warwick, who died in 1445, and a daughter Anne, who as her brother's sister of the whole blood brought the title and chief share of the estates to her husband Richard Neville, the king- maker. By his first wife he had three daughters, of whom the eldest, Margaret, married John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— John Rous (d. 1491) wrote a life of Warwick, illustrated with over fifty drawings, now at the British Museum (Lotton MS. Julius E. iv.). They have been reproduced in Strutt's 339 Manners and Customs; new edition by Mr Emery Walker with notes by Lord Dillon and Mr W. St John Hope. More authoritative material must be sought in strictly contemporary chronicles and especially in the Vila HenriciQuinti ascribed ioE\mham, Monstrelef Chronicles of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford) and J. Stevenson, Letters &c. illustrative of the English Wars in France (" Rolls " series) For modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie, Henry IV.; C. L. Kingsford Henry V. ; and Sir James Ramsay, Lancaster and York. (C. L. K.) WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (1428-1471), called " the king-maker," was eldest son of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury, by Alice, only daughter and heiress of Thomas, the last Montacute earl of Salisbury. He was born on the 22nd of November 1428, and whilst still a boy betrothed to Anne, daughter of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. When her brother's daughter died in 1449, Anne, as only sister of the whole blood, brought her husband the title and chief share of the Warwick estates. Richard Neville thus became the premier earl, and both in power and position excelled his father. Richard , duke of York, was his uncle, so when York became protector in I4S3. and Salisbury was made chancellor, it was natural that Warwick should be one of the council. After the king's recovery in 1455 Warwick and his father took up arms in York's support. Their victory at St Albans on the 22nd of May was due to the fierce energy with which Warwick assaulted and broke the Lancastrian centre. He was rewarded with the important office of captain of Calais; to his position there he owed his strength during the next five years. Even when York was displaced at home, Warwick retained his post, and in 1457 was also made admiral. He was present in February 1458 at the professed reconciliation of the two parties in a loveday at St Paul's, London. During the previous year he had done some good fighting on the march of Calais by land, and kept the sea with vigour; now on his return he distinguished himself in a great fight with Spanish ships off Calais on the 28th of May, and in the autumn bv captur- ing a German salt-fleet on its way to Lubeck. These' exploits brought him a prestige and popularity that were distasteful to the home government. Moreover, England was at war neither with Castile nor with the Hanse. Warwick's action may possibly have formed part of some Yorkist design for frustrating the foreign policy of their rivals! At all events there was pretext enough for recalling him to make his defence. Whilst he was at the court at Westminster a brawl occurred between his re- tainers and some of the royal household. Warwick himself escaped with difficulty, and went back to Calais, alleging that his life had been deliberately attempted. When in the following year a renewal of the war was imminent, Warwick crossed ever to England with his trained soldiers from Calais under Sir Andrew Trollope. But at Ludlow on the i2th of October Trollope and his men deserted, and left the Yorkists helpless. Warwick, with his father, his cousin the young Edward of York, and only three followers, made his way to Barnstaple. There they hired a little fishing vessel. The master pleaded that he did not know the Channel, but Warwick resourcefully took command and himself steered a successful course to Calais. He arrived just in time to anticipate the duke of Somerset, whom the Lancastrians had sent to supersede him. During the winter Warwick held Calais against Somerset, and sent out a fleet which seized Sandwich and captured Lord Rivers. In the spring he went to Ireland to concert plans with Richard of York. On his return voyage he encountered a superior Lancastrian fleet in the Channel. But Exeter, the rival commander, could not trust his crews and dared not fight. From Calais Warwick, Salisbury and Edward of York crossed to Sandwich on the 26th of June. A few days later they entered London, whence Warwick at once marched north. On the loth of July he routed the Lancastrians at Northampton, and took the king prisoner. For the order to spare the commons and slay the lords Warwick was responsible, as also for some later execu- tions at London. Yet when Richard of York was disposed to claim the crown, it was, according to Waurin, Warwick who decided the discussion in favour of a compromise, perhaps from loyalty to Henry, or perhaps from the wish not to change a weak sovereign for a strong. Warwick was in charge of London at the 340 WARWICK, 2ND EARL OF— WARWICK time when Richard and Salisbury were defeated and slain at Wakefield. The Lancastrians won a second victory at St Albans on the lyth of February 1461, possibly through lack of general- ship on Warwick's part. But in his plans to retrieve the disaster Warwick showed skill and decision. He met Edward of York in Oxfordshire, brought him in triumph to London, had him proclaimed king, and within a month of his defeat at St Albans was marching north in pursuit of the Lancastrians. The good generalship which won the victory of Towton may have been due to Edward rather than to Warwick, but the new king was of the creation of the powerful earl, who now had his reward. For four years the government was centred undisputedly in the hands of Warwick and his friends. The energy of his brother John, Lord Montagu, frustrated the various attempts of the Lancastrians in the north. In another sphere Warwick himself was determining the lines of English policy on the basis of an alliance with France. The power of the Nevilles seemed to be completed by the promotion of George, the third brother, to be archbishop of York. The first check came with the announce- ment in September 1464 of the king's secret marriage to Elizabeth Woodville. This was particularly distasteful to Warwick, who had but just pledged Edward to a French match. For the time, however, there was no open breach. The trouble began in 1466, when Edward first made Rivers, the queen's father, treasurer, and afterwards threw obstacles in the way of an intended marriage between Warwick's daughter Isabel and George of Clarence, his own next brother. Still in May 1467 Warwick went again with the king's assent to conclude a treaty with France. He returned to find that in his absence Edward, under Woodville's influence, had committed himself definitely to the Burgundian alliance. Warwick retired in dudgeon to his estates, and began to plot in secret for his revenge. In the summer of 1469 he went over to Calais, where Isabel and Clarence were married without the king's knowledge. Meantime he had stirred up the rebellion of Robin of Redesdale in Yorkshire; and when Edward was drawn nortn Warwick invaded England in arms. The king, outmarched and outnumbered, had to yield himself prisoner, whilst Rivers and his son John were executed. Warwick was apparently content with the Overthrow of the Woodvilles, and believed that he had secured Edward's submission. In March 1470 a rebellion in Lincolnshire gave Edward an oppor- tunity to gather an army of his own. When the king alleged that he had found proof of Warwick's complicity, the earl, taken by surprise, fled with Clarence to France. There, through the instrumentality of Louis XL, he was with some difficulty reconciled to Margaret of Anjou, and agreed to marry his second daughter to her son. In September Warwick and Clarence, with the Lancastrian lords, landed at Dartmouth. Edward in his turn had to fly oversea, and for six months Warwick ruled England as lieutenant for Henry VI., who was restored from his prison in the Tower to a nominal throne. But the Lancastrian restoration was unwelcome to Clarence, who began to intrigue with his brother^ When in March 1471 Edward landed at Ravenspur, Clarence found an opportunity to join him. Warwick was completely outgenerailed, and at Barnet on the I4th of April was defeated and slain. Warwick has been made famous by Lytton as " The Last of the Barons." The title suits him as a great feudal lord, who was a good fighter but a poor general, who had more sympathy with the old order than with the new culture. But he was more than this. He had some of the qualities of a strong ruler, and the power to command popularity. He was a skilled diplomatist and an adroit politician. These qualities, with his position as the head of a great family, the chief representative of Beauchamp, Despenser, Montacute and Neville, made him during ten years " the king-maker." Warwick's only children were his two daughters. Anne, the younger, was married after his death to Richard of Gloucester, the future Richard III. Their husbands shared his inheritance and quarrelled over its division. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Warwick of course fills a great place in con- temporary authorities; for a note on the chief of them see under EDWARD IV. For modern authorities see especially C. W. Oman's brilliant but enthusiastic Warwick the King-Maker, Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and York, and Stubbs's Constitutional History. (C. L. K.) WARWICK, SIR ROBERT RICH, 2ND EARL OP (1587-1658), colonial administrator and admiral, was the eldest son of Robert Rich, earl of Warwick (see above) and his wife Penelope Rich (q.v.), and succeeded to the title in 1619. Early interested in colonial ventures, he joined the Bermudas, Guinea, New England and Virginia companies. His enterprises involved him in disputes with the East India Company (1617) and with the Virginia Company, which in 1624 was suppressed through his action. In 1627 he commanded an unsuccessful privateering expedition against the Spaniards. His Puritan connexions and sympathies, while gradually estranging him from the court, pro- moted his association with the New England colonies. In 1628 he indirectly procured the patent for the Massachusetts colony, and in 1631 he granted the " Saybrook " patent in Connecticut. Compelled the same year to resign the presidency of the New England Company, he continued to manage the Bermudas and Providence Companies, the latter of which, founded in 1630, administered Old Providence on the Mosquito coast. Mean- while in England Warwick opposed the forced loan of 1626, the payment of ship-money and Laud's church policy, and with his brother the first lord Holland (q.v.) came to be recognized as one of the heads of the Puritans. In March 1642 the Commons, in spite of the king's veto, appointed him admiral of the fleet, and in July he gained the whole navy for the parliament. He raised forces in Norfolk and Essex on the outbreak of the war, and as lord high admiral (1643-1645) he did good service in intercepting the king's ships and relieving threatened ports. In 1643 he was appointed head of a commission for the government of the colonies, which the next year incorporated Providence Planta- tions, afterwards Rhode Island, and in this capacity he exerted himself to secure religious liberty. Reappointed lord high admiral in May 1648, in the vain hope that his influence with the sailors would win back the nine ships which had revolted to the king, he collected a new fleet and blockaded them at Helvoetsluys. Dismissed from office on the abolition of the House of Lords in 1649, he retired from public life, but was intimately associated with Cromwell, whose daughter Frances married his grandson and heir Robert Rich in 1657. He died on the igth of April 1658. The suspicions cast by his enemies on his religious sincerity and political fidelity appear to be baseless. WARWICK, a town of Merivale county, Queensland, Australia, 169 m. by rail S.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 3836. It lies on the bank of the river Contadamine, in the heart of one of the best agricultural districts in Queensland, and is perhaps the most attractive inland town in the colony. It is well laid out with many substantial public and private buildings, and has two large parks, besides smaller recreation grounds. The district is famous for its vineyards, and quantities of excellent wine are made; wheat and maize are the principal crops, but tobacco, oats and lucerne are largely grown. Coal is found near the town, as are also marble, good building stone and brick clay. WARWICK, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Warwickshire, England; finely situated on the river Avon, the Warwick & Napton and Birmingham canals, 98 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 11,889. It is served by the Great Western and the London & North- Western railways. The parliamentary borough was united with that of Leamington in 1885, and returns one member. Leaming- ton lies 2 m. E., and the towns are united by the suburb of New Milverton. The magnificent castle of the earls of Warwick stands in a commanding and picturesque position on a rocky eminence above the river. Its walls, enclosing a lovely lawn and gardens, are flanked by towers, of which Caesar's tower, 147 ft. high, the Gateway tower and Guy's tower are the chief, dating from the I4th century. The residential portion lies on the river side. Excepting a few traces of earlier work, its appearance is that of a princely mansion of the I7th century. There is WARWICK— WARWICKSHIRE a famous collection of pictures. The Great Hall and other apartments suffered from fire in 1871, but were restored. A vase of marble attributed to the 4th century B.C. is preserved here; it was discovered near Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli in Italy. Below the castle the Avon, with thickly wooded banks, affords one of the most exquisite reaches of river scenery in England. The church of St Mary is principally, as it stands, a rebuilding of the time of Queen Anne, after a fire in 1694. It appears from Domesday that a church existed before the Conquest. It was made collegiate by Roger de Newburgh, the second Norman earl, in 1123. At the Dissolution Henry VIII. granted the foundation to the burgesses of the town. The Beauchamp Chapel survived the fire; it is a beautiful example of Perpendicular work, founded by the will of Earl Richard Beauchamp, and built between 1443 and 1464. The fine tomb of the earl stands in the centre. There are only scanty traces of the old town walls, but the east and west gates remain, rendered picturesque by chapels built above them. The priory of St Sepulchre was founded by Henry de Newburgh and completed in the reign of Henry I., on the site of an ancient church, for a society of canons regular. It is now a private residence. Leicester Hospital, established by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, is a picturesque example of half-timber building. It was originally used as the hall of the united gilds of the Holy Trinity, the Blessed Virgin and St George the Martyr. The earl of Leicester, by an act of incorporation ob- tained in 1571, founded the hospital for the reception of twelve poor men possessing not more than £5 a year, and a master. The first master, appointed by the earl himself, was the famous Puritan, Thomas Cartwright. St John's Hospital, a foundation of the time of Henry II., is represented by a beautiful Jacobean mansion. There are numerous charities in the town, the principal being those of Henry VIII., Sir Thomas White and Thomas Oken. The first is devoted to ecclesiastical and municipal stipends and to the King's School. By the charity of Sir Thomas White, the sum of £100 is lent, without interest, to young trades- men for a period of nine years. The King's School, an important foundation for boys, dates from the reign of Edward the Con- fessor. It occupies modern buildings. Upon the same foundation are the high school for girls and the King's middle school. Among public buildings are a shire haD, free library and museum. Industries include gelatine- and brick-making, and there are ironworks. The parliamentary borough returns one member. Area, 5613 acres. A famous site in the vicinity of Warwick is Guy's Cliffe, where a modern mansion, embodying ancient remains, crowns the precipitous rocky bank of the Avon. Here was the hermitage of the first Guy, earl of Warwick. Blacklow Hill in the vicinity was the scene of the execution of Piers Gaveston, the favourite courtier of Edward II., in 1312. Warwick (Waruric, Warrewici, Warrewyk) is said to have been a Roman station, and was later fortified by ^Ethelflzd, the lady of Mercia, against the Danes. At the time of the Domesday Survey, Warwick was a royal borough, containing 261 houses, of which 130 were in the king's hands, while 19 belonged to burgesses who enjoyed all the privileges they had had in the time of Edward the Confessor. The Conqueror granted the borough to Henry of Newburgh, who was created earl of Warwick, and in all probability built the castle on the site of iEthelflaed's fortification. The Beauchamps, successors of Henry of Newburgh as earls of Warwick, held the borough of the king in chief. Although the borough owed its early importance to the castle of the earls of Warwick as well as to its position, and received a grant of a fair from John, earl of Warwick, in 1261, it seems to have developed independently of them, and received no charter until it was incorporated under the title of the burgesses of Warwick in 1546 after it had come into the king's hands by the attainder of Edward, earl of Warwick, in 1499. Other charters were granted in 1553, 1665, 1684 and 1694, of which that of IS53 allowed the appointment of assistant burgesses, though this was discontinued in 1698 because through their means a candidate for the borough was elected who was not supported by the recorder and aldermen. The charter of 1694 conferred the title of " Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses " on the corporation, and appointed the offices of the borough. The mayor, aldermen and assistant burgesses were to assemble yearly at Michaelmas, and in the presence of all the burgesses nominate two aldermen, who should elect the new mayor and other officers. A mayor refusing office was to be fined £20, an alderman £10 and an assistant burgess £5. In 1882 the borough was divided into three wards, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 town councillors. Warwick returned two members to parliament from 1295, but in 1885 the number was reduced to one. In addition to the fair granted by the earl to the burgesses in 1261, he himself held by prescriptive right a yearly fair in August and a market every Wednesday. Another fair was granted in 1290, and in 1413 the fair held at Michaelmas was changed to the feast of St Bartholomew. Fairs are now held on the 1 2th of October and on the Monday before St Thomas's day. A market is held every Saturday, the first charter for this being granted in 1545. A gaol is mentioned here as early as 1 200 in a pipe roll of that year. WARWICK, a township of Kent county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., about 5 m. S. of Providence, on the W. side of Narragansett Bay (here called Providence river) and crossed by the Pawtuxet river, which is in its lower course a part of the township's northern boundary. Pop. (1890) 17,761; (1900) 21,316, of whom 7792 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,629. The township is crossed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and electric lines serve most of its twenty-seven rather scattered villages. The larger villages are: on the river, Pontiac, Natick, River Point (at the junction of the two upper branches of the Pawtuxet), Phoenix, Centreville and Crompton; on Greenwich Bay, Apponaug and Warwick; and on Providence river, Shawomet, Warwick Neck, Oakland Beach, Buttonwoods, Conimicut and Long Meadow, which are summer resorts. Water power is provided by the Pawtuxet river, and much cotton and some woollen and print goods are manufactured. The value of the factory product in 1905 was $7,051,971 (17-1% more than in 1900); of the total, nine-tenths was the value of textile products. Warwick, originally called Shawomet (Shawmut), its Indian name, was settled in 1643 by Samuel Gorton (g.v.) and a few followers. Gorton quarrelled with the Indians, was carried off to Boston, was tried there for heresy, was convicted, and was imprisoned; was released with orders to leave the colony in March 1644, went to England, and under the patronage of the earl of Warwick returned to his settlement in 1648 and renamed it in honour of the earl. In 1647 the settlement entered into a union with Providence, Newport and Portsmouth under the Warwick (or Williams) charter of 1644, but during 1651- 1654 Warwick and Providence were temporarily separated from the other two towns. Warwick was the birthplace of General Nathanael Greene. WARWICKSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded N. by Staffordshire, E. by Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, S. by Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by Worcestershire. The area is 902-3 sq. m. The river Avon, watering a rich valley on a line from N.E. to S.W., divides the county into two unequal parts. The greater, lying to the N.W., drains principally to the Trent through the rivers Cole, Blythe, Rea, Anker and minor streams. Between these valleys, and dividing the system from that of the Avon, the land rises in gentle undulations, and is of plateau-like character, generally between 400 and 600 ft. in eleva- tion. There' are considerable tracts of this nature on the western boundary, both north and south of Birmingham, on the eastern boundary north of Rugby, and in the centre between the Blythe, the Anker and the Avon. From this side the Avon receives the Swift, the Sowe and the Abie. The northern district was distinguished by Camden as the Woodland, as opposed to the southern or Feldon, " a plain champain." The northern wood- land embraced the ancient forest of Arden (q.v.) and it is this district which gave to the county the common epithets of " woody " or " leafy." The Feldon or south-eastern district is almost wholly in the Avon valley. From this side the Avon receives the Learn, the Itchen and the Stour. Along the 342 WARWICKSHIRE south-eastern boundary runs the highest line of hills in the county, reaching some 800 ft., and including Edge Hill (which gives name to the battle of 1642), and the Brailes, Dassett, Napton and Shuckburgh hills. The county boundary here extends across the highest line of hills, to include the headwaters of some of the feeders of the Cherwell, and thus a small part of the drainage area of the Thames. These hills rise abruptly, and command wide views over the champaign. The finest silvan scenery is found on the banks of the Avon; the position of Guy's Cliffe and of Warwick Castle are well-known examples. It is not difficult to trace the influence of the scenic characteristics of the county in the writings of its most famous son, William Shake- speare. Geology. — The Archean rocks are represented by some volcanic ashes and intrusive dykes (the Caldecote Series), which are exposed north-west of Nuneaton. They dip south-westward under the Cambrian beds — Hartshill Quartzite and Stockingford Shales — which give rise to higher ground ; the quartzite, which is opened up in numerous large roadstone quarries, contains towards its summit a fauna suggesting that of the Olenellus zone, one of the oldest faunas known. The quartzite as well as the overlying shales is seamed with intrusive dykes of diorite. A small inlier of the same shales occurs at Dosthill, south of Tamworth. The Coal Measures of the Warwickshire coalfield crop out in the north of the county between Nuneaton and Tamworth and contain valuable coal-seams; they pass conformably under the so-called Permian red sandstones and marls which are apparently the equivalents of the Keele Beds of Staffordshire, and like them should be grouped with the Coal Measures; they occupy a considerable area north and west of Coventry, and at Corley form high ground (625 ft.) ; in several places shafts have been sunk through them to the productive Coal Measures below. The rest of the county is occupied in the northern half by the Triassic red rocks, and in the south-east by the Lias. Of the Trias the Bunter (soft red sandstones with pebble-beds) is repre- sented only between Birmingham and Sutton Coldficld, where it is succeeded by the Keuper Sandstone, which is occasionally exposed also around the edge of the coalfield (Tamwbrth, Coventry, Warwick, Maxstoke) ; the Keuper Marls occupy a large area in the centre of the county, while some sandstones in them form picturesque scarps near Henley-in-Arden. The highly fossiliferous Rhaetic beds which introduce the Lias are seldom exposed. The Lower Lias limestones are worked for cement (as near Rugby) and abound in ammonites. The Middle Lias sands and limestones follow, and form escarpments (as at Edge Hill, 710 ft.) ; but these and the lowest members of the Oolite series scarcely cross the county boundary from Oxfordshire. Glacial drifts — boulder-clay, sand and gravel — overspread large areas of the older rocks; their composition shows them to have been deposited from glaciers or ice-sheets which entered the district from the Irish Sea, from North Wales and from the North Sea. Later fluvio-glacial gravels of the Avon valley have yielded mammalian remains (hippopotamus, mammoth, &c.), while palaeolithic imple- ments of quartzite have been found in the old gravels of the Rca near Birmingham. Coal, ironstone, lime and cement are the chief mineral products; manganese ore was formerly got from the Cambrian rocks. Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is generally mild and healthy. The soil is on the whole good, and consists of various loams, marls, gravels and clays, well suited for most of the usual crops. It is rich in pasture-land, and dairy-farming is increasing. It has excellent orchards and market-gardens, and possesses some of the finest woodlands in England. About five-sixths of the total area, a high proportion, is under cultivation, and of this about two- thirds is in permanent pasture. Oats and wheat occupy the greater part of the area under grain crops. In connexion with the cattle- rearing and dairy-farming, over half the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangolds. Industries. — The industrial part of the county is the northern. Warwickshire includes the greatest manufacturing centre of the Midlands — Birmingham, though the suburbs of that city extend jnto Staffordshire and Worcestershire. Metal-working in all branches is prosecuted here, besides other industries. Coventry is noted for cycle-making,and,with Bedworth and Nuneaton and the intervening villages, is a seat of the ribbon- and tape-makers. A small rich coalfield occurs in the north-east, extending outside the county northward from Coventry. Clay, limestone and other stone are quarried at various points, and an appreciable amount of iron ore is raised. Communications. — The main line of the London & North-Western railway runs within the county near the N.E. boundary, by Rugby, Nuneaton and Tamworth, with branches to Leamington and War- wick, Coventry and Birmingham, and cross-branches. The northern line of the Great Western railway runs through Leamington and Warwick to Birmingham, with branches to Stratford-on-Avon and Henley-in-Arden. The Leicester and Birmingham branch of the Midland railway crosses the north of the county by Nuneaton, and the Birmingham-Evesham line of this company serves Alcester. The East and West Junction railway, from Blisworth in North- amptonshire, serves Stratford-on-Avon and terminates at Broom Junction on the Evesham line of the Midland. Water communii n- tion through the east of the county is afforded by the Oxford and Coventry canals. The Warwick & Napton canal joins the Oxford at Napton; the Warwick & Birmingham joins these towns, and the Stratford-on-Avon is a branch from it. The Fazeley canal runs N.E. from Birmingham. None of the rivers is of commercial value for navigation. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 577,462 acres, with a population in 1891 of 805,072, and in 1901 of 897,835, the chief centres of increase lying natur- ally in the parts about Birmingham and Coventry. The area of the administrative county is 579,885 acres. The municipal boroughs are: Aston Manor (pop. 77,326), Birmingham (522,204), Coventry (69,978), Leamington, officially Royal Leamington Spa (26,888), Nuneaton (24,996), Stratford-on-Avon (8310), Sutton Coldfield (14,264) and Warwick (11,889), the county town. The urban districts are: Bulkington (1548), Erdington (16,368), Kenilworth (4544) and Rugby (16,830). Among the towns not appearing in these lists there should be mentioned: Alcester (2303), Atherstone (5248), Bedworth (7169), Colcshill (2S93), Foleshill (5514) and Solihull (7517). Warwickshire is in the midland circuit, and assizes are held at Warwick. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 14 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Birmingham, Coventry, Royal Leamington Spa, Stratford-on-Avon, Sutton Coldfield and Warwick have separate commissions of the peace, and the boroughs of Birmingham and Warwick have, in addition, separate courts of quarter sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 267. The county, which is mostly in the diocese of Worcester, but also extends into those of Lichfield, Gloucester, Peterborough and Oxford, contains 297 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. Warwickshire has four parlia- mentary divisions — Northern or Tamworth, North-eastern or Nuneaton, South-eastern or Rugby, and South-western or Strat- ford-on-Avon, each returning one member. The parliamentary boroughs of Aston Manor, Coventry and Warwick return one member each, and that of Birmingham has seven divisions, each returning one member. Birmingham is the seat of a university, of the large grammar school of King Edward VI., and of other important educational institutions. At Rugby is one of the most famous of English public schools. The King's School, Warwick, is a large boys' school, and the Leamington High School is for girls. There is a day training college for schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in connexion with Mason University College, Birmingham. Among other institutions there may be mentioned the Lady Warwick College for the instruction of women in the higher branches of agriculture, &c., founded by Frances, countess of Warwick, at Reading in 1898, and subsequently removed to Studley Castle in western Warwickshire, where there is accommodation for 50 students. History. — The earliest English settlers in the district now known as Warwickshire were a tribe of Hwiccas who, pushing up the Severn valley in the 6th century, made their way along the passages afforded by the Avon valley and the Roman Fosse Way, the extent of their settlement being indicated by the ancient limits of the diocese of Worcester. The vast forest of Arden, stretching from the Avon to the site of the modern Birmingham, barred any progress northwards, at the same time affording protection from the Anglian tribes who were already settled about Atherstone, and it was only after the battle of Cirencester in 628 that the whole of the Hwiccan territory was comprised in Mercia. In 675 Cosford was included in the endowment of Peterborough, and in 757 ^Ethelbald was slain at Seckington in a battle with the West Saxons. The shire of Warwick origin- ated in the loth century about ^Ethelflaed's new burgh at Warwick, and is mentioned by name in the Saxon Chronicle in 1016, when it was harried by Canute. The Danes made frequent incursions in the district in the loth and nth centuries, but no traces of their settlements occur south of Rugby. The shire offered little resistance to the Conqueror, who was WASH, THE 343 at Warwick in 1068, and Thurkill the sheriff was one of the few Englishmen to retain large estates which he had held before the conquest, his family long continuing in the county under the name of Arden. The fortification which he had raised at Warwick William entrusted to Henry, son of Roger de Beaumont, after- wards earl of Warwick, and Robert, count of Meulan, Henry's cMcr brother, had an important fief. Coventry Minster was richly endowed, and in 1285 the prior claimed among other privileges to have an independent coroner and to hold two courts a year. The earldom and castle of Warwick subsequently passed to the Beauchamps, and in the reign of Henry VI. to the Nevilles. The Clintons, founders of the castles and priories at Maxstoke and Kenilworth, enjoyed large estates in the county during the Norman period. The ten Domesday hundreds of Warwickshire are now reduced to four, all of which are mentioned in the 1 2th century. Hemling- ford represents the Domesday hundred of Coleshill; Knightlow, the Domesday hundreds of Bomelau, Meretone and Stanlei; Kineton, the Domesday hundreds of Tremelau, Honesberie, Fexhole and Berricestone; Barlichway, the Domesday hundreds of Fernecumbe and Patelau. Coleshill took its name from Coles- hill, a town near the junction of the Cole and the Ely the; Hemlingford from a ford over the Tame near Kingsbury; Knightlow from a hill on Dunsmore Heath; Meretone and Stanlei from the villages of Marlon and Stoneleigh; Berrice- stone from Barcheston on the Stour; Barlichway from a plot of ground on a hill between Haselor and Burton. Patelau hundred, which derived its name from a tumulus between Wootton Wawen and Stratford-on-Avon, was a liberty of the bishops of Worcester, and in the I7th century, though reckoned part of Barlichway hundred, possessed a court leet and court baron. The boundaries of Warwickshire have remained prac- tically unchanged since the Domesday Survey, but Spilsbury, now in Oxfordshire, Romsley, Shipley, Quat and Rudge, now in Shropshire, and Chillington, now in Staffordshire, were assessed under this county, while Sawbridge, Berkswell, Whitacre. Over and Whichford, now in this county, were assessed under Northamptonshire. Warwickshire was united with Leicester- shire under one sheriff until 1566, the shire court for the former being held at Warwick. In the 1 3th century Warwickshire included the deaneries of Warwick and Kineton within the archdeaconry and diocese of Worcester; the rest of the county constituting the archdeaconry of Coventry within the Lichfield diocese, with the deaneries of Coventry, Stoneley, Merton and Arden. In 1836 the arch- deaconry of Coventry was annexed to the diocese of Worcester, and in 1854 its deaneries were entirely reconstituted and made thirteen in number. In 1861 the deanery of Alcester was formed within the archdeaconry of Worcester, and Kineton was divided into North Kineton and South Kineton. In 1894 the deaneries of Aston, Birmingham, Coleshill, Northfield, Polesworth, Solihull and Sutton Coldfield were formed into the archdeaconry of Birmingham, the archdeaconry of Coventry now including the deaneries of Atherstone, Baginton, Coventry, Dasaett Magna, Dunchurch, Leamington, Monks Kirby, Rugby and Southam. In the wars of the reign of Henry III. Simon de Montfort placed Kenilworth Castle in charge of Sir John Giffard, who in 1264 attacked Warwick Castle and took prisoner the earl and countess of Warwick, who had supported the king. During the Wars of the Roses the Nevilles, represented by the earl of Warwick, supported the Yorkist cause, while Coventry was a Lancastrian stronghold. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the I yth century Warwickshire and Staffordshire were associated for the parlia- ment under Lord Brooke. The battle of Edgehill was fought in 1642, and in 1643 Birmingham, then a small town noted for its Puritanism, was sacked by Prince Rupert. Coventry endured a siege in 1642, and skirmishes took place at Southam and Warwick. At the time of the Domesday Survey the industries of Warwick- shire were almost exclusively agricultural, the extensive wood- lands north of the Avon affording pasturage for sheep, while meadows and water-mills were numerous in the river valleys. The woollen industry flourished in Norman times, and Coventry was famed for its wool and broadcloths in the reign of Edward III. Coal was probably dug at Griff in the izth century, but the Warwickshire collieries only came into prominence in the I7th century, when John Briggs of Bedworth made an attempt to monopolize the coal trade. Birmingham was already famous for its smiths and cutlers in the i6th century. In the early i7th century the depopulation and distress caused by the enclosures of land for pasture led to frequent riots. The silk industry at Coventry and the needle industry about Alcester both flourished in the i8th century. Warwickshire returned two members to the parliament of 1290, and in 1295 Coventry and Warwick were each represented by two members. Tamworth returned two members in 1584. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Birmingham was represented by two members, and Tamworth was disfranchised. Under the act of 1868 the representation of Birmingham was increased to three members. Antiquities. — Of pre-Norman architecture some traces appear in the fine church of Wootton Wawen in the Arden (western) district. Otherwise the type is scarce, but Saxon remains, such as burial urns and jewelry, have been found in several places, as near Bensford Bridge on Watling Street. For ecclesiastical architecture Coventry with its three spires is famous, and among village churches there are many fine examples. Of those retaining Norman portions may be mentioned: Wolston and Berkswell in the Coventry district; Polesworth, formerly conventual, and Curdworth in the north; and in the south, in the neighbourhood of Edgehill, Burton Dassett, a very noteworthy building, and Warmington. where there is a remarkable specimen of domus inclusi or anchorite's chamber. There are also fine examples of Decorated work, such as Knowle, Solihull and Temple Balsall in Arden, and Brailes under the southern hills. Among the numerous religious houses in the county several have left remains. Such are the Cistercian foundations of Coombe Abbey near Coventry, of the 12th century, adjoining the mansion of that name in a beautiful park ; of Merevale near Atherstone ; and of Stoneleigh near Kenilworth, also adjoining a famous mansion. This abbey was a 12th-century foundation, but a majestic gatehouse of the I4th century also stands. Maxstoke Priory, in Arden, was a foundation for Augustinian canons of the I4th century. Wroxall Abbey was a Benedictine nunnery of the I2th century; but the name is given to a modern mansion. In view of the large share the county has had in war, it is not surprising to find many examples of great fortified houses or castles. Warwick Castle and Kenilworth Castle, the one still a splendid residence, the other a no less splendid ruin, are described under those towns. At HartshiH (the birthplace of Michael Drayton the poet) there is a fragment of a Norman castle. Among fortified mansions Maxstoke Castle is of the I4th century; Baddesley Clinton Hall is of the isth as it stands, but is an earlier foundation; Astley Castle is another good specimen of the period. Compton Wyniates, once fortified, is a beautiful Elizabethan house of bnck, so remarkably hidden in a hollow of the southern hills as to be visible only from the closest proximity on all sides; Charles I. lodged here during the Civil Wars. Charlecote Park is a modernized Elizabethan hall in an exquisite situation on the Avon above Strat- ford. Of more modern mansions Arbury Hall, Astley Castle, Newnham Paddox, Ragley Hall and Walton Hall may be mentioned. See Victoria County History, Warwickshire; Sir William Dugdale, The Antiquities of Warwickshire (London, 1656; 2nd ed., 2 vols., London, 1730); W. Smith, A History of the County of Warwick (Birmingham, 1830); J. T. Burgess, Historic Warwickshire (London, 1876); Early Earthworks in Warwickshire (Birmingham, 1884); S. Timmins, History of Warwickshire (" Popular County History " series) (London, 1889); J. Hannet, The Forest of Arden (London, 1863). WASH, THE, a shallow bay of the North Sea, on the Lincoln- shire and Norfolk coast of England. It is roughly square in shape, penetrating the land for 22m., and being 20 m. wide at the head and 12 at the mouth. Through the sandbanks which form its bed there are two main channels into deep water; one, Boston Deeps, is kept open by the waters of the Witham and Welland; the other, Lynn Deeps, gives passage to those of the Nene and the Great Ouse. The Wash is the remnant of a much larger bay, which covered a large part of the Fens which now border it; it is gradually filling with the deposits of the rivers, and from time to time small portions are reclaimed (see FENS). The flat bordering lands are protected by sea-walls. The formerly dangerous passage of the marsh-lands, which were liable to irruptions of the tide, is illustrated by the accident to WASHBURN, C. C.— WASHINGTON, GEORGE 344 King John in 1216 shortly before his death. Passing over the Cross Keys Wash, near Sutton Bridge, his baggage and treasure wagons were engulfed and he himself barely escaped with life. WASHBURN, CADWALLADER COLDEN (1818-1882), American soldier and politician, was born at Livermore, Maine, on the 22nd of April 1818. He was admitted to the bar in 1842, and removed 'to Mineral Point, Wisconsin, where he practised law, speculated in land and engaged in banking. He became prominent in the Republican party, and was a member (1855- 1861) of the U.S. House of Representatives, of which his brother Israel (1813-1883) was a member from Maine in 1851-1861; his brother Elihu Benjamin (see below) changed the spelling of the family surname to Washburne. At the beginning of the Civil War he became colonel of the Second Wisconsin Cavalry, was promoted to brigadier-general on the i6th of July 1862 and to major-general on the 29th of November 1862, and assisted in the capture of Vicksburg (4th July 1863), after which he served in Texas and West Tennessee. Resigning from the army in 1865, he became extensively interested in flour-milling and lumbering in Wisconsin. From 1867 to 1871 he was again a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, and subsequently served one term (1872-1874) as governor of Wisconsin. WASHBURN, a city and the county-seat of Bayfield county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 52 m. E. of Superior, Wis., and about 6 m. N. of Ashland, on Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake Superior. Pop. (1910) 3830. Washburn is served by the Northern Pacific and the Chicago & North-Western railways, and by several lines of lake steamships. The city is finely situated on high land above the bay, and is a popular summer resort, being especially well known for its boating and fishing. It has a Carnegie library. Among its manufactures are staves, shingles, lumber, wooden ware and bricks. There is a powder and dynamite plant in the vicinity. In the city there are also grain elevators and large coal docks, and in the neighbourhood are valuable stone quarries. In 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers touched here on their trip along the south shore of Lake Superior. In 1665 Father Claude Allouez, the Jesuit, established on the shore of the bay, a short distance south of the present city, the first French mission in Wisconsin, which he named " La Pointe du Saint Esprit," and which in 1669 was placed in charge of Father Jacques Marquette. The place was visited by Du Luth in 1681-1682, and here in 1693 Le Sueur, a fur trader, built a stockaded post. In 1718 a fort was erected and a French garrison placed in it. About 1820-1821 a trading post of the American Fur Company was established in the neighbourhood. The present city, named in honour of Governor C. C. Washburn, dates from about 1879, but its growth was slow until after 1888. It was chartered as a city in 1904. WASHBURNE, ELIHU BENJAMIN (1816-1887), American statesman, born in Livermore, Maine, on the 23rd of September 1816. He was one of seven brothers, of whom four sat in Congress from as many different states. He received a common school education, graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1839, and was soon afterwards admitted to the bar. In 1840 he removed to Galena, Illinois. He was elected to Congress in 1852, where, first as a Whig and afterwards as a Republican, he represented his district continuously until 1869, taking a prominent part in debate, and earning the name " watch-dog of the Treasury " by his consistent and vigorous opposition to extravagant and unwise appropriations. He contributed much to aid General Grant during the Civil War, and the latter on becoming President made Washburne secretary of state. On account of ill-health, however, he served only twelve days, and was then appointed minister to France, where during the Franco-Prussian War and the Commune he won much distinction as protector of German and other foreign citizens in Paris. He was the only foreign minister who remained at his post during the Commune. In 1877 he retired from public life, and died in Chicago, 111., on the 22nd of October 1887. He published Recollections of a Minister to France (2 vols., 1887), and edited The Edwards Papers (1884). WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1850- ), American negro teacher and reformer, was born on a plantation near Hale's Ford, Franklin county, Virginia. Soon after the Civil War he went to Maiden, West Virginia, where he worked in a salt furnace and then in a coal mine. He obtained an elementary education at night school, and worked as a house servant in a family where his ambition for knowledge was encouraged. In 1872 " by walking, begging rides both in wagons and in the cars " he travelled 500 m. to the Hampton (Virginia) Normal and Agricultural Institute, where he remained three years, working as janitor for his board and education, and graduated in 1875. For two years he taught at Maiden, West Virginia, and studied for eight months (1878-1879) at the Way- land Seminary hi Washington, D.C. In 1879 he became in- structor at the Hampton Institute, where he trained about seventy-five American Indians with whom General S. C. Armstrong was carrying on an educational experiment, and he developed the night school, which became one of the most important features of the institution. In 1881 he was appointed organizer and principal of a negro normal school at Tuskegee, Alabama (q.ii.), for which the state legislature had made an annual appropriation of $2000. Opened in July 1881 in a little shanty and church, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute became, under Washington's presidency, the foremost exponent of industrial education for the negro. To promote its interests and to establish better understanding between whites and blacks, Washington delivered many addresses throughout the United States, notably a speech in 1895 at the opening of the Atlanta Cotton States and International Exposition. In 1900 at Boston, Massachusetts, he organized the National Negro Business League. Harvard conferred upon him the honorary degree of A.M. in 1896, and Dartmouth that of LL.D. in 1901. Among his publications are a remarkable autobiography, Up from Slavery (1901), The Future of the American Negro (1899), Sowing and Reaping (1900), Character Building (1902), Working with the Hands (1904), Tuskegee and its People (1905), Putting the most into Life (1906), Life of Frederick Douglass (1907), The Negro in Business (1907) and The Story of the Negro (1909). WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829), American jurist, nephew of George Washington, was born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the isth of June 1762. He graduated in 1 778 at the College of William and Mary, where he was an original member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society; was a member of a volunteer cavalry troop in 1780; studied law in Philadelphia in 1781, and began practice in his native county. He served in the House of Delegates in 1787, and in the following year sat in the convention which ratified for Virginia the Federal Con- stitution. After living in Alexandria for a short time he removed to Richmond and in 1798 was appointed an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court by President John Adams. He was George Washington's literary executor, and supervised the preparation of John Marshall's Life of Washington (5 vols., 1804-1807) ; and on Mrs Washington's death in 1802 he inherited Mount Vernon and a part of the estate. He died in Philadelphia on the 26th of November 1829. WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799), the first president of the United States, was born at Bridges Creek, Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 22nd (Old Style nth) of February 1732. The genealogical researches of Mr Henry E. Waters seem to have established the connexion of the family with the Washingtons of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, England. The brothers John and Lawrence Washington appear in Virginia in 1658. John took up land at Bridges Creek, became a member of the House of Burgesses in 1666, and died in 1676. His eldest son, Lawrence, married Mildred Warner, by whom he had three children — John, Augustine (1694-1 743) and Mildred. Augustine Washington married twice. By the first marriage, with Jane Butler, there were four children, tw6 of whom, Lawrence and Augustine, grew to manhood. By the second marriage, in 1730, with Mary Ball, descendant of a family which migrated to Virginia in 1657, there were six children — George, Betty, Samuel, John, Charles and Mildred. Upon the death of the father, Lawrence inherited the estate at Hunting Creek, on the Potomac, WASHINGTON, GEORGE 345 later known as Mount Vernon, and George the estate on the Rappahannock, nearly opposite Fredericksburg, where his father usually lived. Of Washington's early life little is known, probably because there was little unusual to tell. The story of the hatchet and the cherry-tree, and similar tales, are undoubtedly apocryphal, having been coined by Washington's most popular biographer, Mason. Weems (d. 1825). l There is nothing to show that the boy's life was markedly different from that common to Virginia families in easy circumstances; plantation affairs, hunting, fishing, and a little reading making up its substance. From 1735 to 1739 he lived at what is now called Mount Vernon, and after- I wards at the estate on the Rappahannock. His education was only elementary and very defective, except in mathematics, in which he was largely self-taught; and although at his death he left a considerable library, he was never an assiduous reader. Although he had throughout his life a good deal of official contact with the French, he never mastered their language. Some careful reading of good books there must have been, however, for in spite of pervading illiteracy, common in that age, in matters of grammar and spelling, he acquired a dignified and effective English style. The texts of his writings, as published by Jared Sparks, have been so " edited " in these respects as to destroy (their value as evidence; but the edition of Mr Worthington C. Ford restores the original texts. Washington left school in the autumn of 1747, and from this time we begin to know something of his life. He was then at Mount Vernon with his half-brother Lawrence, who was also his guardian. Lawrence was a son-in-law of William Fairfax, proprietor of the neighbouring plantation of Belvoir, and agent for the extensive Fairfax lands in the colony. Lawrence had served with Fairfax at Cartagena, and had made the acquaintance of Admiral Edward Vernon, from whom Mount Vernon was named. The story that a commission as midshipman was obtained for George through the good offices of the admiral, but that the opposition of the boy's mother put an end to the scheme, seems to lack proof. In 1748, however, through the influence of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, the head of the family, who had come to America to live, Washington, then only sixteen years of age, was appointed surveyor of the Fairfax property; and an appointment as public surveyor soon followed. The next three years were spent in this service, most of the time on the frontier. He always retained a disposition to speculate in western lands, the ultimate value of which he early appreciated; many of his later investments of this character are treated in C. W. Butter- field's Washington-Crawford Letters (1877). He seems, too, to have impressed others already with his force of mind and char- acter. In 1751 he accompanied his half-brother Lawrence, who was stricken with consumption, to the West Indies, where he had an attack of small-pox which left him marked for life. Lawrence died in the following year, making George executor under the will and residuary heir of Mount Vernon; and the latter estate became his in 1761. In October 1753, on the eve of the last French and Indian war, Washington was chosen by Governor Robert Dinwiddie as the agent to warn the French away from their new posts on the Ohio, in western Pennsylvania. He accomplished the winter journey safely, though with considerable danger and hardship; and shortly after his return was appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginia regiment, under Colonel Joshua Fry. In April 1754 he set out with two companies for the Ohio, defeated (28th May) a force of French and Indians at Great Meadows (in the present Fayette county, Pennsylvania), but at Fort Necessity in this vicinity was forced to capitulate (3rd July), though only after a vigorous defence. For his services he received the thanks of the House of Burgesses. When General Edward Braddock arrived in Virginia in February 1755, Washington wrote him a diplomatically worded letter, and was presently made a member 1 Weems was a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, who first published a brief biography of Washington in 1800, and later (1806) consider- ably expanded it and introduced various apocryphal anecdotes. The biography, though worthless, had an immense circulation, and is to a considerable degree responsible for the traditional conception of Washington. of the staff, with the rank of colonel. His personal relations with Braddock were friendly throughout, and in the calamitous defeat he showed for the first time that fiery energy which always lay hidden beneath his calm and unruffled exterior. He ranged the whole field on horseback, making himself the most conspicuous target for Indian bullets, and, in spite of what he called the " dastardly behaviour " of the regular troops, saved the expedi- tion from annihilation, and brought the remnant of his Virginians out of action in fair order. In spite of his reckless exposure, he was one of the few unwounded officers. In August, after his return, he was commissioned commander of the Virginia forces, being then twenty-three years old. For about two years his task was that of " defending a frontier of more than 350 m. with 700 men," a task rendered the more difficult by the insub- ordination and irregular service of his soldiers, and by irritating controversies over official precedence. To settle the latter question he made a journey to Boston, in 1756, to confer with Governor William Shirley. In the winter of 1757 his health broke down, but in the next year he had the pleasure of com- manding the advance guard of the expedition under General John Forbes which occupied Fort Duquesne and renamed it Fort Pitt. (See PITTSBURG: History.) At the end of the year he resigned his commission, the war in Virginia being at an end, and in January 1759 married Martha Dandridge (1732-1802), widow of Daniel Parke Custis. For the next fifteen years Washington's life at Mount Vernon, where he made his home after his marriage, was that of a typical Virginia planter of the more prosperous sort, a consistent member and vestryman of the Established (Episcopal) Church, a large slave-holder, a strict but considerate master, and a widely trusted man of affairs. His extraordinary escape in Braddock's defeat had led a colonial preacher to declare in a sermon his belief that the young man had been preserved to be " the saviour of his country "; but if there was any such impression it soon died away, and Washington gave his associates no reason to consider him a man of uncommon endowments. His marriage brought him an increase of about $100,000 in his property, mak- ing him one of the richest men in the colonies; and he was able to develop his plantation and enlarge its extent. His attitude towards slavery has been much discussed, but it does not seem to have been different from that of many other planters of that day: he did not think highly of the system, but had no invincible repugnance to it, and saw no way of getting rid of it. In his treatment of slaves he was exacting, but not harsh, and was averse to selling them save in case of necessity. His diaries show a minutely methodical conduct of business, generous indulgence in hunting, comparatively little reading and a wide acquaintance with the leading men of the colonies, but no marked indications of what is usually considered to be " greatness." As in the case of Lincoln, he was educated into greatness by the increasing weight of his responsibilities and the manner in which he met them. Like others of the dominant planter class in Virginia, he was repeatedly elected to the House of Burgesses, but the business which came before the colonial assembly was for some years of only local importance, and he is not known to have made any set speeches in the House, or to have said anything beyond a state- ment of his opinion and the reasons for it. He was present on the 29th of May 1765, when Patrick Henry introduced his famous resolutions against the Stamp Act. That he thought a great deal on public questions, and took full advantage of his legislative experience as a means of political education, is shown by his letter of the 5th of April 1769 to his neighbour, George Mason, communicating the Philadelphia non-importation resolutions, which had just reached him. In this he considers briefly the best means of peaceable resistance to the policy of the ministry, but even at that early date faces frankly and fully the probable final necessity of resisting by force, and endorses it, though only as a last resort. In May following, when the House of Burgesses was dissolved, he was among the members who met at the Raleigh tavern and adopted a non-importation agreement; and he 'himself kept the agreement when others did not. Though on friendly terms with Governor Norborne Berkeley, Baron 34-6 WASHINGTON, GEORGE Botetourt and his successor, John Murray, earl of Dunmore, he nevertheless took a prominent part, though without speech- making, in the struggles of the Assembly against Dunmore, and his position was always a radical one. As the breach widened, he even opposed petitions to the king and parliament, on the ground that the claims to taxation and control had been put forward by the ministry on the basis of right, not of ex- pediency, that the ministry could not abandon the claim of right and the colonies could not admit it, and that petitions must be, as they already had been, rejected. " Shall we," he writes in a letter, " after this whine and cry for relief? " On the sth of August 1774 the Virginia convention appointed Washington as one of seven delegates to the first Continental Congress, which met at Philadelphia on the 5th of September, and with this appointment his national career, which was to continue with but two brief intervals until his death, begins. His letters during his service in Congress show that he had fully grasped the questions at issue, that he was under no delusions as to the outcome of the struggle over taxation, and that he expected war. " More blood will be spilled on this occasion," he wrote, " if the ministry are determined to push matters to extremity, than history has ever yet furnished instances of in the annals of North America." His associates in Congress at once recognized his military ability, and although he was not a member of any of the committees of the Congress, he seems to have aided materially in securing the endorsement by Congress of the Suffolk county, Massachusetts, resolves (see MILTON, Mass.) looking towards organized resistance. On the adjourn- ment of the Congress he returned to Virginia, where he con- tinued to be active, as a member of the House of Burgesses, in urging on the organization, equipment and training of troops, and even undertook in person to drill volunteers. His attitude towards the mother country at this time, however, must not be misunderstood. Much as he expected war, he was not yet ready to declare in favour of independence, and he did not ally himself with the party of independence until the course of events made the adoption of any other course impossible. In March 1775 he was appointed a delegate from Virginia to the second Continental Congress, where he served on committees for fortifying New York, collecting ammunition, raising money and formulating army rules. It seems to have been generally understood that, in case of war, Virginia would expect him to act as her commander-in-chief, and it was noticed that, in the second Congress, he was the only member who habitually appeared in uniform. History, however, was to settle the matter on broader lines. The two most powerful colonies were Virginia and Massachusetts. The war began in Massachusetts, troops from New England flocking to the neighbourhood of Boston almost spontaneously; but the resistance, if it was to be effective, must have the support of the colonies to the southward, and the Virginia colonel who was serving on all the military com- mittees of Congress, and whose experience in the Braddock campaign had made his name favourably known in England, was the obvious as well as the politic choice. When Congress, after the fights at Lexington and Concord, resolved that the colonies ought to be put in a position of defence, the first practical step was the unanimous selection (June 15), on motion of John Adams of Massachusetts, of Washington as commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the United Colonies. Refusing any salary and asking only the reimbursement of his expenses, he accepted the position, asking " every gentleman in the room," however, to remember his declaration that he did not believe himself to be equal to the command, and that he accepted it only as a duty made imperative by the unanimity of the call. He reiterated this belief in private letters even to his wife; and there seems to be no doubt that, to the day of his death, he was the most determined sceptic as to his fitness for the positions to which he was successively called. He was commissioned on the I7th of June 1775, set out at once for Cambridge, Mass., and on the 3rd of July took command of the levies there assembled for action against the British garrison in Boston. The battle of Bunker Hill had already taken place, news of it reaching him on the way north. Until the following March, Washington's work was to bring about some semblance of military organization and discipline, to collect ammunition and military stores, to corre- spond with Congress and the colonial authorities, to guide military operations in widely separate parts of the country, to create a military system for a people entirely unaccustomed to such a thing and impatient and suspicious under it, and to bend the course of events steadily towards driving the British out of Boston. He planned the expeditions against Canada under Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold, and sent out privateers to harass British commerce. It is not easy to see how Washington survived the year 1775; the colonial poverty, the exasperating annoyances, the outspoken criticism of those who demanded active operations, the personal and party dis- sensions in Congress, the selfishness or stupidity which cropped out again and again _ among some of the most patriotic of his coadjutors were enough to have broken down most men. They completed his training. The change in this one winter is very evident. If he was not a great man when he went to Cambridge, he was both a general and a statesman in the fullest sense when he drove the British out of Boston in March 1776. From that time until his death he was admittedly the foremost man of the continent. The military operations of the remainder of the War of Inde- pendence are described elsewhere (see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE). Washington's retreat through New Jersey; the manner in which he turned and struck his pursuers at Trenton and Princeton, and then established himself at Morristown, so as to make the way to Philadelphia impassable; the vigour with which he handled his army at the Brandy wine and Germantown; the persistence with which he held the strategic position of Valley Forge through the dreadful winter of 1777-1778, in spite of the misery of his men, the clamours of the people and the impotence and meddling of the fugitive Congress — all went to show that the fibre of his public character had been hardened to its permanent quality. " These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine at the beginning of 1776, and the words had added meaning in each year that followed; but Washington had no need to fear the test. The spirit which culminated in the treason of Benedict Arnold was a serious addition to his burdens; for what Arnold did others were almost ready to do. Many of the American officers, too, had taken offence at the close personal friendship which had sprung up between the marquis de La Fayette and Washington, and at the diplomatic deference which the commander-in-chief felt compelled to show to other foreign officers. Some of the foreign volunteers were eventually dis- missed politely by Congress, on the ground that suitable employ- ment could not be found for them. The name of one of them, Thomas Conway, an Irish soldier of fortune from the French service, is attached to what is called " Conway's Cabal," a scheme for superseding Washington by General Horatio Gates, who in October 1777 succeeded in forcing Burgoyne to capitulate at Saratoga, and who had been persistent in his depreciation of the commander-in-chief and in intrigues with members of Congress. A number of officers, as well as of men in civil life, were mixed up in the plot, while the methods employed were the lowest forms of anonymous slander; but at the first breath of exposure every one concerned hurried to cover up his part in it, leaving Conway to shoulder both the responsibility and the disgrace. The treaty of alliance of 1778 with France, following the sur- render of Burgoyne, put an end to all such plans. It was absurd to expect foreign nations to deal with a second-rate man as commander-in-chief while Washington was in the field, and he seems to have had no further trouble of this kind. The prompt and vigorous pursuit of Sir Henry Clinton across New Jersey towards New York, and the battle of Monmouth, in which the plan of battle was thwarted by Charles Lee, another foreign recruit of popular reputation, closed the military record of Washington, so far as active campaigning was concerned, until the end of the war. The British confined their operations to other parts of the continent, and Washington, alive as ever to the importance of keeping up connexion with New England, WASHINGTON, GEORGE 347 ted himself to watching the British in and about New York City. It was in every way fitting, however, that he who had been the mainspring of the war from the beginning, and had borne far than his share of its burdens and discouragements, should eiul it with the campaign of Yorktown, conceived by himself, he surrender of Cornwallis (October 1781). Although peace not concluded until September 1783, there was no more • riant fighting. Washington retained his commission until •$rd of December 1783, when, in a memorable scene, he returned it to Congress, then in session at Annapolis, Md., retired to Mount Vernon. His expenses during the war, ling secret service money, aggregated about $64,000; in ion he expended a considerable amount from his private fortune, for which he made no claim to reimbursement. By this time the popular canonization of Washington had fairly begun. He occupied a position in American public life and in the American political system which no man could possibly hold again. He may be said to have become a political element quite apart from the Union, or the states, or the people of either. In a country in which newspapers had at best only a local circulation, and where communication was still slow and ult, the knowledge that Washington favoured anything superseded, with very many men, b~oth argument and the necessity of information. His constant correspondence with the governors of the states gave him a quasi-paternal attitude towards govern- ment in general. On relinquishing his command, for example, he was able to do what no other man could have done with r propriety or safety: he addressed a circular letter to the governors, pointing but changes in the existing form of govern- ment which he believed to be necessary, and urging " an in- 'uble union of the states under one federal head," " a regard to public justice," the adoption of a suitable military •lishment for a time of peace, and the making of " those mutual concessions which are requisite to the general prosperity." His refusal to accept a salary, either as commander-in-chief or as president, might have been taken as affectation or im- pertinence in any one else; it seemed natural and proper enough in the case of Washington, but it was his peculiar privilege. It i-> even possible that he might have had. a crown, had he been willing to accept it. The army, at the end of the war, was justly dissatisfied with its treatment. The officers were called to meet at Newburgh, and it was the avowed purpose of the leaders of the movement to march the army westward, appropriate vacant public lands as part compensation for arrears of pay, leave Congress to negotiate for peace without an army, and " mock at their calamity and laugh when their fear cometh." Less publicly avowed was the purpose to make their commander- in-chief king, if he could be persuaded to aid in establishing a monarchy. Washington put a summary stop to the whole pro- ceeding. A letter written to him by Colonel Lewis Nicola, on be- half of this coterie, detailed the weakness of a republican form of government as they had experienced it, their desire for " mixed government," with him at its head, and their belief that " the title of king " would be objectionable to but few and of material advantage to the country. His reply was peremptory and indignant. In plain terms he stated his abhorrence of the proposal; he vas at a loss to conceive what part of his conduct could have encouraged their address; they could not have found " a person to whom their schemes were more disagree- able "; and he charged them, " if you have any regard for your- self or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these thoughts from your mind, and never communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a sentiment of the like nature." His influence, and his alone, secured the quiet disbanding of the discontented army. That influence was as powerful after he had retired to Mount Vernon as before the resignation of his command. The Society of the Cincinnati, an organization composed of officers of the late war, chose him as its first president; but he insisted that the Society should abandon its plan of hereditary member- ship, and change other features of the organization against which there had been public clamour. When the legislature of Virginia gave him 150 shares of stock in companies formed for the improvement of the Potomac and James rivers, and he was unable to refuse them lest his action should be misinterpreted, he extricated himself by giving them to educational institutions. His voluminous correspondence shows his continued concern for a standing army and the immediate possession of the western military posts, and his interest in the development of the western territory. From public men in all parts of the country he received such a store of suggestions as came to no other man, digested it, and was enabled by means of it to speak with what seemed infallible wisdom. In the midst of a burden of letter- writing, the minute details in his diaries of tree-planting and rotation of crops, and his increasing reading on the political side of history, he found time to entertain a stream of visitors from all parts of the United States and from abroad. Among these, in March 1785, were the commissioners from Virginia and Maryland, who met at Alexandria (q.v.) to form a commercial code for Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac, and made an oppor- tunity to visit Mount Vernou. From that moment the current of events, leading into the Annapolis Convention (see ANNA- POLIS, Md.) of 1786 and the Federal Convention of the follow- ing year, shows Washington's close supervision at every point. When the Federal Convention met at Philadelphia in May 1 787 to frame the present constitution, Washington was present as a delegate from Virginia, though much against his will; and a unanimous vote at once made him the presiding officer. Natur- ally, therefore, he did not participate in debate; and he seems to have spoken but once, and then to favour an amendment reducing from 40,000 to 30,000 the minimum population required as a basis of representation in the House. The mere suggestion, coming from him, was sufficient, and the change was at once agreed to. He approved the constitution which was decided upon, believing, as he said, " that it was the best constitution which could be obtained at that epoch, and that this or a dissolu- tion awaits our choice, and is the only alternative." As president of the convention he signed the constitution, and kept the papers of the convention until the adoption of the new government, when they were deposited in the Department of State. All his vast influence was given to secure the ratification of the new instrument, and his influence was probably decisive. When enough states had ratified to assure the success of the new government, and the time came to elect a president, there was no hesitation. The office of president had been " cut to fit the measure of George Washington," and no one thought of any other person in connexion with it. The unanimous vote of the electors made him the first president of the United States; their unanimous vote elected him for a second time in 1792- 1793; and even after he had positively refused to serve for a third term, two electors voted for him in 1796-1797. The public events of his presidency are given, elsewhere (see UNITED STATES, § History). While the success of the new government was the work of many men and many causes, one cannot resist the conviction that the factor of chief importance was the existence, at the head of the executive department, of such a character as Washington. It was he who gave to official intercourse formal dignity and distinction. It was he who secured for the president the power of removal from office without the intervention of the Senate. His support of Hamilton's financial plans not only insured a speedy restoration of public credit, but also, and even more important, gave the new government constitutional ground on which to stand; while his firmness in dealing with the " Whisky Insurrection " taught a much-needed and wholesome lesson of respect for the Federal power. His official visits to New England in 1789, to Rhode Island in 1790 and to the South in 1791 enabled him to test public opinion at the same time that they increased popular interest in the national government. Himself not a political partisan, he held the two natural parties apart, and prevented party contest, until the government had become too firmly established to be shaken by them. Perhaps the final result would not in any case have failed, even had " blood and iron " been necessary to bring it about; but the quiet attainment of the result was due to the personality of Washington, as well as to the political sense of the American people. WASHINGTON, GEORGE It would be a great mistake to suppose, however, that the influence of the president was fairly appreciated during his term of office, or that he himself was uniformly respected. Washington seems never to have understood fully either the nature, the significance, or the inevitable necessity of party government in a republic. Instead, he attempted to balance party against party, selected representatives of opposing political views to serve in his first cabinet, and sought in that way to neutralize the effects of parties. The consequence was that the two leading members of the cabinet, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, exponents for the most part of diametric- ally opposite political doctrines, soon occupied the position, to use the words of one of them, of " two game-cocks in a pit." The unconscious drift of Washington's mind was toward the Federalist party; his letters to La Fayette and to Patrick Henry, in December 1798 and January 1799, make that evident even without the record of his earlier career as president. It is in- conceivable that, to a man with his type of mind and his extra- ordinary experience, the practical sagacity, farsightedness and aggressive courage of the Federalists should not have seemed to embody the best political wisdom, however little he may have been disposed to ally himself with any party group or subscribe to any comprehensive creed. Accordingly, when the Democratic- Republican party came to be formed, about 1793, it was not to be expected that its leaders would long submit with patience to the continual interposition of Washington's name and influence between themselves and their opponents; but they maintained a calm exterior. Some of their followers were less discreet. The president's proclamation of neutrality, in the war between England and France, excited them to anger; his support of Jay's treaty with Great Britain roused them to fury. His firmness in thwarting the activities of Edmond Charles Edouard Genet, minister from France, alienated the partisans of France; his suppression of the " Whisky Insurrection " aroused in some the fear of a military despotism. Forged letters, purporting to show his desire to abandon the revolutionary struggle, were published; he was accused of drawing more than his salary; his manners were ridiculed as "aping monarchy"; hints of the propriety of a guillotine for his benefit began to appear; he was spoken of as the " stepfather of his country." The brutal attacks, exceeding in virulence anything that would be tolerated to-day, embittered his presidency, especially during his second term: in 1793 he is reported to have declared, in a cabinet meeting, that " he would rather be in his grave than in his present situation," and that " he had never repented but once the having slipped the moment of resigning his office, and that was every moment since." The most unpleasant portions of Jefferson's Anas are those in which, with an air of psychological dissection, he details the storms of passion into which the president was driven by the newspaper attacks upon him. There is no reason to believe, however, that these attacks represented the feeling of any save a small minority of the politicians; the people never wavered in their devotion to the president, and his election would have been unanimous in 1796, as in 1792 and 1789, had he been willing to serve. He retired from the presidency in I797,1 and returned to Mount Vernon, his journey thither being marked by popular demon- strations of affection and esteem. At Mount Vernon, which had suffered from neglect during his absence, he resumed the planta- tion life which he loved, the society of his family, and the care of his slaves. He had resolved some time before never to obtain another slave, and " wished from his soul " that Virginia could be persuaded to abok'sh slavery; " it might prevent much future mischief"; but the unprecedented profitableness of the cotton industry, under the impetus of the recently invented cotton gin, had already begun to change public sentiment regarding slavery, and Washington was too old to attempt further innova- tions. Visitors continued to flock to him, and his correspondence, as always, took a wide range. In 1798 he was made commander- in-chief of the provisional army raised in anticipation of war with 1 He had previously, under date of the I7th of September 1796, issued a notable " Farewell Address " to the American people. France, and was fretted almost beyond endurance by the quarrels of Federalist politicians over the distribution of commissions. In the midst of these military preparations he was struck down by sudden illness, which lasted but for a day, and died at Mount Vernon on the I4th of December 1799. His disorder was an oedernatous affection of the wind-pipe, contracted by exposure during a long ride in a snowstorm, and aggravated by neglect and by such contemporary remedies as bleeding, gargles of " molasses, vinegar and butter " and " vinegar and sage tea," which " almost suffocated him," and a blister of cantharides on the throat. He died as simply as he had lived ; his last words were only business directions, affectionate remembrances- to relatives, and repeated apologies to the physicians and attendants for the trouble he was giving them. Just before he died, says his secretary, Tobias Lear, he felt his own pulse; his countenance changed; the attending physician placed his hands over the eyes of the dying man, " and he expired without a struggle or a sigh." The third of the series of resolutions introduced in the House of Representatives five days after his death, by John Marshall of Virginia, later chief-justice of the Supreme Court, states exactly, if somewhat rhetorically, the position of Washing- tion in American history: " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."2 His will contained a pro- vision freeing his slaves, and a request that no oration be pro- nounced at his funeral. His remains rest in the family vault at Mount Vernon (?.».), which since 1860 has been held by an association, practically as national property. All contemporary accounts agree that Washington was of imposing presence. He measured just 6 ft. when prepared for burial; but his height in his prime, as given in his orders for clothes from London, was 3 in. more. La Fayette says that his hands were " the largest he ever saw on a man." Custis says that his complexion was " fair, but considerably florid." His weight was about 220 Ib. Evidently it was his extraordinary dignify and poise, forbidding even the suggestion of familiarity, quite as much as his stature, that impressed those who knew him. The various and widely-differing portraits of him find exhaustive treatment in the seventh volume of Justin Wiusor's Narrative and Critical History of America. Winsor thinks that " the favourite profile has been unquestionably Houdon's, with Gilbert Stuart's canvas for the full face, and probably John Trumbull's for the figure." Stuart's face, however, with its calm and benign expression, has fixed the populai notion of Washington. Washington was childless: the people of his time said he was the father only of his country. Collateral branches of the family have given the Lees, the Custises, and other families a claim to an infusion of the blood. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A complete bibliography of books relating to Washington would be very voluminous. The best edition of his Writings is that of W. C. Ford (14 vols., New York, 1889-1893). Sparks's edition (12 vols., Boston, 1837) has in the main been super- seded, though it contains some papers not included by Ford, and the Life, which comprises vol. i., still has value. J. D. Richardson's Messages and Papers of the Presidents (vol. i., Washington, 1896) collects the presidential messages and proclamations, with a few omissions. A descriptive list of biographies and biographical sketches is given in W. S. Baker's Bibliotheca Washingtoniana (Philadelphia, 1889). The most important lives are those of John Marshall (Philadelphia, 1804-1807), David Ramsay (New York, 1807), Washington Irving (New York, 1855-1859), E. E. Hale (New York, 1888), H. C. Lodge (Boston, 1889; rev. ed., 1898), B. T. Thayer (New York, 1894) and Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1897). Valuable for their presentation of differing aspects of Washington's career are: W. S. Baker's Itinerary of Washington (Philadelphia, 1892), H. B. Carrington's Washington the Soldier (New York, 1899), G. W. P. Custis's Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington (New York, 1860), P. L. Ford's True George Washington (Phila- delphia, 1896) and R. Rush's Washington in Domestic Life (Phila- delphia 1857). The larger comprehensive histories of the United States by Bancroft, Hildreth, Winsor, McMaster, Von Hoist, Schouler and Avery, the biographies in the " American Statesmen " series, and Hart s " American Nation " series, are indispensable. There is an interesting attempt to make a composite portrait of Washington in Science (December 11, 1885). (W.MAcD.*) 1 This characterization originated with Henry Lee. WASHINGTON 349 WASHINGTON, a city and the capital of the United States of America, coterminous with the District of Columbia, on the north-east bank of the Potomac river at the head of tide and navigation, 40 m. S.W. of Baltimore, 135 m. S.W. of Philadelphia, and 225 m. S.W. of New York. Area, 60 sq. m. (exclusive of 10 sq. m. of water surface). Pop. (1890) 230,392; (1900) 278,718, of whom 20,119 were foreign-born and 87,186 were negroes; (1910) 331,069. The city proper covers only about 10 sq. m. lying between the Anacostia river and Rock Creek, and rising from the low bank of the Potomac, which is here nearly i m. wide; above are encircling hills and a broken plateau, which rise to a maximum height of 420 ft. and contain the former city of Georgetown, the villages of Anacostia, Brightwood, Tennallytown, and other suburban districts. Streets and Parks. — The original plan of the city, which was prepared by Major Pierre Charles L'Enfant (1755-1825), under the supervision of President Washington and Thomas Jefferson,1 was a masterpiece in landscape architecture and in the main it has been preserved. Besides streets running east and west, which are named by the letters of the alphabet, and streets running north and south, which are numbered, there are avenues named for various states, which radiate from two foci — the Capitol and the White House — or traverse the city without any fixed plan. North and south of the Capitol they are numbered; east and west from it streets are lettered, but streets are dis- tinguished by annexing to the name or letter the name of the quarter: N.W., S.W., N.E. or S.E. — the city is divided into these four parts by North Capitol, East Capitol and South Capitol streets, which intersect at the Capitol. The width of the avenues is from 120 to 160 ft. and the width of the streets from 80 to 1 20 ft. More than one-half the area of the city is comprised in its streets, avenues and public parks. Among the principal residence streets are Massachusetts, especially between Dupont and Sheridan circles, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Vermont Avenues and i6th Street, all in the N.W. quarter of the city. The principal business streets are Pennsylvania Avenue (especi- ally between the Capitol and the White House) and 7th, gth, I4th and F streets. Streets and avenues for the most part are paved with a smooth asphalt pavement, and many of them have two and occasionally four rows of overarching shade trees and private lawns on either side. At nearly every intersection of two avenues is a circle or square in which is the statue of some notable American whose name the square bears. At the intersection of a street with an avenue there is usually the reservation of a small triangular grass plot at least. In L'Enfant's plan a park or mall was to extend from the Capitol to the White House. Instead of this the mall extends from the Capitol to Washington Monument, which stands near the intersection of lines west from the Capitol and south from the White House. In 1901, however, a commission (Daniel Hudson Burnham, C. F. McKim, Augustus St Gaudens and F. L. Olmsted, Jr.) was appointed by authority of the United States Senate to prepare plans for the beautifi- cation of the city and this body, seeking in the main to return to L'Enfant's plan, has submitted a design for a park-like treatment of the entire district between Pennsylvania and Maryland avenues from the Capitol to the White House and between lower New York Avenue and the Potomac, with an elm-shaded mall 300 ft. wide bisecting the park from the Capitol to the Monument, with a group of official and scientific buildings fronting the mall on either side, with a group of municipal buildings between the mall and Pennsylvania Avenue, and with a Lincoln memorial on the bank of the Potomac. Potomac Park (740 acres), a portion of which is embraced in this design, has already been reclaimed from the Potomac river. On Rock Creek, above Georgetown, is the National Zoological Park (under the control of the Smithsonian Institution), embracing 170 acres in a pictu- resque site. North of this and extending to the boundary of the 1 The actual surveying and laying out of the city was done by Andrew Ellicott (1754-1820), acivil engineer, who had been employed in many boundary disputes, who became surveyor-general of the United States in 1792, and from 1812 until his death was professor of mathematics at the United States Military Academy at West Point. District, and including both banks of Rock Creek, with its wild and picturesque beauty, is a tract of 1600 acres, known as Rock Creek Park. Climate. — The climate of Washington is characterized by great humidity, long-continued and somewhat oppressive heat in summer, and mild winters. During a period of thirty-three years ending December 1903 the mean winter temperature (December, January and February) was 35° F. and the mean summer temperature (June, July and August) 75°; the mean of the winter minima was 27°, and the mean of the summer maxima 85°. Extremes ranged, how- ever, from an absolute maximum of 104° to an absolute minimum of -15°. There is an average annual precipitation of 43-1 in., which is quite evenly distributed throughout the year. Although snowstorms are infrequent and snow never lies long on the ground, the average fall of snow for the year amounts to 22-5 in. Buildings. — In a dignified landscape setting on the brow of a hill that is itself nearly 100 ft. above the Potomac stands the Capitol * (built 1793-1827; architect, William Thornton (d. 1827), super- intendent of the Patent Office, whose designs were modified by B. H. Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch; wings and dome added 1851- 1865). It consists of a central building of Virginia sandstone, painted white, and two wings of white Massachusetts marble. Its length is 751 ft., and its breadth ranges in different parts from 121 to 324 ft. The main building is surmounted with an iron dome, designed by Thomas Ustic Walter, which rises to a height of 268 J ft., and on the dome is a statue of Liberty (1863; ipj ft. high) by Thomas Crawford. The Capitol faces east, andon this side is a richly sculptured * portico with Corinthian columns leading to the rotunda under the dome, a sculptured Corinthian portico leading to the Senate Chamber in the north wing, and a plain Corinthian portico leading to the Hall of Representatives in the south wing; there is also a portico at each end and on the west side of each wing. The rotunda, 96 ft. in diameter and 180 ft. high, is decorated with eight historical paintings: "Landing of Columbus" (1492), by John Vanderlyn; " De Soto discovering the Mississippi " (1541), by William Henry Powell; " Baptism of Pocahontas (1613), by John Gadsby Chapman ; " Embarkation of the Pilgrims from Delft- Haven " (1620), by Robert Walter Weir; " Signing the Declaration of Independence (1776), by John Trumbull; "Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga (1777), by Trumbull; " Surrender of Corn- wallis at Yorktown " (1781), by Trumbull; and "Washington resigning his Commission at Annapolis " (1783), by Trumbull. Between the rotunda and the Hall of Representatives is the National Hall of Statuary (formerly the Hall of Representatives), in which each state in the Union may erect statues of two " of her chosen sons "; and between the rotunda and the Senate Chamber is the room of the Supreme Court, which until 1859 was the Senate Chamber.* The Executive Mansion, more commonly called the White House, the official residence of the president, is a two-storey building of Virginia freestone, painted white since 1814 to hide the marks of fire— only the walls were left standing after the capture of the city by the British in that year. It is 170 ft. long and 86 ft. deep. It is simple but dignified ; the principal exterior ornaments are an Ionic portico and a balustrade. The White House was built in 1792—1709 from designs by James Hoban, who closejy followed the plans of the seats of the dukes of Leinster, near Dublin, and in 1902-1903, when new executive offices and a cabinet room were built and were con- nected with the White House by an esplanade, many of the original features of Hoban's plan were restored. East of the White House and obstructing the view from it to the Capitol stands the oldest of the departmental buildings, the Treasury Building (architect, Robert Mills (1781-1855), then U.S. architect), an imposing edifice mainly of granite, 510 ft. long and 280 ft. wide; on the east front is a colonnade of thirty-eight Ionic columns, and on each of the other three sides is an Ionic portico. On the opposite side of the White House is a massive granite building of the State, War and Navy Departments, 567 ft. long and 342 ft. wide. The Library of Congress (1889-1807; cost, exclusive of site, over $6,000,000), south-east of the Capitol, was designed by Smithmeyer & Pelz, and the designs were modified by Edward Pearce Casey (b. 1864), the architect; it is in the Italian Renaissance style, is 340 by 470 ft., and encloses four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat black copper dome, with gilded panels and a lantern. The exterior walls are of white New Hampshire granite, and the walls of the 1 See Glenn Brown, The History of the United States Capitol (2 vols., 1900-1903). 1 The allegorical decorations here are by Persico and Horatio Greenough ; those on the Senate portico are by Thomas Crawford, who designed the bronze doors at the entrances to the Senate and House wings. At the east door of the rotunda is the bronze door (1858; modelled by Randolph Rogers). At the west entrance are elaborate bronze doors (1910) by Louis Amateis (b. 1855). 4 Connected with the Capitol by subways, immediately S.E. and N.E. of the- Capitol respectively, are the marble office buildings (1908) of the House of Representatives and of the Senate. The Capitol is connected by subways with the Library of Congress also. 35° WASHINGTON interior courts are of Maryland granite and white enamelled bricks. There are numerous sculptural adornments without, and there is elaborate interior decoration with paintings, sculpture, coloured marbles and gilding.1 Two squares north of the Senate office- building is the Union Railway Station (1908; 343 by 760 ft.; cost, $4,000,000), designed by Daniel Hudson Burnham, consisting ol a main building of white granite (from Bethel, Vermont) and two wings, and facing a beautiful plaza. On Pennsylvania Avenue, nearly midway between the Capitol and the White House, is the nine-storey Post Office (1899; with a tower 300 ft. high), housing the United States Post Office Department and the City Post Office. A few squares north-west of it are the General Land Office, the headquarters of the Department of the Interior (commonly called the Patent Office), with Doric portico; the Pension Office, in which the Inauguration Ball is held on the evening of each president's taking office; the Government Printing Office (twelve storeys — one of the few tall office-buildings in the city) ; the City Hall, or District Court House; and the District Building (1908), another building of the local government. On the heights north of Georgetown is the United States Naval Observatory, one of the best -equipped institu- tions of the kind; from it Washington time is telegraphed daily to all parts of the United States. Near Rock Creek, west of George- town, is the Signal Office and headquarters of the United States Weather Bureau. In the Mall are the building of the Department of Agriculture, the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.), the National Museum (1910), the Army Medical Museum and the Bureau of Fisheries, and here a building for the Department of Justice is to be erected. Facing the Mall on the south is the home of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, in which the United States paper money and postage stamps are made. Not far from the White House is the Corcoran Gallery of Art (1894-1897; architect, Ernest Flagg), of white Georgia marble in a Neo-Grecian style, housing a collection of paintings (especially American portraits) and statuary; the gallery was founded and endowed in 1869 by William Wilson Cor- coran (1798-1888) " for the perpetual establishment and encourage- ment of the Fine Arts." The Public Library, a gift of Andrew Carnegie, is a white marble building in the Mount Vernon Square, at the intersection of Massachusetts and New York avenues. A prominent building, erected with money given mainly by Mr Carnegie, is that of the Pan-American Union (formerly Bureau of American Republics). The old Ford's Theatre, in which President Lincoln was assassinated, is on Tenth Street N.W. between E and F. The house in which Lincoln died is on the opposite side of the street, and contains relics of Lincoln collected by O. H. Oldroyd. Monuments. — Foremost among the city's many monuments is that erected to the memory of George Washington. It is a plain obelisk of white Maryland marble, 55 ft. square at the base and 555 ft. in height; it was begun in 1848, but the work was abandoned in 1855-1877, but was completed in 1884 at a cost of $i,3oo,ooo.2 Among statues of Washington are the half-nude seated figure (1843) by Greenough in the Smithsonian Institution, and an equestrian statue (1860) of Washington at the Battle of Princeton by Clark Mills in Washington Circle. Among the other prominent statues are: the equestrian statue (1908) of General Philip Sheridan in Sheridan Circle, by Gutzon Borglum ; an equestrian statue of General Sherman near the Treasury Building, by Carl Rohl-Smith; a statue of Frederick the Great (by T. Uphues; presented to the United States by Emperor William II. of Germany) in front of the Army War College at the mouth of the Anacostia river; a statue of General Nathanael Greene (by H. K. Brown) in Stanton Square; statues of General Winfield Scott in Scott Square (by H. K. Brown) and in the grounds of the Soldiers' Home (by Launt Thompson) ; a statue of Rear-Admiral S. F. Du Pont in Dupont Circle (by Launt Thomp- son) ; of Rear-Admiral D. G. Farragut (by Vinnie Ream Hoxie) ; an equestrian statue of General George H. Thomas (by J. Q. A. Ward), erected by the Society of the Army of the Cumberland; 1 A bronze fountain, " The Court of Neptune," in front of the Library, is by Hinton Perry. Granite portrait busts of great authors occupy niches in windows near the entrance; these are by J. S. Hartley, Herbert Adams and F. W. Ruckstuhl. The allegorical figures over the entrance are by Bela L. Pratt. There are fine bronze doors by Olin Warner and Frederick Macrnonnies. Among the mural paintings are- series by John W. Alexander, Kenyon Cox, E. H. Blashfield, Henry Oliver Walker (b. 1843), Walter McEwen, Elihu-Vedder, Charles Sprague Pearce (b. 1851), Edward Simmons (b. 1852), George Willoughby Maynard (b. 1843), Robert Reid (b. 1862), George R. Barse, Jr. (b. 1861), W. A. Mackay, F. W. Benson (b. 1862), Walter Shirlaw (b. 1838), Gari Melchers (b. 1860), W. De L. Dodge (b. 1867) and others. 2 The site is said to have been chosen by Washington himself — Congress had planned a marble monument in 1783. In 1833 the Washington National Monument Society was formed and a popular subscription was taken. The obelisk was designed by Robert Mills, whose original plan included a " Pantheon " 100 ft. high with a colonnade and a colossal statue of Washington. After 1877 the work was carried on by an appropriation made by Congress. See Frederick L. Harvey, History of the Washington Monument and the National Monument Society (Washington, 1903). one of General George B. McClellan, by Frederick Macrnonnies; and statues of Lincoln,3 by Scott Flannery and (in Lincoln Park) by Thomas Ball, of Joseph Henry (by W. W Story) in the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution, of John Marshall (by Story) on the west terrace of the Capitol, of General Andrew Jackson (by Clark Mills) and, in Lafayette Square, of the Marquis de Lafayette (by FalguiereandMercie),of the Comte de Rochambeau (by F. Hamar) and of Baron von Steuben (1910). In Pennsylvania Avenue, at the foot of Capitol Hill, is a Monument of Peace (by Franklin Simmons) in memory of officers, seamen and marines of the U.S. Navy killed in the Civil War. Cemeteries. — On the opposite side of the Potomac, in Virginia, and adjoining Fort Myer, a military post (named in honour of General Albert James Myer (1827-1880), who introduced in 1870 a system of meteorological observations at army posts) with reservation of 186 acres, is Arlington, a National Cemetery (of 408-33 acres), in which lie buried 21,106 soldiers killed in the Civil War and in the war with Spain; among the distinguished officers buried here are General Philip Henry Sheridan, Admiral David Dixon Porter, General Joseph Wheeler and General Henry W. Lawton ; there is a Spanish War Monument; the grounds are noted for their natural beauty, and on the brow of a hill commanding a magnificent view of the city is Arlington House (1802), the residence of George Wash- ington Parke Custis (1781-1857), grandson of Martha Washington, and afterwards of General Robert E. Lee, Custis's son-in-law; the estate was seized by Federal troops early in the Civil War, and was bought by the United States in 1864; there was a military hospital here throughout the Civil War. Adjoining the grounds of the Soldiers' Home (3 m. N. of the Capitol) isa National Military Cemetery containing the graves of 7220 soldiers. On the bank of the Anacostia river, east of the Capitol, is the Congressional Cemetery containing the graves of many members of Congress. North of Georgetown is Oak Hill Cemetery, and in the vicinity of the Soldiers' Home are Rock Creek, Glenwood, Harmony, Prospect Hill and St Mary's Ceme- teries. A crematorium was completed in 1909, and cremation instead of interment has since been urged by the District com- missioners. Charities, &c. — The National Soldiers' Home (1851), founded by General Winfield Scott, comprises five buildings, with accommoda- tions for 800 retired or disabled soldiers, and 512 acres of beautiful grounds. The charitab'e and correctional institutions of the District of Columbia are the following government institutions, under the control of the United States or of the District of Columbia: Freedmen's Hospital (1862), United States Naval Hospital (1866), an Insane Asylum on the S. side of the Anacostia river, the District of Columbia Industrial Home School (1872), a Municipal Lodging House (1892), a Soldiers' and Sailors' Temporary Home (1888), Workhouse, Reform School for Boys, Reform School for Girls and Industrial Home School (1872). Among many private institutions are the Washington City Orphan Asylum (1815); Lutheran Eye, Ear and Throat Infirmary (1889); Episcopal Eye, Ear and Throat Hospital (1897); Providence Hospital (1861; Sisters of Charity); George Washington University Hospital (1898); Georgetown University Hospital (1898); Columbia Hospital for Women (1866); Children's Hospital (1871); Washington Hospital for Foundlings (1887); Children's Temporary Home (1899; for negroes); a German Orphan Asylum (1879); Washington Home for Incurables (1889); Home for the Aged (1871); the National Lutheran Home (1890); the Methodist Home (1890) and Baptist Home (1880). A " non-support law," which went into effect in 1906, enacts that a man who refuses to provide for his family when able to do so shall be committed to the workhouse for hard labour, and that fifty cents a day shall be paid to his family. A Juvenile Court and a Board of Children's Guardians have extensive jurisdiction over dependent and delinquent children, and a general supervision of all charities and corrections is vested in a Board of Charities, consisting of five members appointed by the president of the United States. Education. — Washington is one of the leading educational centres of the United States. The public school system, under the control of a Board of Education of six men and three women appointed by the supreme court judges of the District of Columbia, embraces kindergartens, primary schools, grammar schools, high schools, a business high school, manual training schools, normal schools and night schools. The schools are open nine months in the year, and all children between eight and fourteen years of age are required to attend some public, private or parochial school during these months unless excused because of some physical or mental disability. George Washington University, in the vicinity of the White House, is a non- sectarian institution (opened in 1821 under the auspices of the Baptist General Convention as " The Columbian College in the District of Columbia"; endowed by W. W. Corcoran in 1872, organized as the Columbian University in 1873, organized under its present name* in 1904), and comprises Columbian College of Arts 1 A Lincoln memorial is to be erected on the Mall W. of the Washington monument. 4 The name was changed when the offer of the George Washington Memorial Association to build a $500,000 memorial building was accepted. WASHINGTON 351 and Sciences with a graduate department (1893), a College of the Political Sciences (1907), Washington College of Engineering, divisions of architecture and education (1907), a Department of Law (first organized in 1826; closed in 1827; reorganized in 1865), a Department of Medicine (1821; since 1866 in a building given by W. W. Corcoran), with several affiliated hospitals, a Department of Dentistry (1887), the National College of Pharmacy(umted with the university in 1906), and a College of Veterinary Medicine (1908). In 1909 this University had 185 instructors and 1520 students. Georgetown University is in Georgetown (g.f.). The Catholic University of America (incorporated 1887; opened 1889), with buildings near the Soldiers' Home, stands at the head of Roman Catholic schools in America. Although designed especially for advanced theological studies, it comprises a School of the Sacred Sciences, a School of Philosophy, a School of Letters, a School of Physical Sciences, a School of Biological Sciences, a School of Social Sciences, a School of Jurisprudence, a School of Law and a School of Technological Sciences. In 1909 its faculty numbered 42 and its students 225. A Franciscan convent, Dominican, Paulist and Marist houses, and Trinity College for girls are affiliated with the Catholic University. The American University (chartered 1893), under Methodist Episcopal control, designed to bear a relation to the Protestant churches similar to that of the Catholic University to the Catholic Church, with a campus of 94 acres at the north-west end of the city, in 1010 had not been opened to students. Howard University (1867), for the higher education of negroes, is situated south-west of the Soldiers' Home; it was named in honour of General Oliver Otis Howard, one of its founders and (in 1869-1873) its president; it has a small endowment, and is supported by Congressional appropriations which are administered by the Secretary of the Interior; it comprises an academy, a college of arts and sciences, a teachers' college, a school of theology, a school of law, a school of medicine, a pharmaceutic college, a dental college, a school of manual arts and applied sciences, and a commercial college; in 1909 it had 121 instructors and 1253 students. The Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (see DEAF AND DUMB), on Kendall Green, in the north-eastern part of the city, is composed of Kendall school (a secondary school) and of Gallaudet College (called in 1864-1893 the National Deaf Mute College; the present name is in honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet); it was the first institution to give collegiate courses to the deaf, and it has received Congressional appropriations, though it is a private foundation. Washington has also several academies, seminaries and small colleges; among the latter are St John's College (Roman Catholic, 1870) and Washington Christian College (non-sectarian, 1902). The Washington College of Law (1896) is an evening school especially for women. A School of Art is maintained in the Corcoran Gallery of Art. The Carnegie Institution of Washington, founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1902 and endowed by him with $22,000,000 (810,000,000 in 1902; $12,000,000 later), is designed "to encourage in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular to conduct, endow and assist investiga- tion in any department of science, literature or art, and to this end to co-operate with governments, universities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies and individuals; to appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research ; to publish and distribute documents; and to conduct lectures, hold meetings and acquire and maintain a library. " It is under the control of a board of twenty-four trustees, vacancies in which are filled by the remaining members. In 1908 ten departments had been organized: Botanical Research, with a " desert laborato'ry " (1903) at Tucson, Arizona; Economics and Sociology (1904); Experimental Evolution, with a station (1904) at Cold Spring Harbor, New York (see HUNTINGTON, N.Y.); Geophysical Research, with a laboratory (1906-1907) at Washington — investigations have been carried on by the U.S. Geological Survey and at McGill University, Toronto; Historical rch (1903); Marine Biology, with a laboratory (1904) at Tortugas, Florida; Meridian Astrometry (1906; work is carried on especially at Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York); Research in Nutrition, with a laboratory (1906) at Boston, Massachusetts — investigations (since 1904) had been carried on at Yale and Wesleyan universities; Solar Physics, with observatory (1905) on Mount Wilson, California, and workshops at Pasadena, California, and Terrestrial Magnetism (1903; headquarters in Washington); the institution had assisted Luther Burbank in his horticultural experi- ments since 1905, and had published the Index Medicus since 1903; and it makes occasional grants for minor research and tentative investigations. The learned societies of Washington arc to a large degree more national than local in their character; among them are: the Washington Academy of Sciences (1898), a " federal head " of most of the societies mentioned below; the Anthropological Societ" (founded 1879; incorporated 1887), which has published Transactions (1879 sqq., with the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution) and The American Anthropologist (1888-1898; since 1898 published by the American Anthropological Association); the National Geographic' Society (1888), which since 1903 has occupied the Hubbard Memorial Building, which sent scientific expeditions to Alaska, Mont Pelee and La Souffriere, and which publishes the Na- tional Geographic Magazine (1888 sqq.), National Geographic Monographs (1895) and various special maps; the Philosophical Society of Washington (1871; incorporated 1901), devoted especially to mathematical and physical sciences; the Biological Society (1880), which publishes Proceedings (1880 sqq.); the Botanical Society of Washington (1901); the Geological Society of Washington (1893); the Entomological Society of Washington (1884), which publishes Proceedings (1884 sqq.); the Chemical Society (1884); the Records of the Past Exploration Society (1901), which publishes Records of the Past (1902 sqq.); the Southern History Association (1896), which issues Publications (1897 sqq.); the Society for Philosophical Inquiry (1893), which publishes Memoirs (1893 sqq.); the Society of American Foresters (1900;, which publishes Proceedings (1905 sqq.) ; and the Cosmos Club. The libraries and scientific collections of the Federal government and its various bureaus and institutions afford exceptional opportunities for students and investigators (see LIBRARIES: § United States). The Library of Congress contains more than 1,800,000 volumes and 100,000 manuscripts, and large collections of maps and pieces of music. In the library- of the State Department are 70,000 volumes of documents. The library of the Suigcon-General's Office contains 200,000 volumes, and is the largest medical library in the world. Besides these there is a vast amount of material in the collections of the Bureau of Education, the Bureau of Ethnology, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the House of Representatives, the Patent Office, the Department cf Agriculture, the Botanic Gardens, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Naval Observatory, the Geological Survey and the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Public Library, containing about 1 10,000 volumes, is a circulating library. Communications. — Seven railways enter the city : the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington division of the Pennsylvania System, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Wash- ington, Baltimore & Annapolis, the Washington Southern and the Washington, Alexandria & Mt Vernon. Steamboats ply daily from the foot of Seventh Street to Alexandria, Mt Vernon, Old Point Comfort and Norfolk, and at Old Point Comfort there is connexion with boats for New York. There is also an hourly ferry service to Alexandria, and at irregular intervals there are boats direct to Balti- more, Philadelphia, New York and Boston. The street railways, underground trolley in the urban district and overhead trolley in the suburbs, connect at several points with interurban railways in Maryland and Virginia. Industries. — The city's manufactures'and commerce are of little importance in proportion to its population. Only government manufactures and manufactures for local consumption are at all large. In 1905 the government's printing and publishing cost $5,999,996; its ordnance and ordnance stores (in the Navy Yard on the bank of the Anacostia river), $5,331,459; and its engraving and plate printing, $3,499,517. The total value of the products of all the factories in the District which were operated under private ownership amounted to $18,359,159, and $9,575,971, or 52% of this was the value of printing and publishing; bread and other bakery products, gas and malt liquors. Government. — Washington is the seat of the Federal govern- ment of the United States and as such is not self-ruled, but governed by the Federal Congress. The city was chartered in 1802, with a mayor appointed annually by the president of the United States and an elective council of two chambers. The mayor was elected by the council from 1812 to 1820, and by the people (biennially) from 1820 to 1871. In 1871 the Federal Congress repealed the charters of Washington and Georgetown and established a new government for the entire District, con- sisting of a governor, a secretary, a board of public works, a board of health and a council appointed by the president with the concurrence of the Senate, and a House of Delegates and a delegate to the National House of Representatives elected by the people. In 1874 Congress substituted a government by three commissioners appointed by the president with the concurrence of the Senate, and in 1878 the government by commissioners was made permanent. Two of the commissioners must be residents of the District, and the third commissioner must be an officer of the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army. The people of the District have no voice in its government, have no repre- sentation in Congress and do not vote for the president of the United States. The District commissioners are the chief execu- tive officers. Congress and the commissioners legislate for the District; the president, the commissioners and the supreme court of the District appoint the administrative officers and boards; and the president appoints the judges of the District courts, viz. a court of appeals, a supreme court, a municipal court, a police court, a probate court and a juvenile court. One-half the expenses of the government of Washington is paid 352 WASHINGTON by the District of Columbia and one-half by the United States. The revenue of the District, which is derived from a property tax and from various licences, is paid into the United States Treasury; appropriations, always specific and based on estimates prepared by the commissioners, are made only by Congress; and all accounts are audited by the Treasury Department. The government owns the waterworks, by which an abundant supply of water is taken from the Potomac at the Great Falls, conducted for 12 m. through an aqueduct 9 ft. in diameter and filtered through a sand filtration plant. The government of the District has been uniformly excellent, and the laws therefor have been modern in their tendency. The employment of children under fourteen years of age in any factory, workshop, mercantile establishment, store, business office, telegraph or telephone office, restaurant, hotel, apartment house, club, theatre, bootblack stand, or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise or messages is forbidden, except that a child between twelve and fourteen years of age may with the permission of the judge of the juvenile court be employed at an occupation not dangerous or injurious to his health or morals if necessary for his support or for the assistance of a disabled, ill or invalid parent, a younger brother or sister, or a widowed mother. No child under fourteen years of age may be employed in any work whatever before six o'clock in the morning, after seven o'clock in the evening, or during the hours when the public schools are in session. History. — During the War of Independence Philadelphia was the principal seat of the Continental Congress, but it was driven thence in 1783 by mutinous soldiers, and for the succeeding seven years the discussion of a permanent site for the national capital was characterized by sectional jealousy, and there was a strong sentiment against choosing a state capital or a large city lest it should interfere with the Federal government. The Constitution, drafted in 1787, authorized Congress " to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding 10 sq. m.) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of govern- ment of the United States." Virginia and Maryland promised- such a cession; President Washington was known to be in favour of a site on the Potomac, and in July 1790 Alexander Hamilton, in return for Thomas Jefferson's assistance in passing the bill for the assumption of the state war debts by the Federal govern- ment, helped Jefferson to pass a bill for establishing the capital on the Potomac, by which the president was authorized to select a site anywhere along the Potomac between the.Eastern Branch (Anacostia) and the Conococheague river, a distance of about 80 m., and to appoint three commissioners who under his direc- tion should make the necessary surveys and provide accom- modations for the receptipn of Congress in 1800. The com- missioners— Thomas Johnson (1732-1819) and Daniel Carroll (1756-1829) of Maryland and Dr David Stuart of Virginia — • gave the city its name; Major L'Enfant drew its plan, and Andrew Ellicott laid it out. When, in 1800, the government was removed to Washington it was " a backwoods settlement in the wilderness "; as a city it existed principally on paper, and the magnificence of the design only served to emphasize the poverty of the execution. One wing of the Capitol and the President's House were nearly completed, but much of the land surrounding the Capitol was a marsh; there were no streets worthy of the name, the roads were very bad, and the members of Congress were obliged to lodge in Georgetown. For many years such characterizations as " Wilderness City," " Capital of Miserable Huts," " City of Streets without Houses," " City of Magnificent Distances " and '•' A Mudhole almost Equal to the Great Serbonian Bog " were common. Resolutions were frequently offered by some disgusted member of Congress for the removal of the capital. In 1814, during the second war with Great Britain, the British, after defeating on the 24th of August an American force at Bladensburg, Prince George county, Maryland, about 6 m. N.E. of Washington, occupied the' city and burned the Capitol, the President's House, some of the public offices, and the Navy Yard. In the following year when a bill appropriating $300,000 for rebuilding was before Congress it met with formidable opposition from the " capital movers." The question of removal was again to the front when, in 1846, the Virginia portion of the District was retroceded to that state in response to the appeal of Alexandria, which had suffered from the neglect of Congress. The lethargy of the nation toward its capital suddenly vanished at the outbreak of the Civil War. At the close of the first day's bombardment of Fort Sumter (April i2th, 1861) Leroy P. Walker (1817-1884), the Confederate Secretary of War, boasted chat before the ist of May the Con- federate flag would float over the Capitol. The North, alarmed at the threat, speedily transformed Washington into a great military post and protected it on all sides with strong earthworks. Throughout the war it was the centre of the military operations of the North: here the armies were officered and marshalled, from here they marched on their campaigns against the South, here was the largest depot of military supplies, and here were great hospitals for the care of the wounded. Although several times threatened by the South, Washington was never really in danger except in July 1864 when General Jubal' A. Early advanced against it with 12,000 veterans, defeated General Lew Wallace with about 3500 men at Monocacy Bridge on the 6th, and on the nth appeared before the fortifications, which were at the time defended by only a few thousand raw troops; the city was saved by the timely arrival of some of Grant's veterans. In the city, on the 23rd and 24th of May 1865, President Andrew Johnson reviewed the returning soldiers of the Union Army. The population of Washington increased from 61,122 to 109,199 or 78-6% in the decade from 1860 to 1870, and the stirring effects of the Civil War were far-reaching. The city had been founded on too elaborate and extensive a plan to be left to the initiative and unaided resources of its citizens. But under the new form of government which was instituted in 1871 a wonderful transformation was begun under the direction of Alexander R. Shepherd (1835-1902), the governor of the District and president of the board of public works. Temporary financial embarrassment followed, but when the Federal government had taken upon itself half the burden and established the economic administration of the commissioners, the problem of beautifying the nation's capital was solved. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. B. Todd, The Story of Washington, the National Capital (New York, 1889); R. R. Wilson, Washington, the Capital City (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1901); C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, Washington, the City and the Seat of Government (Philadelphia, 1908); F. A. Vanderlip, " The Nation's Capital," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900); William V. Cox, 1800- 1900, Celebration of the looth Anniversary of the Establishment of the Seat of Government in the District of Columbia (Washington, 1901); J. A. Porter, The City of Washington, its Origin and Administration, m Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol. iii. (Baltimore, 1885); C. Howard, Washington as a Center of Learning (Washington, 1904) ; Tindall, Origin and Government of the District of Columbia (ibid., 1903); A. R. Spofford, The Founding of Washington City (Baltimore, 1881); and Glenn Brown, Papers on Improvement of Washington City (Washington, 1901). WASHINGTON, a city and . county-seat of Daviess county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 50 m. N.E. of Evansville. Pop. (1890) 6064, (1900) 8551, of whom 391 were foreign born and 255 negroes, (1910 census) 11,404. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South Western (which has repair shops here) and the Evansville & Indianapolis railways. The city has a public library and a city park of 45 acres. It is the shipping point of the surrounding farming, stock-raising and coal-mining region, and there are deposits of kaolin and fireclay in the vicinity. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,166,749 (48-6% more than in 1900). The municipality owns and operates the electric lighting plant. Washington was settled in 1816 and chartered as a city in 1870. WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE), a city and the county-seat of Fayette county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Paint Creek, 35 m. S.E. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 3798, (1890) 5742, (1900) 5751 (708 negroes); (1910) 7277. It is -served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Penn- sylvania Lines), the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, and the Cincin- nati, Hamilton & Dayton railways. It is in a rich farming and stock and poultry-raising region, has a large poultry-packing house and various manufactures. Washington, or Washington Court House as it is often called to distinguish it from the WASHINGTON 353 village of Washington in Guernsey county, Ohio, was laid out in 1810 and was chartered as a city in 1888. WASHINGTON, a borough and the county-seat of Washington county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsburg and about 30 m. N.E. of Wheeling, West Virginia, on Chartiers Creek. Pop. (1900) 7670, of whom 465 were foreign born and 984 were negroes; (1910) 18,778. Washington is served by the main line of the Baltimore & Ohio, the Chartiers Valley branch of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system) and the Waynesburg & Washington railways and a connecting line for freight service, and by electric railway to Pittsburg. Among its public buildings and institutions are the county court-house (in which are the rooms of the Washington County Historical Society), the Federal building, two hospitals, a Y.M.C.A. building and a public library. It is the seat of Washington and Jefferson College, of Washington Seminary (1836) for girls and of a school of business. Washington and Jefferson College was incorporated, in 1865, by the consolidation of two rival institutions, Washington Academy and Jefferson College. Washington Academy (incorporated in 1787 and en- dowed by the legislature of Pennsylvania), which was opened in 1789, was incorporated as Washington College in 1806, and in 1852 became a synodical college of the Presbyterian Church, under the direction of the synod of Wheeling. Jefferson College, which was an outgrowth of Canonsburg Academy at Canonsburg, 7 m. from Washington, was chartered in 1794, and incorporated as Jefferson College in 1802; from 1826 until 1838 the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia was its medical department. In 1869, by an act of the legislature, all departments were located at Washington. In 1872 a chair of engineering and applied mathematics and one of biology were established with an endow- ment of $40,000, the gift of Dr Francis J. LeMoyne, and the chairs of Greek and of Latin were endowed by the Rev. C. C. Beatty with $60,000. In 1909-1910 Washington and Jefferson College (including Washington and Jefferson Academy) had 29 instructors, 413 students, about 20,000 volumes in its library and an endowment of $630,000. Washington is in a bituminous coal and natural gas region, and there are manufactories of glass, iron tubing and pipe, tin plate, steel, &c. The site was part of a tract bought in 1771 by David Hoge and was known at first as Catfish camp after an Indian chief, Tingooqua or Catfish. It was platted in October 1781 and called Bassettown in honour of Richard Bassett (d. 1815), a member of the Federal constitu- tional convention of 1787 and of the United States Senate in 1780-1793, and governor of Delaware in 1798-1801. The village was replatted in November 1784 and renamed in honour of General Washington, to whom a large part of the site had belonged. The early settlers were chiefly Scotch-Irish. At first a part of Strabane township, one of the original thirteen townships of Washington county, in February 1786 Washington was made a separate election district; it was incorporated as a town in 1810; was chartered as a borough and enlarged in 1852, and its limits were extended in 1854 and 1855. Since 1900 there have been added to the borough North and South Washington and the industrial suburb of Tylerdale, East and West Washington, although practically one with the borough, remaining under separate administration. The location of Washington on the old " National Road " gave it importance before the advent of railways. At the LeMoyne crematory established here by Dr Francis Julius LeMoyne,1 on the 6th of December 1876, took place the first public cremation in the United States; the body burned was that of Baron Joseph Henry Louis de Palm (1800-1876), a Bavarian nobleman who had emigrated to the United States in 1862 and had been active in the Theosophical Society in New York. : LeMoyne (1798-11879) was the son of a French refugee, and was an ardent abolitionist. In 1840 he was the Liberty party's candidate for the vice-presidency. He built a normal school for negroes near Memphis, Tennessee, and gave money to Washing- ton College, at which he had graduated in 1815. Largely through LeMoyne s influence Washington became an important point on the " underground railway " for assisting runaway slaves to Canada. xrvm. 12 See Boyd Crumrine (ed.), The History of Washington County, Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1882); and Alfred Creigh, The History of Washington County from Us First Settlement to the Present Time (Harrisburg, 1871). WASHINGTON, the most north-westerly state of the United States of America. It lies between latitudes 45° 32' and 49° N. and between longitudes 1 16° 57' and 1 24° 48' W. On the N. it is bounded by British Columbia, along the 49th parallel as far W. as the middle of the Strait of Georgia and then down the middle of this strait and Haro Strait, and along the middle of the channel of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which separate it from Vancouver Island; on theE. the south portion of its boundary is the Snake river, which separates it from Idaho, but from the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater rivers (a little W. of 117°) the E. boundary line between Washington and Idaho runs directly N.; on the S. the Columbia river separates it from Oregon from the mouth of that river to the point of the upper intersection with the 46th parallel" of N. latitude, but from thence eastward the S. boundary line between Washington and Oregon is the 46th parallel; on the W. the state is bounded by the Pacific Ocean. The state has a maximum length, from E. to W., of 360 m. and a maximum width of 240 m.; area, 69,127 sq. m., of which 2291 sq. m. are water surface. Physical Features. — The western half of Washington lies in the Pacific Mountains province, consisting of the Coast range and the Cascade range, separated by a broad basin known as the Sound Valley. The eastern half of the state is occupied in the north by a westward extension of the Rocky Mountains, and in the centre and south by the north-western portion of the Columbia Plateau province. The most prominent physical feature of the state is the Cascade mountain range, which with a N.N.E. and S.S.W. trend crosses the state 30 to 40 m. W. of the middle. On the S. border this mountain range occupies a tract about 50 m. in width, and to the northward it widens to 100 m. or more. The general height of the ridges and peaks is about 8000 ft. above the sea, but there are five ancient snow-capped volcanoes which equal or exceed 10,000 ft. These are Mount Rainier or Tacoma (14,363 ft.), Mount Adams (12,470 ft.), Mount Baker (10,827 ft.), Glacier Peak (10,436 ft.) and Mount St Helens (10,000 ft.). Glaciers are common both in the N. and in the S. region, even on the higher elevations. Both slopes of the Cascades are cut deep by valleys. Along the Pacific Coast the ridges of the Coast range are only about 1500 ft. in height in the S. part of the state, but they rise northward in the Olympic Moun- tains and reach a maximum of elevation on Mount Olympus of 8150 ft. The Olympics meet the ocean along a rather straight line, but farther S. the coast line is broken by Gray s Harbour and Willapa Bay, the drowned lower portions of river valleys. The upheaval of the Cascade Mountains on the E. and the Olympic Mountains and Coast range on the W. left between them the Puget Sound Basin, the gently sloping sides of which descend in the central portion to less than 100 ft. from sea-level. A still greater subsidence farther north produced Puget Sound. East of the Cascade Mountains the Columbia and Spokane rivers mark the boundary between the Okanogan Highlands to the northward and the Columbia plateau to the southward. The Okanogan Highlands, an outlier of the Rocky Mountains extending westward from the Coeur d'Alene Mountains in Idaho, reach heights of 5000 to 6coo ft. above the sea, but are characterized by long gentle slopes, rounded divides and wide stream basins. In some ofthe larger valleys there are glacial terraces. The Columbia plateau consists of horizontal beds of lava having a total thickness of several thousand feet, and its surface has a general elevation of loop to 2000 ft. above sea-level. West of the Columbia river the plain is broken by several monoclinal ridge* rising 2000 to 3000 ft. above it and extending eastward 50 to 75 m. from the foothills of the Cascades. In some parts, especially (in Douglas and Grant counties) within the Big Bend of the Columbia, the plain is frequently cut by coulees, or abandoned river channels, some of them 500 to 600 ft. deep and with very precipitous walls. The Grand Coulee represents the course of the Columbia river during the glacial period, when its regular channel was blocked with ice. There are also deep canyons which have been cut by the rivers in their present courses, especially by the Snake river and its tribu- taries. The S_.\V. corner of the state is occupied by the Blue Moun- tains, which rise about 7000 ft. above the sea and are cut deep by canyons. About 11,000 so. m. in Washington have a minimum elevation exceeding 3000 ft. ; an approximately equal area has a maximum elevation less than 500 ft., and the mean elevation of the entire state is 1 700 ft. The Okanogan Highlands, the Columbia plain, the E. slope of the Cascade Mountains and the S. portion of the Puget Sound Basin are drained by the Columbia and its tributaries. This large river enters the N.E. corner of the state from the N., traverses it in a winding course from N. to S., forms the greater portion of its S. boundary, and discharges into the Pacific Ocean. The Snake (in 354 WASHINGTON the S.E., a little W. of the ngth parallel), the Spokane (in the east central part) and the Pend Oreille (on the N. boundary) are its principal tributaries from the E. ; the Yakima (a little above the mouth of the Snake) from the W. ; and the Okanogan (in the north central part of the state), from the N. A portion of the Puget Sound Basin and a portion of the Coast range are drained by the Chehalis river, which has cut a channel through the Coast range and discharges into Gray's Harbour. The W. slope of the Cascades, most of the E. slope of the Olympics and the N. portion of the Puget Sound Basin are drained by a great number of small rivers into the Puget Sound ; and the W. slope of the Olympics and Coast range is drained by several other small rivers into the Pacific. On the Cascade Mountains, at the heads of streams, are a number of lakes of glacial origin, the largest of which is Lake Chelan on the E. slope in Chelan county. This is nearly 60 m. in length, and from i to 4 m. wide. At the upper end it is about 1400 ft. deep, but it is shallow at the lower end where the water is held back by a morainal dam, and where only 3$ m. from the Columbia river it is about 400 ft. above the level of the river. There are also several alkali lakes cr chains of alkali lakes in the coulees on the Columbia plateau. Fauna. — Many species of wild animals still inhabit the state, but the number of each species has been much reduced. The caribou, moose, antelope, mountain sheep, beaver, otter and mink are scarce. Few elk are found except in the inaccessible districts on the Olympic Mountains. White- and black-tailed deer and black bear inhabit the densest forests. Mountain goats are quite numerous on the Cascades. The destruction of cougars, lynx (" wildcats "), coyotes and wolves is encouraged by bounties. Coyotes and jack-rabbits are the most numerous denizens of the Columbia plain. Musk-rats and skunks are numerous west of the Cascades. The blue grouse and partridge are the principal game birds. The sage-hen is common on the Columbia plain. The Japanese pheasant and the California quail have increased in numbers under the protection of the state. Among other game birds are prairie-chickens, ducks, geese, swan, brant, sandhill crane and snipe. The speckled trout, which abounds in nearly all of the mountain streams and lakes, is the principal game fish. Other freshwater fish are the perch, black bass, pike, pickerel and white fish. There are large quantities of salmon in the lower Columbia river, in Gray's and Willapa harbours, and in Puget Sound; oyster fisheries in Gray's and Willapa harbours and in Puget Sound; cod, perch, flounders, smelt, herring and sardines in these and other salt waters. For all the more desirable game a close season has been established by the state. Flora. — The Puget Sound Basin and the neighbouring slopes of the Cascade and Olympic Mountains are noted for their forests, consisting mainly of giant Douglas fir or Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), but containing also some cedar, spruce and hemlock, a smaller representation of a few other species and a dense under- growth. Near the Pacific Coast the forests consist principally of hemlock, cedar and Sitka spruce. At an elevation of about 3000 ft. on the W. slope of the Cascades the red fir ceases to be the dominant tree, and between this elevation and the region of perpetual snow, on a few of the highest peaks, rise a succession of forest zones con- taining principally: (i) yellow pine, red and yellow fir, white fir and cedar; (2) lodgepole pine, white pine, Engelmann spruce and yew; (3) subalpine fir, lovely fir, noble fir, Mertens hemlock, Alaska cedar and tamarack; (4) white-bark pine, Patton hemlock, alpine larch and creeeping juniper. Deciduous trees and shrubs are repre- sented in western Washington by comparatively small numbers of maple, alder, oak, cottonwood, willow, ash, aspen, birch, dogwood, sumach, thornapple, wild cherry, chokecherry, elder, huckleberry, blueberry,) blackberry, raspberry, gooseberry and grape. The E. slope of the Cascades and most of the Okanogan Highlands are clothed with light forests consisting chiefly of yellow pine, but containing also Douglas fir, cedar, larch, tamarack and a very small amount of oak. In the eastern part of the Okanogan High- lands there is some western white pine, and here, too, larch is most abundant. The Columbia plain is for the most part treeless and, except where irrigated, grows principally bunch-grass or, in its lower and more arid parts, sagebrush. In the forest regions of eastern Washington the underbrush is light, but grasses and a great variety of flowering plants abound. Climate. — In western Washington, where the ocean greatly influences the temperature and the mountains condense the moisture of vapour-bearing winds, the climate is equable and moist. Eastern Washington, too, usually has a mild temperature, but occasionally some regions in this part of the state are visited by a continental extreme, and as the winds from the ocean lose most of their moisture in passing over the Cascades, the climate is either dry or arid accord- ing to elevation. Along the coast the temperature is rarely above 92° F. or below 10° F. ; the mean temperature for July is about 60°, for January 40°, and for the entire year 50°. In the Puget Sound Basin an occasional cold east wind during a dry period in winter causes the temperature to fall below zero. At Centralia, in the Chehalis Valley, the temperature has risen as high as 102°. But the mean temperature for January is 34° in the N. portion of the basin and 40° in the S. portion; for July it is 60" in the north and 65° in the south ; and for the entire year it is 46° in the north and 52° in the south. During April and October the temperatures in eastern Washington are nearly the same as those in western Washington, but during July the temperatures in eastern Washingtc are subject to a range from 40° to 110°, and during January froi 65° to - 30°. However, the climate is so dry in eastern Washingtc that the " sensible " variations are much less than those recorde by the thermometer. In the south-eastern counties the winte are mild, with the exception of an occasional cold period, and summers are hot. The rainfall on the W. slope of the Olymp __ Coast range and Cascade Mountains is from 60 to 120 in. annually and in the Puget Sound Basin it is from 25 to 60 in., it beir least on the N.E. or leeward side of the Olympics. About thret fourths of the rain in western Washington falls during the we season from November to April inclusive. On the Okanogan High lands, on the eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains, on th_ Blue Mountains and on the elevated portion of the Columbia Plain which comprises the E. border counties, the annual rainfall and melt snow amount to from 12 to 24 in., but in the southern half of easte. Washington the Columbia river flows through a wide district of lo elevation, where the rainfall and melted snow amount to only 6 i 1 2 in. a year, and where there is scarcely any precipitation during th summer months. There is a heavy snowfall in winter on the moun tains, and in a large portion of eastern Washington the average annua snowfall is 40 in. or more. Along the coast the prevailing wind blow from the west or south; in the Puget Sound Basin from th south, and in eastern Washington from the south-west, excep in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, where they are north-we During summer the winds are very moderate in western Washington, but during winter they occasionally blow with great violence. In eastern Washington hot winds from the north or east are occasionally injurious to the growing wheat in June or July. Light hailstorms are not uncommon, but tornadoes are unknown in the state. Soils. — The soils of western Washington are chiefly glacial, those of eastern Washington chiefly volcanic. In the low tidewater district of the Puget Sound Basin an exceptionally productive soil has been made by the mixture of river silt and sea sand. In numerous depressions, some of which may have been the beds of lakes formed by beaver dams, the soil is deep and largely of vegetable formation. In the valleys of rivers which have overflowed their banks and on level bench lands there is considerable silt and vegetable loam mixed with glacial clay; but on the hills and ridges of western Washington the soil is almost wholly a glacial deposit consisting principally of clay but usually containing some sand and gravel. On the Columbia plateau the soil is principally volcanic ash and decomposed lava ; it is almost wholly volcanic ash in the more arid sections, but elsewhere more decomposed lava or other igneous rocks, and some vegetable loam is mixed with the ash. On the E. slope of the Cascades and on the Okanogan Highlands glacial deposits of clay, gravel or sand, as well as vegetable loam, are mixed with the volcanic substances. Fisheries. — Washington's many waterways, both fresh and salt, and especially those which indent or are near the coast, make the fisheries resources of great value. The catch and canning of salmon are particularly important. In 1905 the value of canned salmon was $2,431,605 (26,601,429 Ib). Forests. — In 1907 the estimated area of standing timber in Wash- ington was 11,720 sq. m. besides that included in national forest reserves. The forest reserves are included in ten national parks, named the Chelan, Columbia, Colville, Kaniksu, Olympic, Ranier, Snoqualmie, Washington, Wanaha and Wenatchee, the Chelan being the largest, with an area of 2,492,500 acres. The aggregate area of these parks (all of which were opened in 1907 and 1908) is 18,850-7 sq. m., or about three-elevenths of the total area of the state. Irrigation. — The principal Federal irrigation undertakings in 1910 were known as the ' Okanogan project " and the " Yakima project." The former (authorized in 1905) provided for the irrigation of about 10,000 acres in Okanogan county by means of two reservoirs of an aggregate area of 650 acres, main canals and main laterals 20 m. long and small laterals 30 m. long, the water being taken from the Salmon river. In 1909 about 3000 acres in this project were watered and under cultivation. The Yakima project involved the irrigation of about 600,000 acres by means of five reservoirs of an aggregate area of 804,000 acre-feet, and was undertaken by the United States government in 1905. Agriculture. — The development of the agricultural resources of Washington was exceedingly rapid after 1880. The wheat crop in 1909 was 35,780,000 bushels, valued at $33,275,000; oats, 9,898,000 bushels, valued at $4,751,000; barley, 7,189,000 bushels, valued at $4,601,000; rye, 84,000 bushels, valued at $79,000; Indian corn, 417,000 bushels, valued at $359,000. The principal wheat-producing region is the south-eastern part of the state. Western Washington has large hay crops; in the E. part of the state much alfalfa is grown, especially in Yakima county. In W. Washington peas are raised for forage. Vegetable crops are successfully grown in low alluvial lands of the W. part of the state, and on the irrigated volcanic ash lands E. of the mountains. Apple-growing and the raising of other fruits have increased rapidly. Small fruits are more successful in the W. part of the state. Grapes are grown on the mountain sides, cranberries on the bog lands near the coast, and nuts in the S.E. parts. Live-stock and dairy products are important factors in the • : WASHINGTON 355 agricultural wealth of Washington, but the raising of live-stock on ranges is less common than when large herds grazed free on govern- ment lands. Dairying, as distinct from grazing, has much increased in importance in recent years. Minerals. — The mineral wealth of Washington is large, but its resources have been only slightly developed, and had hardly begun before the first decade of the 2oth century : in 1902 the total value of all mineral products was $5,393,659; in 1907 it was $11,617,706 and in 1908 $11,610,224. The coal deposits of Washington are the only important ones in the Pacific states, and in Washington only, of the Pacific states, is there any coking coal. In the Cowlitz Valley an inferior coal was found in 1848. The first important coal-mmmg was near Bellingham May, in Whatcom county, where coal was discovered in 1852 and where 5374 tons were mined in 1860. Between 1850 and 1860 coal was found on the Stilaguamish river (Snohomish county) and on the Black river (near Seattle) and in 1863 at Gilman (King county); but it was not until between 1880 and 1885, when the Green river field in King county and the Roslyn mines in Kittitas county were opened, that commercial production became important: the output was 3,024,943 tons (valued at $6,690,412) in 1908, when nearly one- half (i ,414,621 tons) of the total was from Kittitas county and most of the remainder from the counties of King (931,643 tons) and Pie'rce (551,678 tons). There are large deposits of glacial and residual clays and clay shales throughout the state. Serpentine marble with seamed markings has been found in Adams and Stevens counties. Granite is found about Puget Sound and in the extreme eastern part of the state; it is largely used in riprap or rough foundations. Sandstone is found especially in the N.VV. in Whatcom and San Juan counties; it is used for paving blocks. Limestone also is found most plentifully in the north and north-western parts of the state. Gold, silver, copper, lead and a little iron (almost entirely brown ore) are the principal ores of commercial importance found in Washington. The total value of gold, silver, copper and lead in 1908 was $378,816 (gold $242,234, silver $47,076, copper $41,188, lead $48,318). The largest output of each of these ores in 1908 was in Stevens county ; Ferry, King and Okanogan counties ranked next in the output of gold; Okanogan and Ferry counties in the output of silver; Okanogan in the output of copper; and King in the output of lead. About nine-tenths of the gold was got from dry or siliceous ores and about 8 % from placer mines; about two- thirds of the silver from dry or siliceous ores, about two-ninths from copper ores, and most of the other ninth from lead ores. The only lead ore is galena. The copper is mostly a copper glance passing into chalcopyrite; it is found in fissure veins with granite. A small quantity of zinc (7 tons in 1906) is occasionally produced. Tungsten is found as wolframite in Stevens county near Deer Trail and Bissell, in Okanogan county near Loomis, in Whatcom county near the inter- national boundary, and (with some scheelite) at Silver Hill, near Spokane. Nickel has been found near Keller in Ferry county, and molybdenum near Davenport, Lincoln county. There is chrpmite in the black sands of the sea-coast and the banks of the larger rivers. Antimony deposits were first worked in 1906. Arsenic is found. Manufactures. — There was remarkable growth in the manufactur- ing industries of Washington between 1880 and 1905, due primarily to the extraordinary development of its lumber industry. In 1870 the value of lumber products was $i ,307,585, and the Territory ranked thirty-first among the states and territories in this industry, and in 1880 the value of the product was $1,734,742; by 1905 the value had increased to $49,572,512, and Washington now ranked first. The manufacture of planing mill products, including sashes, doors and blinds, was an important industry, the products being valued in 1905 at $5,173,422. Next in commercial importance to lumber and timber products are flour and grist mill products, valued in 1005 at $14,663,612. Other important manufactures are: slaughtering and meat packing (wholesale), $6,251,705 in 1005; malt liquors, $4,471,777; and foundry and machine shop products, $3,862,279. Transportation and Commerce. — Puget Sound has formed a natural terminus for several transcontinental railways, the cities of Seattle and Tacoma on its shores affording outlets to the commerce of the Pacific for the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern and the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound transcontinental lines, which enter these cities with their own tracks. The Union Pacific and the Canadian Pacific reach Seattle over the tracks of other roads. The Northern Pacific and the Great Northern enter the state near the middle of its eastern boundary at Spokane, which is a centre for practically all the railway lines in the eastern part of the state. The Northern Pacific, the first of the transcontinental roads to touch the Pacific north of San Francisco, reaches Seattle with a wide sweep to the south, crossing the Columbia river about where it is entered by the Yakima and ascending the valley of the latter to the Cascade Mountains. The Great Northern, running west from Spokane, crosses the state in nearly a straight line, and between this road and the Northern Pacific, and paralleling the Great Northern, runs the recently constructed Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, the westward extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul. The Northern Pacific sends a branch line south from Tacoma parallel with the coast to Portland on the Columbia river, where it meets the Southern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Company's line (a subsidiary of the Union Pacific), thus affording communica- tion southwards, and up the valley of the Columbia to the east. Entering the south-east corner of the state, the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Company extends a line northwards to Spokane, and a branch of the Great Northern, leaving the main line at this city, runs north-westward into British Columbia. The Spokane, Portland & Seattje railway connects the three cities named by way of the Columbia Valley; and the Spokane & Inland Empire sends a line eastward into Idaho to the Coeur d'Alene country and another through the south-eastern part of the state into Nevada. In 1880 the railway mileage was 289 m.; in 1890, 2012-05 m-; 'n 1900, 2888-44 m. ; and on the 1st of January 1900, 4180-32 m. Seattle and Tacoma are among the four leading ports of the United States on the Pacific. Other harbours on Puget Sound of commercial importance are Olympia, Everett and Bellingham. Port Townsend is the port of entry for Puget Sound. Gray's Harbour, on the western coast, is of importance in lumber traffic. Population. — The population in 1860 was 11,594; in 1870, 23>955; in 1880, 75,116; in 1890, 349,300, an increase within the decade of 365-1%; in 1900, 518,103, an increase of about 45%. In 1910, according to the U.S. census returns, the total population of the state reached 1,141,900. Of the total popula- tion in 1900, 394,179 were native whites, 111,364 or 21-5% were foreign-born, 10,139 (of whom 2531 were not taxed) were Indians, 5617 were Japanese, 3629. were Chinese, and 2514 were negroes. The Indians on reservations in 1909 were chiefly those on Colville Reservation (1,297,000 acres unallotted), in the N.E. part of the state, and the Yakima Reservation (837,753 acres unallotted), in the S. part; they belonged to many small tribes chiefly of the Salishan, Athapascan, Chinookan and Shahaptian stocks. Of the foreign-bom, 18,385 were English-Canadians, 16,686 Germans, 12,737 Swedes, 10,481 natives of England, 9891 Norwegians and 7262 Irish. Of the total population 241,388 were of foreign parentage (i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born), and of those having both parents of a given nationality 34,490 were of German, 19,359 of Swedish, 17,456 of Irish, 16,959 of Norwegian and 16,835 of English parentage. The Roman Catholic Church in 1906 had more members than any other religious denomination, 74,981 out of the total of 191,976 in all denominations; there were 31,700 Methodists, 13,464 Lutherans, 11,316 Baptists, 10,628 Disciples of Christ, 10,025 Congregationalists and 6780 Protestant Episcopalians. Government. — Washington is governed under its original constitution, which was adopted on the ist of October 1889. An amendment may be proposed by either branch of the legislature; if approved by two-thirds of the members elected to each branch and subsequently, at the next general election, by a majority of the people who vote on the question it becomes a part of the constitution. Five amendments have been adopted: one in 1894, one in 1896, one in 1900, one in 1904, and one in 1910. Suffrage is conferred upon all adult citizens of the United States (including women, 1910) who have lived in the state one year, in the county ninety days, and in the city, town, ward or precinct thirty days immediately preceding the election, and are able to read and speak the English language; Indians who are not taxed, idiots, insane persons and convicts are debarred. General elections are held biennially, in even- numbered years, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and candidates, except those for the supreme court bench and a few local offices, are nominated at a direct primary election, held the second Tuesday in September. The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction and commissioner of public lands are elected for a term of four years; and each new administration begins on the second Monday in January. The governor's salary is $6000 a year, which is the maximum allowed by the constitution. The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives, and the constitution provides that the number of representatives shall not be less than sixty-three nor more than ninety-nine, and the number of senators not more than one-half nor less than one- third the number of representatives. Senators are elected by single districts for a term of four years, a portion retiring every two years; representatives are elected, one, two or three from a district, for a term of two years. Regular sessions of the legislature are held biennially, in odd-numbered years, and begin on the second Monday WASHINGTON in January. Any bill or any item or items of any bill which has passed both houses may be vetoed by the governor, and to override a veto a two-thirds vote of the members present in each house is required. No law other than appropriation bills can go into effect until ninety days after the adjournment of the legislature, except in case of an emergency, by a vote in each house of two-thirds of all its members. The members of the legislature are paid $5 for each day's attendance during the session, besides an allowance for travelling expenses. Justice is administered principally by a supreme court, superior courts and justices of the peace. The supreme court consists of nine judges elected for a term of six years, one of those whose term next expires being chosen chief justice, and is divided into two departments. The presence of at least three judges in each department is required, and the concurrence of at least three judges is necessary to a decision. In case of a disagreement the case may be heard again in the same department, transferred to the other department, or to the court en bane. The chief justice or any four of his associates may at any time convene the court en bane, and if so convened at least five of the judges must be present, and the concurrence of at least five is necessary to a decision. The supreme court h^s original jurisdiction in habeas corpus, quo warranto and mandamus proceedings against all state officers ; and it has appellate jurisdiction except in civil actions for the recovery of money or personal property, in which the original amount in controversy does not exceed $200, and which at the same time do not involve the legality of a tax, impost, assessment, toll or municipal fine, or the validity of a statute. Judges of the superior courts (one or more for each county, or one for two or more counties jointly) are elected for a term of four years. They have original jurisdiction in all cases in equity, in all cases at law which involve the title or possession of real property, or the legality of a tax, impost, assessment, toll or municipal fine, and in all other cases at law in which the amount in controversy is $100 or more, in nearly all criminal cases, in matters of probate, in proceedings for divorce, and in various other cases; and they have appellate jurisdiction of cases originally tried before a justice of the peace or other inferior courts where the amount in controversy is more than $20. Justices of the peace, one or more in each election precinct, are elected for a term of two years. They have jurisdiction of various civil actions in which the amount in controversy is less than $100, and concurrent jurisdiction with the superior courts in all cases of misdemeanours, but punishment by a justice of the peace is limited in cities of the first class to a fine of $500, or imprisonment for six months, and elsewhere to a fine of $100 or imprisonment for thirty days. Local Government. — The government of each county is vested principally in a board of three commissioners elected by a county at large, some for two and some for four years. The other county officers are a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor, an assessor, an attorney, an engineer, a sheriff, a coroner and a superintendent of public schools, each elected for a term of two years. Township organization is in force only when adopted by a particular county at a county election; in 1910 only one county (Spokane) had the town- ship organization. Each township is governed by the electors assembled annually (the first Tuesday in March) in town meeting and by three supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an assessor, a justice of the peace and a constable, and an overseer of highways for each road district, all elected at the town meeting, justice of the peace and a constable for a term of two years, the other officers for a term of one year; each overseer of highways is chosen by the electors of his district. Municipalities are incorporated under general laws, and cities are divided into three classes, the first class including those having a population of 20,000 or more, the second class those having a population between 10,000 and 20,000, the third class those having a population between 1500 and 10,000. When a community has a population between 300 and 1500 within an area of I sq. m.. it may be incorporated as a town. A city of the first class is per- mitted to frame its own charter, but its general powers are prescribed by statute. A city of the second class must elect a mayor and twelve councilmen, and its mayor must appoint a police judge, an attorney, a street commissioner and a chief of police. A city of the third class must elect a mayor, seven councilmen, a treasurer, a health officer, a clerk and an attorney, and its mayor must apoint a marshal, a police justice and as many policemen as the council provides for. An incorporated town must elect a mayor, five councilmen and a treasurer, and its mayor must appoint a marshal and a c'.erk. Miscellaneous Laws. — Either husband or wife may hold, manage and dispose of his or her separate property independent of the other, but property which they hold in common is under the management and control of the husband except that he cannot devise by will more than one-half of the community real or personal property, or convey, mortgage or encumber any of the community real estate unless his wife joins him. When either husband or wife dies intestate one-third of the separate real estate of the deceased goes to the sur- vivor if there are two or more children, one-half of it if there is only one child, the whole of it if there are no children, no issue of children, and no father, mother, brother or sister. One-half of the community property goes to the survivor in any case, and the whole of it if there is no will and neither children nor the issue of children. Where there is no will one-half of the residue of the separate personal estate go to the survivor if there are issue, and the whole of it if there are i issue. A law enacted in 1909 forbids a marriage in which either i the parties is a common drunkard, habitual criminal, epileptic imbecile, feeble-minded person, idiot or insane person, a person \vh has been afflicted with hereditary insanity, a person who is afflictc with pulmonary tuberculosis in its advanced stages, or a person wh is afflicted with any contagious venereal disease, unless the woma is at least forty-five years of age. A plaintiff must resid in the state one year before filing an application for a divorce. Neither party is permitted to marry a third party until six months after the divorce has been obtained. Washington has a state board consisting of three members appointed by the governor to confer with commissioners from other states upon such matters as marriage and divorce, insolvency, descent and distribution of property, the execution and probate of wills, for the purpose of promoting uniformity of legislation respecting them. A homestead to the value of $1000 which is owned and occupied by the head of a family exempt from attachment or forced sale except for debts secured b mechanics', labourers', materialmen's or vendors' liens upon tl: premises. If the owner is a married man the homestead may t selected from the community property but not the wife's separate property without her consent, and when it has been selected, even if from the husband's separate property, u cannot be encumbered conveyed without the wife's consent. Personal property is exemf from execution or attachment as follows: all wearing apparel c every person and family; private libraries to the value of $500; all family pictures; household goods to the value of $500; certain domestic animals or $250 worth of other property chosen instead; firearms kept for the use of a person or family; certain article (within specified values) necessary to the occupations of farmers, physicians, and other professional men. teamsters, lightermen, &c., and the proceeds of all life and accident insurance. By a law enacte in 1909 the licensing of the sale of intoxicating liquors, other than fc medical purposes by druggists and pharmacists, is left to the optio of counties and cities. Charities, &c. — The state charitable and penal institutions consis of the Western Washington Hospital for the Insane at Fort Steilj coom, the Eastern Washington Hospital for the Insane at Medic Lake, the State School for the Deaf and the State School for the Blin at Vancouver, the State Institution for Feeble-minded near Medic Lake, the Washington Soldiers' Home and Soldiers' Colony Orting, the Veterans' Home at Port Orchard, the State Penitentiar at Walla Walla, the State Reformatory at Monroe and the Stat Training School at Chehalis. All of these institutions are under th management of a bi-partisan State Board of Control which consist of three members appointed by the governor for a term of six years one every two years, and also removable by the governor in his dii cretion. Each member receives a salary of $3000 a year. Thesare board together with the superintendent of the penitentiary constitut a prison board. The State Training School is for the reformator training of children between eight and eighteen years of age who hav been found guilty of any crime other than murder, manslaughter ( highway robbery, or who for some other cause have been committe to it by a court of competent jurisdiction. Education. — The public school system is administered by a stat superintendent of public instruction, a state board of education regents or trustees of higher institutions of learning, a superintenden of the common schools and a board of education in each county and a board of directors in each school district. The state suj intendent is elected for a term of four years. The state boar of education consists of the state superintendent, the president of the University of Washington, the president of the Stat College of Washington, the principal of one of the state norma schools chosen biennially by the principals of the state norma schools, and three other members appointed biennially by the governor, one of whom must be a superintendent of a distric' of the first class, one a county superintendent and one a princip of a high school. This body very largely determines the course study in the elementary schools, high schools, normal school and tfc normal departments of the University and the State College, approv the rt quirements for entrance to the University and the State Colle£ and prepares the questions for the examination of teachers. Eac county superintendent is elected for a term of two years. Th county board of education consists of the county superintendent an four other members appointed by him for a term of two years ; ont of its principal duties is to adopt the text-books for schools '~ districts in which there is no four-year accredited high schc* In a school district which maintains a four-year accredite high school there is a text-book commission consisting of the city superintendent or the principal of the high school, two membe of the board of directors designated by the board, and two teache appointed by the board. All children between eight and fiftei years of age, and all between fifteen and sixteen years of ag who are not regularly employed in some useful or remunerativ occupation, must attend the public school all the time it is in session or a private school for the same time unless excused by the city c the county superintendent because of mental or physical disabilit or because of proficiency in the branches taught in the first eight WASHINGTON 357 grades. Washington has three state normal schools : one at Cheney, one at Bellingham, and one at Ellensburg, and each of them is under the management of a board of three trustees anointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a term of six years, one every two years. The State College of Washington (1890) at Pullman, for instruction in agriculture, mechanical arts and natural sciences, includes an agricultural college, an experiment station and a school of science. The University of Washington (1862) at Seattle embraces a college of liberal arts, a college of engineering and schools of law, pharmacy, mines and forestry. Whitman College (Congrega- tional, 1866) at Walla Walla, Gonzaga College (Roman Catholic, 1887) at Spokane, Whitworth College (Presbyterian, 1890) at Tacoma and the University of Puget Sound (Methodist Episcopal, 1903) at Tacoma are institutions of higher learning maintained and controlled by their respective denominations. Finance. — The revenue for state, county and municipal purposes is derived principally from a general property tax, a privilege tax levied on the gross receipts of express companies and private car companies, an inheritance tax and licence fees for the sale of intoxicating liquors. Real property is assessed biennially; personal property, annually. For the two years ending the 1st of October 1908 the total receipts into the state treasury amounted to $10,854,281-42 and the total disbursements amounted to $11,053,375-13. The net state debt on the 1st of October 1908 amounted to $967,576-38. History. — The early exploration of the western coast of North America grew out of the search for a supposed passage, some- times called the " Strait of Anian " between the Pacific and the Atlantic. In Purchas his Pilgrimmes (1625) was published the story of Juan de Fuca, a Greek mariner whose real name was Apostolos Valerianos, who claimed to have discovered the passage and to have sailed in it more than twenty days. Though the story was a fabrication, the strait south of Vancouver Island was given his name. An account of the various Spanish and English explorers has already been given under OREGON and need not be repeated at length here. In 1787 a company of Boston merchants sent two vessels, the " Columbia " and the " Washington " under John Kendrick and Robert Gray (1755-1806) to investigate the possibility of establishing trading posts. They reached Nootka Sound in September 1788, and in July 1789 Captain Gray in the " Columbia " began the homeward voyage by way of China. Captain Kendrick remained, erected a fort on Nootka Sound, demonstrated that Vancouver was an island and in 1 79 1 purchased from the Indians large tracts of land between 47° and 51° N. lat. for his employers. On the homeward voyage he was accidentally killed and his vessel was lost. Meanwhile Captain Gray in September 1 790 sailed from Boston on a second voyage. During the winter of 1791-1792 he built another fort on Nootka Sound and mounted four cannon from the ship. With the coming of spring he sailed southward, determined to settle definitely the existence of the great river, which he had vainly attempted to enter the previous summer. Captain George Vancouver (1758-1798), in charge of a British exploring expedition then engaged in mapping the coast (1792-1794), was sceptical of the existence of the river, but Captain Gray, undiscouraged, persisted in the search and on the nth of May 1792 anchored in the river which he named Columbia in honour of his ship. The later claim of the United States to all the territory drained by the river was based chiefly upon this discovery by Captain Gray, who had succeeded where Spanish and British had failed. The territory became known as Oregon (q.v.). The first white man certainly known to have approached the region from the east was Alexander Mackenzie of the North- west Fur Company, who reached the coast at about lat. 52° in July 1793. With the purchase of Louisiana (3oth April 1803) the United States gained a clear title to the land between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains as far north as 49° ana, because of contiguity, a shadowy claim to the region west of the mountains. In 1819 Spain specifically renounced any claim she might have to the coast north of 42°, strengthening thereby the position of the United States. Just before the purchase of Louisiana, President Jefferson had recommended to Congress (i8th January 1803) the sending of an expedition to explore the headwaters of the Missouri, cross the Rockies and follow the streams to the Pacific. In accordance with the recommendation Meriwether Lewis (q.v.) and William Clark, both officers of the United States Army, with a considerable party left St Louis on the I4th of May 1804, ascended the Missouri to the head- waters, crossed the Rockies and, following the Columbia river, reached the ocean in November 1805. The return journey over nearly the same route was begun on the 23rd of March 1806, and on the 23rd of September they reached St Louis. The story of the struggle of the rival British and American companies to control the fur trade, with the final dominance of the Hudson's Bay Company has been told under OREGON and need not be repeated. Since the country was considered to be of little value the question of boundaries was not pressed either by Great Britain or the United States after the War of 1812, and by a treaty concluded on the 2oth of October 1818 it was agreed that " any country that may be claimed by either party on the north-west coast of North America, westward of the Stony (Rocky) Mountains shall be free and open for the term of ten years from the date of the signature of the present convention to the vessels, citizens and subjects of the two powers." On the 6th of August 1827 the convention was continued in force indefinitely with the proviso that either party might abrogate the agreement on twelve months' notice. Meanwhile Russia (i7th April 1824) agreed to make no settlement south of 54° 40' and the United States agreed to make none north of that line. In February 1825 Great Britain and Russia made a similar agreement. This left only Great Britain and the United States as the contestants for that territory west of the Rocky Mountains between 42° and 54° 40', which by this time was commonly known as the Oregon country. American settlers in considerable numbers soon began to enter the region south of the Columbia river, and in 1841, and again in 1843, these settlers attempted to form a provisional government. A fundamental code was adopted in 1845 and a provisional government was established, to endure until " the United States of America extend their jurisdiction over us." North of the river, the Hudson's Bay Company discouraged settlement, believing that the final deter- mination of the boundary controversy would make that stream the dividing line. Though there were a few mission stations in the eastern part of the present state of Washington (see WHITMAN, MARCUS), the first permanent American settlement north of the Columbia was made in 1845 on the Des Chutes river, at the head of Puget Sound at the present Tumwater. Others soon followed in spite of the efforts of the chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company , Dr John M'Loughlin, and these permanent settlers finally carried the day. Interest in the Oregon country developed with the increase of settlers and of knowledge and a demand for the settlement of the boundary dispute arose. The report of Captain Charles Wilkes, who visited the coast in 1841-1842 in charge of the United States exploring expedition helped to excite this interest. In the presidential campaign of 1844 one of the Democratic demands was " Fifty-four forty or fight." By a treaty negotiated by James Buchanan, on the part of the United States, and Richard Pakenham, on the part of Great Britain, and ratified on the I7th of July 1846, the boundary was fixed at 49° to the middle of the channel separating the continent from Vancouver Island and thence " southerly through the middle of the said channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific Ocean." A dispute later arose over this water-line. The act establishing a territorial government for Oregon was approved on the I4th of August 1848, and the first governor, Joseph Lane (1801-1881), assumed the government on the 3rd of March 1849. Following the in- crease of population north of the Columbia, the territory was divided, and Washington Territory was established on the 2nd of March 1853, with the river as die southern boundary to the point where it is intersected by the forty-sixth parallel, and thence along that parallel to the summit of the Rocky Mountains, thereby including portions of the present states of Idaho and Montana. The first governor, Major Isaac I. Stevens, of the United States Army, took charge on the 2gth of September 1853, and a census indicated a population of 3065, of whom 1682 were voters. Olympia was chosen as the temporary seat of 358 WASHST AND— WASP government, and Governor Stevens at once set to work to ex- tinguish the Indian titles to land and to survey a route for a railway, which was later to become the Northern Pacific. The Indians, alarmed by the rapid growth of the white population, attempted to destroy the scattered settlements and the wandering prospectors for gold, which had been discovered in eastern Washington in 1855. Between 1855 and 1859, after many sharp contests, the Indians were partially subdued. Shortly after 1846, the British began to assert that the Rosario Strait and not Haro Strait (as the Americans held) was the channel separating the mainland and Vancouver Island, thus claiming the Haro Archipelago of which San Juan was the principal island. Conflict of authority arose, and in 1859 San Juan was occupied by U.S. troops commanded by Captain George E. Pickett (1825-1875), and for a time hostilities seemed imminent. By agreement joint occupation followed until, by the Treaty of Washington (May 8, 1871), the question was left to the German emperor, who decided (October 21, 1872) in favour of the United States. Meanwhile Oregon was admitted as a state (February 14, 1859) with the present boundaries, and the remnant of the territory, including portions of what are now Idaho and Wyoming, was added to Washington. The discovery of gold in this region, however, brought such a rush of population that the Territory of Idaho was set oft" (March 3, 1863) and Washington was reduced to its present limits. Rapid growth in population and wealth led to agitation for statehood, and a constitution was adopted in 1878, but Congress declined to pass an enabling act. The development of Alaska and the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad to the coast (1883) brought a great increase in rx mlation. A large number of Chinese coolies who had been intrc .'uced to construct the railway congregated in the towns on the a mpletion of the work, and in 1885 serious anti-Chinese riots led to the declaration of martial law by the governor and to the use of United States troops. Finally the long-desired admission to statehood was granted by Con- gress (February 22, 1889) and President Benjamin Harrison (November n, 1889) formally announced the admission complete. Since admission the progress of the state has continued with increasing rapidity. The Alaska- Yukon Exposition, designed to exhibit the resources of western America, held at Seattle June-October 1909, was a complete success. In politics the state has been Republican in national elections, except in 1896, when it was carried by a fusion of Democrats and Populists. A Populist was elected governor and was re-elected in 1900. GOVERNORS OF WASHINGTON Territorial. Isaac I. Stevens . 185.1-1 857 C. H. Mason (acting) . 1857 Fayette McMullen 1857-1858 C. H. Mason (acting) . 1858-1859 Richard D. Gholson 1859-1860 Henry M. McGill (acting) 1860-1861 Wm. H.Wallace . 1861 L. J. S. Turney (acting) 1861-1862 Wm. Pickering * . 1862-1866 George E. Cole 1866-1867 E. L. Smith (acting) . 1867 Marshall F. Moore 1867-1869 Alvin Flanders 1869-1870 Edward S. Salmon 1870-1872 Elisha P. Ferry 1872-1880 W. A. Newell 1880-1884 Watson C. Squire 1884-1887 Eugene Semple Miles C. Moore 1887-1889 1889 State. Elisha P. Ferry . Republican 1889-1893 John H. McGraw . „ 1893-1897 J. R. Rogers . . Populist 1897-1901 Henry C. McBride 2 Republican (acting) 1901-1905 Albert E. Mead . Republican 1905-1909 Samuel G. Cosgrove 3 „ 1909 M. E. Hay . . Republican (acting) I9°9- *_ Absent from the Territory during the greater part of 1865, during which time Elwood Evans acted as governor. 4 In place of J. R. Rogers, deceased. * Died 28th March 1909. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For general and physical description see th Annual Reports (1902 sqq,.) of the Washington Geological Survey- in vol. i. there ts a " Bibliography of the Literature referring to th Geology of Washington " by R. Arnold — ; O. L. Waller, Irrigatio in the State of Washington (Washington, 1909), Bulletin 214 of th U.S. Department of Agriculture; and Water Supply and Irrigatir , .. __. Ballinge. and A. Remington, Codes and Statutes of Washington (ibid., 1910). For history see H. H. Bancroft, The Northwest Coast (2 vols., San Francisco, 1884), and Oregon (2 vols., ibid., 1886-1888), Washingto Idaho and Montana (ibid., 1890); George Vancouver, Voyage Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean (3 vols., London, 1797) ; Elwot _ Evans, Washington (Tacoma, Washington, 1893); and E. S. Meany, Washington (New York, 1909). See also the bibliographies unde OREGON and WHITMAN, MARCUS. WASHSTAND, a table or stand containing conveniences fo personal ablutions. In its 18th-century form it was called " basin stand "or " basin frame," and is still sometimes descrih as a " washhand stand." Its direct, but remote, ancestor wa the monastic lavabo, ranges of basins of stone, lead or marbl< fed from a cistern. They were usually of primitive conception, and a trough common to all was probably more frequent tha separate basins. Very occasionally they were of bronze adorned with enamels and blazoned with heraldry. Very similar usages obtained in castles and palaces, fixed lavatories being con- structed in the thickness of the walls for the use of their more important residents. These arrangements were obviously intended only for the summary ablutions which, until a very late date, sufficed to even the high-born. By degrees the lavab became portable, and a " basin frame " is mentioned as early as the middle of the 1 7th century. Examples of earlier date than the third or fourth decade of the i8th century are, however, virtually unknown. Thenceforward, until about the end of that century, this piece of furniture was usually literally a " stand." It was supported upon a tripod; a circular orifice in the top received the basin, and smaller ones were provided for a soap dish and a water-bottle. Sometimes a stand for the water-jug when the basin was in use was provided below, and very com- monly there was a drawer, sometimes even two drawers, belov the basin. Great numbers of these stands were made to fit into corners, and a " corner wash-stand " is still one of the commone objects in an old furniture shop. Chippendale designed such stands in an elaborate rococo fashion, as well as in simpler form. As the 1 8th century drew to its close the custom of using the same apartment as reception room by day and sleeping room by night produced a demand for what was called " harlequin furniture "- pieces which were contrived a double or triple debt to pay. Thus a variety of complicated combination washstands and dressing tables were made, and fitted with mirrors and sometimes with writing conveniences and drawers for clothes. Sheraton developed astonishing ingenuity in devising a type of furniture which, if we may judge by the large number of examples still existing, must have become highly popular. With the beginning of the i gth century and the expansion of ideals of personal cleanliness, the washstand grew in size and importance. It acquired the form of an oblong wooden table provided, like its smaller predecessors, with orifices for basins and fitted with a broad shelf-like stretcher upon which the jugs were placed when they were removed from the basins. Ample space was provided for soap-dishes and water-bottles. These tables were single or double, for the use of one or two persons. The washstand, as we know it in the 2oth century, took its final form when the wooden top was replaced by marble, unpierced, the basins being placed upon the slab, which, in the beginning almost invariably white, is now often of red or other warm-tinted marble. WASP (Lat. vespa), the common name for a well-known sort of stinging insect. The order Hymenoptera is divided into two sub-orders, the Symphyta and the Apocrita. The latter is subdivided into several sections, one of which, the Vespoidea, includes all the true wasps; in addition to the ruby wasps and many of the " Fossores " or digging wasps. The true wasps (forming the old section Diploptera) are in their turn divided into three families — (i) the Vespidae, (2) the WASP 359 Eumenidae, and (3) the Masaridae, which together comprise some 1500 different species. They are characterized by their wings, which are present in both sexes and also in the modified females or workers, being longitudinally folded when at rest, except in the Masaridae. The antennae are usually elbowed, and contain twelve or thirteen joints; in some cases they are clavate. A pair of notched faceted eyes are present, and three ocelli in the top of the head. The mouth-parts are arranged for sucking, but have not reached that degree of perfection found amongst the bees. Hence wasps cannot obtain the sugary sci Tc-tion from deeply-seated nectaries, and their visits to flowers are confined to such as are shallow or widely opened; they particularly frequent the Umbelliferae. The maxillae are elongated, and compressed, the maxillary palp six-jointed. The labium is prolonged centrally into a " tongue," which is glandular at the tip; the paraglossae are linear. The labial palp has three or four joints. The pro-thorax is oval, and its sides are prolonged backward to the base of the wings. The fore wing has two or three submarginal cells. The legs are not provided with any adaptations for collecting pollen. The abdomen is sometimes pedunculate, its second (apparently first) segment being drawn out into a long stalk, which connects it with the alitrunk, made up of the thorax and the first abdominal segment. The queens and the workers are armed with a powerful sting. The usual colour of these insects is black, relieved to a greater or less degree by spots and patches of yellow or buff. The Diploptera may be subdivided into two groups in accord- ance with the habits of life of the insects comprising the section. One of the groups includes the family Vespidae, which is com- posed of social wasps, and includes the hornet ( Vespa crabro) and the common wasp (V. vulgaris). The other group contains two smaller families, the Eumenidae and the Masaridae, the members of which are solitary in their mode of life. Family I . Vespidae. — In addition to their social habits the members of this family are characterized by certain structural features. The anterior wings have three submarginal cells. The antennae have thirteen joints in the males and twelve in the females; the claws of the tarsi are simple; the anterior four tibiae have two spines at the tip; the abdomen is but rarely pedunculated, and the posterior segments are often very contractile. T~he members of this family approximate very closely to bees in their social manner of life. The communities are composed of males, fertile females and workers. The latter are females in which the ovary remains undeveloped; they resemble the perfect female in external appearance, but are slightly smaller. It has been shown by P. Marchal that a clear line of distinction between queen and worker cannot always be drawn. Unlike the hive bees', the wasps' com- munity is annual, existing for one summer only. Most of the members die at the approach of autumn, but a few females which have been fertilized hibernate through the winter, sheltered under stones or in hollow trees. In the spring and with the returning warm weather the female regains her activity and emerges from her hiding- place. She then sets about finding a convenient place for building a nest and establishing a new colony. The common wasp (K. vulgaris) usually selects some burrow or hole in the ground, which, if too small, she may enlarge into a chamber suitable for her purpose. She then begins to build the nest. This is constructed of small fibres of old wood, which the wasp gnaws, and kneads, when mixed with the secretion from the salivary glands, into a sort of papier-mache pulp. Some of this is formed into a hanging pillar attached to the root of the cavity, and in the lower free end of this three shallow cup-like cells are hung. In each of these an egg is laid. The foundress of the society then continues to add cells to the comb, and as soon as the grubs appear from the first-laid eggs she has in addition to tend and feed them. The development within the egg takes eight days. The grubs are apodal, thicker in the middle than at either end; the mandibles bear three teeth; the maxillae and labium are repre- sented by fleshy tubercles. The body, exclusive of the head, consists of thirteen segments, which bear lateral tubercles and spiracles. The larva has no anus. The larvae are suspended with the head downwards in the cells, and require a good deal of attention, being fed by their mother upon insects which are well chewed before they are given to the larvae, or upon honey. At the same time the mother is enlarging and deepening the cells in which they live, building new cells, and laying more eggs, which are usually suspended in the same angle of each cell. After about a fortnight the grubs cease to feed, and, forming a silky cover to their cells, become pupae. This quiescent stage lasts about ten days, at the end of which period they emerge as the imago or perfect insect. The silky covering of the cell is round or convex outwards; and to leave the cell the insect either pushes it out, when it opens like a box Jid, or gnaws a round hole through it. As soon as the cell is vacated it is cleaned out and another egg deposited. In this way two or three larvae occupy successively the same cell during the summer. The first wasps that appear in a nest are workers, and these at once set to work to enlarge the comb, and feed the larvae, &c. The material of the nest, as before stated, is usually dried wood, worked by the mandibles of the wasp, with the addition of its salivary secretion, into a pulp, which can easily be moulded whilst moist; it dries into a substance of a papery appearance, but possessing considerable tenacity. Sometimes paper itself, such as old cartridge cases, is used. The combs are arranged horizontally ; each contains a single layer of cells opening downwards. The second comb is suspended from the first by a number of hanging pillars which are built from the point of union of three cells. The space between two combs is just sufficient to allow the wasps to cross each other. The combs are roughly circular in outline, and increase in size for the first four or five layers, after which they begin to decrease; the whole is covered by a roughly made coating consisting of several layers of the same papery substance which composes the combs. This is continued down until it forms a roughly spherical covering for the whole, but not giving any support to the combs, which are inde- pendent of it. As the nest increases in size, the covering needs to be repeatedly pulled to pieces and reconstructed, its inner layer being cut away as the combs are enlarged. The covering is pierced by apertures for the passage of the wasps. The cells are hexagonal at their mouths, but above become more rounded in their cross section. During the first half of the summer workers only are produced, but, as fruit ripens and food becomes more abundant, fully developed females and males appear, the latter often from parthenogenetically developed eggs of the later broods of workers. The males and females are larger than the workers, and require larger cells for their development; these are usually kept apart from one another and from those of the workers. The malts may be distinguished by their longer antennae, by the more elongated outline of their body, and by the absence of a sting. In a favourable season, when the weather is warm and food plentiful, a nest may contain many thousands of cells full of wasps in various stages of development; and, as each cell is occupied two or three times in the course of a summer, those authorities who put the number of the members of the community as high as 30,000 are probably not far wrong. At the approach of autumn the society begins to break up; the males fertilize the females whilst flying high in the air. They then die, often within a few hours. The workers leave the nest, carrying with them any grubs that remain in the cells, and both soon perish. The nest is entirely deserted. The fertilized females, it has been seen, creep into crevices under stones or trees, or hide amongst moss, and hibernate until the warmth of the following spring induces them to leave their hiding-places and set about founding a new community. There are altogether, seven species of Vespa met with in Britain. V. vulgaris, the common or ground wasp, V. rufa, the red wasp, distinguished by its reddish-yellow abdomen, and V. germanica, the German wasp, with three black spots upon its first abdominal seg- ment, are classed together as ground wasps. They build their nests in burrows in the ground, but this is not an invariable rule; they may be distinguished from the tree wasps by their shorter cheeks and usually by the first joint in the antennae of the female being black. Vespa austriaca (arborea) is a race of V. rufa, in whose nest it sometimes lives as an inquiline. The tree wasps build stouter nests upon branches of trees; the first joint of the antennae of the females is yeliow in front. The tree wasps are V. sylvestris, noreegica and crabro. The hornet, V. crabro, is the largest species occurring in Great Britain. They have a more distinctly red colour than the common wasp, and a. row of red spots upon each side of the abdomen. They occur much more rarely than the common wasp, and appear to be almost confined to the southern half of England. Their nests resemble those described above, but are larger; they are found in hollow trees or deserted out-houses. Their communities are smaller in number than those of the other wasps. The hornet, where it occurs in any number, does a considerable amount of damage to forest trees, by gnawing the bark off the younger branches to obtain material for constructing its nest. It usually selects the ash or alder, but sometimes attacks the lime, birch and willow. Like the wasp, it does much damage to fruit, upon the juices of which it lives. On the other hand, the wasp is useful by keeping down the numbers of flies and other insects. It catches these in large numbers, killing them with its jaws and not with its sting. It then tears off the legs and wings, and bears the body back to its nest as food for the larvae. Wasps also act to some extent as flower fertilizers, but in this respect they cannot compare with bees; they visit fewer flowers, and have no adaptations on their limbs for carrying off the pollen. FIG. I. — Vespa rufa. 36° WASP The genus Vespa is very widely spread; it contains over forty species, distributed all over the world. Some of the largest and handsomest come from eastern Asia. V. mandarina of China and Japan, and V. magnified of the East Indies and Nepal, measure 2 in. across the wings; V. orientalis, found in Greece, Egypt and the East, builds its nest of clay. The only other genus of Vespidae which is found in Europe is Polistes, which occurs in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. The colonies of this genus are much smaller than those of Vespa. Each nest consists of a single tier of cells in the form of a round plate, sup- ported in the middle by a single stalk. This comb is sometimes vertical, the cells then being horizontal or slightly oblique. Some of the members of this genus store up honey, which in the case of a South American species is poisonous, from the nature of the flowers FIG. 2.— Nest of Vespa syhestris. from which it is gathered. The members of this genus have a slender body; the thorax is more oblong than in the genus Vespa, the palps are stouter and the abdomen is more distinctly pedunculate. The genus Ischnogaster, from the East Indies, has many structural , features in common with the Eumenidae, but the character of its communities, and its nest, which is very small, justify its position amongst the social wasps. The genus learia, common in Australia and the East Indies, builds very small nests, of two or three rows of cells, hanging on one side from a stalk. Synaeca is a South American genus, which builds large nests, sometimes 3 ft. in length, closely applied to the branch of a tree; they never contain more than one layer of cells, which are hori- zontally placed. The whole nest is built of coarse material, chiefly small pieces of bark; and there is only one opening, at the lower end. Another South American genus, Chartergus, makes a tough nest, pendent from boughs of trees, and opening to the exterior below by a median aperture. The combs are arranged, somewhat like funnels, inside one another, but with spaces between. The apex of each comb is pierced by a hole for the wasps to pass from one gallery to another. The nest of Tatua, which occurs in FIG. 3. — Polistes tepidvs and nest. Mexico and South America, is also pendent, but the combs are horizontal; the opening from the exterior is at the side, and the passage from one gallery to another is also lateral. The external appearance of the nest of Neetarina, found in Brazil and other parts of South America, resembles that of the common wasp, but is rougher. Internally the combs are arranged concentri- cally, more or less parallel with the external covering which affords them support. The members of the two remaining families, the Eumenidae and the Masaridae, resemble one another in their solitary mode of life; only males and normal females, exist — no workers being found. Family 2. Eumenidae. — Solitary species, with three submarginal cells in the fore wing; antennae with thirteen joints in the male, twelve in the female; abdomen sometimes pedunculate, posterior segments contractile. In the foregoing structural features the Eumenidae resemble the Vespidae, but they differ in having bifid FIG. 4. Eumenes smithii. claws on their tarsi, and the two anterior tibiae have but one spine at the tin. The mandibles are elongated, and form a kind of rostrum, in this respect approaching the Fossores. Eumenes coarctata is the only British species of this genus. The female is J in. long, the male somewhat shorter. The abdomen is connected with the thorax by a long peduncle. The colour is black, relieved by spots of yellow. It constructs small spherical cells of mud, which are found attached to stems of plants, very generally to the heath. At first the cell opens to the exterior by means of a round pore; one egg is deposited in each cell, and a store of honey as food for the larva when hatched; the cell is then closed with mud. The larvae of some species are carnivorous, and then the food-supply stored up in the cell con- sists of caterpillars and other insect larvae which have been paralysed by the parent wasp stinging them through the cerebral ganglion; when the larva of the Eumenes emerges from the egg it sets up these and devours them. The genus Odynerus contains a very large number of species, found in all parts of the world. The members of this genus are about the size of a fly, and they differ from Eumenes in having a sessile abdomen. Some of the species construct their cells in sand- heaps, lining them with agglutinated grains of sand; others live in cavities of trees lined with the same material, whilst others build their nests of mud. Like some of the species of Eumenes, they store up paralysed Lepidopterous and Chrysomeleous larvae as food for their carnivorous grubs. Family 3. Masaridae. — The members of the third family, the Masaridae, are sharply distinguished by the possession of only two submarginal cells in the fore wing, which folds imperfectly or not at all when at rest. Their antennae are frequently clavate, particularly so in the genus Celonites; they are twelve-jointed, but as the terminal joints are almost fused they appear to be composed of only eight joints. The wings are not so completely folded as in the other two families, and the abdomen is but slightly contractile. The maxillae are short and their palps very small, with but three or four joints. The number of genera comprised in this family is small; none occur in Britain, but in southern Europe some species are found. They make their nest in cavities in the earth, generally in a bank and construct an irregular gallery leading down to it. During hot fine summers wasps cause a good deal of loss to market gardeners and fruit growers. During this time of year they live almost exclusively upon the sweet juices of ripe fruit, occasionally carrying off small particles of the flesh. At the same time they have not entirely lost their carnivorous tastes, for they frequently attack the meat in butcher's shops, but render compensation by killing and carrying off to feed their grubs considerable numbers of blow-flies. Wasps also perform an important service in keeping down the numbers of cater- pillars. The larvae are almost exclusively carnivorous, living upon insects captured by their parents and reduced by them to a pulp before being given to the young. During the spring the first broods that appear live largely upon honey; and this forms the staple food of the genus Polistes throughout their whole life. In attempting to rid a district of wasps, unless the nest can be taken, there is little good in killing stray members of the community. On the other hand, the killing of queen-wasps in early spring probably means that the formation of a nest and the production of a society whose members are counted by thousands is in each case prevented. The number of wasps is kept down by numerous enemies. The most effective of these live in the nests and devour the larvae; among them are two species of beetle, Rhipiphorus paradoxus and Lebia linearis. Two species of Ichneumon, and a species of Anthomyia, also infest the nests of wasps and prey upon the grubs. The larvae of the syrphid flies Volucella, found in the nests of both wasps and bees, are now believed to be scavengers rather than parasites. In the tropics some species are attacked by fungi, the hyphae of which protrude between FIG. 5. — Masaris vespiformis. WASSAIL— WASTE 361 the segments of the abdomen, and give the wasp a very extra- ordinary appearance. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to various systematic memoirs enumerated at the end of the article on Hymenoptera, reference may be made to De Saussure (Monographic des gulpes sociales, Geneve, 1853-1858), P. Marchal (Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen. (3), iv., 1896), C. Janet (Mem. Soc. Zool. France, viii., 1895) and O. H. Latter (Natural History of Common Animals, ch. v., Cambridge, 1904). (A. E. S.;G.H. C.) WASSAIL (O. Eng. was hdl, " be whole," " be well "), primarily the ancient form of " toasting," the term being applied later to the Christmas feasting and revelries and particularly to the bowl of spiced ale or wine which was a feature of the medieval Christmas. One of the earliest references to the wassail-bowl in English history is in the description of the reception of King Vortigern by Hengist, when Rowena " came into the king's presence, with a cup of gold filled with wine in her hand, and making a low reverence unto the king said, ' Waes hael hlaford Cyning,' which is ' Be of health, Lord King.' " In a collection of ordinances for the regulations of the royal household in Henry VII. 's reign, the steward on Twelfth Night was to cry " wassail " three times on entering with the bowl, the royal chaplain respond- ing with a song. Wassailing was as much a custom in the monasteries as in laymen's houses, the bowl being known as poculum Caritalis. What was popularly known as wassailing was the custom of trimming with ribbons and sprigs of rosemary a bowl which was carried round the streets by young girls singing carols at Christmas and the New Year. This ancient custom still survives here and there, especially in Yorkshire, where the bowl is known as " the vessel cup," and is made of holly and evergreens, inside which are placed one or two dolls trimmed with ribbons. This cup is borne on a stick by children who go from house to house singing Christmas carols. In Devonshire and elsewhere it was the custom to wassail the orchards on Christmas and New Year's eve. Pitchers of ale or cider were poured over the roots of the trees to the accompani- ment of a rhyming toast to their healths. WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guaslt gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate) , a term used in English law in several senses, of which four are the most important, (i) " Waste of a manor " is that part of a manor subject to rights of common, as distinguished from the lord's demesne (see COMMONS, MANOR). (2) " Year, day, and waste " was a part of the royal prerogative, acknowledged by a statute of Edward II., De Praerogaliva Regis. The king had the profits of freehold lands of those attainted of felony and petit treason, and of fugitives for a year and a day with a right of committing waste in sense (3) thereon. After the expiration <>f a year and a day the lands returned to the lord of the fee. This species of waste was abolished by the Corruption of Blood Act 1814 (see FELONY, TREASON). (3) The most usual significa- tion of the word is " any unauthorized act of a tenant, for a freehold estate not of inheritance, or for any lesser interest, which substantially alters the permanent character of the thing demised (i.) by diminishing its value, (ii.) by increasing the burden on it, (iii.) by impairing the evidence of title and thereby injuring the " inheritance " (West Ham Charity Board v. East London W.W., 1900, i Ch. 624, 637; cf. Pollock, Law of Torts, 7th ed., 345). Waste in sense (3) is either voluntary or permissive. Voluntary waste is by act of commission, as by pulling down a house, wrongfully removing fixtures (q.v.), cutting down timber trees, i.e. oak, ash, elm, twenty years old, and such other trees, e.g. beech, as by special custom are counted timber, in the district, opening new quarries or mines (but not continuing the working of existing ones), or doing anything which pay — for this is the modern test — alter the nature of the thing demised, such as conversion of arable into meadow land. Although an act may technically be waste, it will not as a rule constitute actionable waste, or be restrained by injunction, in the absence of some prohibitive stipulation if it is ameliorating," i.e. ( it improves the value of the land demised (see Meux v. Cobley, 1892, 2 Ch. 253, 263). In the case of " timber estates " upon which trees of various kinds are cultivated solely for their produce and the profit gained from their periodical felling and cutting, the timber is not considered as part of the inheritance but as the annual fruits of the estate, and an exception arises in favour of the tenant for life (see Dashwood v. Magniac, 1891, 3 Ch. 306). Under the Settled Land Act 1882 a tenant for life may grant building, mining and other leases for the prescribed terms " for any purpose whatever, whether involving waste or not." Permissive waste is by act of omission, such as allowing buildings to fall out of repair. A " fermor " — a term which here includes " allwho held by lease for life or lives, or for years by deed or without deed " by the statute of Marlborough (1267) — may not commit waste without licence in writing from the reversioner. In case a tenant for life or for any smaller interest holds (as is often the case by the terms of a will or settlement) " without impeachment of waste (sauns impeachment de wast, i.e. without liability to have his waste challenged or impeached), his rights are considerably greater, and he may use the profits salva rerum substantia (to use the language of Roman law, from which the English law of waste is in great measure derived). For instance, he may cut timber in a husband-like manner and open mines; but he may not commit what is called equitable waste, that is, pull down or deface the mansion or destroy timber planted or left for ornament or shelter (Weld-Blundell v. Wolseley, 1903, 2 Ch. 664). Acts of equitable waste were, before 1875, not cognizable in courts of common law, but by the Judicature Act 1873, s. 25 (3), in the absence of special provisions to that effect an estate for life without impeachment of waste does not confer upon the tenant for life any legal light to commit equitable waste. A copy-holder may not commit waste unless allowed to do so by the custom of the manor. The penalty for waste is forfeiture of the copyhold; Galbraith v. Foynton, 1905, 2 K.B. 258 (see COPY- HOLD). The Agricultural Holdings Acts 1900 and 1906, by reason of their provisions giving compensation for improvement, as regards the holdings to which they apply, override some of the old common law doctrines as to waste. The act of 1900 provides (s. 2 [3]) that where a tenant, who claims compensation for improvements, has wrongfully been guilty of waste, either voluntary or permissive, the landlord shall be entitled to set off the sums due to him in respect of such waste, and to have them assessed by arbitration in manner provided by the acts of 1900 and 1906. Under the act of I'9o6 the tenant is permitted to disregard the terms of his tenancy as to the mode of cropping on arable land, but if he exercises his statutory freedom of cropping in such a manner as to injure or deteriorate his holding, the landlord is entitled to recover damages for such injury, &c. (s. 3). Remedies for Waste. — Various remedies for waste have been given to the reversioner at different periods in the history of English law. At common law only single damages seem to have been recoverable. This was altered by the legislature, and for some centuries waste was a criminal or quasi-criminal offence. Magna Carta enacted that a guardian committing waste of the lands in his custody should make amends and lose his office. The statute of Marlborough (1267) made a " fermor " (as above defined) committing waste liable to grievous amercement as well as to damages, and followed Magna Carta in forbidding waste by a guardian. The statute of Gloucester (1278) enacted that a writ of waste might be granted against a tenant for life or years or in courtesy or dower, and on being attainted of waste the tenant was to forfeit the land wasted and to pay thrice the amount of the waste. This statute was repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879. In addition to the writ of waste the writ of estrepement (said to be a corruption of exstirpamentum, and to be connected with the French estropier, to lame) lay to prevent injury to an estate to which the title was disputed. This writ has long been obsolete. Numerous other statutes dealt with remedies for waste. The writ of waste was superseded at common law by the " mixed action " of waste (itself abolished by the Real Property Limitation Act 1833), and by the action of trespass on the case (see TORT, TRESPASS). The court of chancery also intervened by in- junction to restrain equitable waste. At present proceedings may be taken either by action for damages, or by application for an injunction, or by both combined, and either in the king's bench or in the chancery divisions. By the Judicature Act 1873, s- 25 (8), the old jurisdiction to grant injunctions to prevent threatened waste is considerably enlarged. The Rules of the Supreme Court, Ord. xvi- r. 37, enable a representative action to be brought for the prevention of waste. In order to obtain damages or an injunction, substantial injury or danger of it must be proved. In England only the high court (unless by agreement of the parties) has jurisdiction in questions of waste, but in Ireland, where the law of waste is similar to English law, county courts and courts of summary jurisdiction have co-ordinate authority to a limited extent (cf. Land Act 1860, ss- 35-39)- The law of waste as it affects ecclesiastical benefices will be found under DILAPIDATIONS. (4) " Waste of assets " or " devastavit " is a squandering and mis- application of the estate and effects of a deceased person by his executors or administrators, for which they are answerable out of their own pockets as far as they have or might have had assets of the deceased (see EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS). Executors and administrators may now be sued in the county court for waste of assets (County Courts Act 1888, s. 95). Scotland. — In Scots law " waste " is not used as a technical term, but the respective rights of fiar and life-renter are much the same as in England. As a general rule, a life-renter has no right to cut timber, even though planted by himself. An exception is admitted in the case of coppice wood, which is cut at regular intervals and allowed to grow again from the rocts. Grown timber is also available 362 WATCH to the life-renter for the purpose of keeping up the estate or repairing buildings. Before making use of mature timber for estate purposes, the life-renter should give notice to the fiar. He is also entitled to the benefit of ordinary windfalls. Extraordinary windfalls are treated as grown timber. Life-renters by " constitution " (i.e. by grant from the proprietor) as opposed to life-renters by " reserva- tion " (where the proprietor has reserved the life- rent to himself in conveying the fee to another) have, as a rule, no right to coals or minerals underground if they are not expressed in the grant or appear to have been intended by a testator to pass by his settlement, for they are paries soli. Where coals or minerals are expressed in the grant, and also in cases of life-rent by " reservation, ' the life- renter may work any mine which had been opened before the be- ginning of his right, provided he does not employ a greater number of miners, or bring up a greater quantity of minerals, than the un- burdened proprietor did. All life-renters are entitled to such minerals as are required for domestic use and estate purposes. British Possessions. — French law is in force in Mauritius, and has been followed in substance in the civil codes of Quebec (art. 455) and St Lucia (art. 406). In most of the other colonies the rules of English law are followed, and in many of them there has been legisla- tion on the lines of the English Settled Land Acts. In India the law as to waste is included to some extent in the Transfer of Property Act (No. IV. of 1882) and its amendments. Section 108 deals with the liabilities of lessees for waste, which may be varied by the terms of the lease or by local usage. The liabilities for waste of persons having under Hindu or Mahommedan law limited interests in reality depend in the main upon those laws and not on Indian statute law. United States.-?-" In the United States, especially in the Western states, many acts are held to be only in a natural and reasonable way of, using and improving the land — clearing wild woods, for example — which in England, or even in the Eastern states, would be manifest waste " (Pollock, Torts, 7th ed., 345). Thus Virginia, North Carolina, Vermont and Tennessee have deviated in favour of the tenant from English rules, while Massachusetts has adhered to them (Ruling Cases, tit. " Waste," xxv. 380, American notes). In certain states, e.g. Minnesota, Oregon and Washington (ibid., p. 381), the action of waste is regulated by statute. Europe. — The French Civil Code provides (.art. 591) that the usufructuary may cut timber in plantations that are laid out for cutting, and are cut at regular intervals, although he is bound to follow the example of former proprietors as to quantity and times. This provision is in force in Belgium (Civil Code, art. 591). Analogous Provisions are to be found in the civil codes of Holland (art. 814), pain (art. 485), Italy (art. 486), and cf. the German Civil Code, art. 1036. AUTHORITIES. — English law: Bewes, Law of Waste; Fawcett, Law of Landlord and Tenant; Foa, Law of Landlord and Tenant; Woodfall, Law of Landlord and Tenant. Scots law: Erskine, Principles (Edinburgh). Irish law: Nolan and Kane, Statutes relating to the Law of Landlord and Tenant in Ireland (Dublin) ; Wylie, Judicature Acts (Dublin). American law: Bouvier, Law Diet. (Boston and London). Indian law: Shepherd and Brown, Indian Transfer of Property Act 1882. (A. W. R.) WATCH (in O. Eng. wacce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake), a portable time- piece. This is the most common meaning of the word in its substantival form, and is the subject of the present article. The word, by derivation, means that which keeps watchful or wakeful observation or attention over anything, and hence is used of a person or number of persons whose duty it is to protect anything by vigilance, a guard or sentry; it is thus the term for the body of persons who patrolled the streets, called the hours, and performed the duties of the modern police. The application of the term to a period of time is due to the military division of the night by the Greeks and Romans into " watches " (^uXaxat, mgiliae), marked by the change of sentries; similarly, on ship- board, time is also reckoned by " watches,'' and the crew is divided into two portions, the starboard and port watches, taking duty alternately.1 The transference of the word to that which marks the changing hours is easy. 1 In the British navy the twelve hours of the night are divided into three watches of four hours — from eight to twelve the first watch, from twelve to four the middle watch, and from four to eight the morning watch. The twelve hours of the day are divided into four watches, two of four hours — eight to midday, midday to four P.M. — and two of two hours, from four to six and six to eight. These are the " dog watches," and their purpose is to change the turn of the watches every twenty-four hours, so that the men who watch from eight to midnight on one night, shall watch from midnight till 4 A.M. on the next. The " watch bill " is the list of the men appointed to the watch, who are mustered by the officers. Time was originally kept by an hour-glass, every half-hour; the number of the half-hour The invention of portable timepieces dates from the end the 1 5th century, and the earliest manufacture of them was ir Germany. They were originally small clocks with mainsprir enclosed in boxes; sometimes they were of a globular for and were often called " Nuremberg eggs." Being too large fo the pocket they were frequently hung from the girdle, difficulty with these early watches was the inequality of action of the mainspring. An attempt to remedy this was provide by a contrivance called the stack-freed, which was little more than a sort of rude auxiliary spring. The problem was solved about the years 1525- 1 540 by the invention of the fusee. By this contrivance the main- spring is made to turn a barrel on which is wound a piece of catgut, which in the latter part of the i6th century was replaced by a chain. The other end of the catgut band is wound upon a spiral drum, so contrived that as the spring runs down and becomes weaker the leverage on the axis of the spiral increas and thus gives a stronger impulse to the works (fig. i). In early watches the escapement was the same as in early clocks, namely, a crown wheel and pallets with a balance end in small weights. Such an escapement was, of course, ve imperfect, for since the angular force acting on the balance do not vary with the displacement, the time of oscillation varie with the arc, and this again varies with every variation of th driving force. An immense improvement was therefore effected when the hair-spring was added to the balance, which was replaced by a wheel. This was done about the end of the i7th century. During the i8th century a series of escapements were invented to replace the old crown wheel, ending in the chrono- meter escapement, and though great improvements in detail have since been made, yet the watch, even as it is to-day, may be called an iSth-century invention. The watches of the i6th century were usually enclosed in cases ornamented with the beautiful art of that period. Some- times the case was fashioned like a skull, and the watches were made in the form of octagonal jewels, crosses, purses, little books, dogs, sea-shells, &c., in almost every instance being finely en- graved. Queen Elizabeth was very fond of receiving presents, and, as she was also fond of clocks, a number of the gifts pre- sented to her took the form of jewelled watches. The man to whom watch-making owes perhaps most was Thomas Tompion (1639-1713), who invented the first dead-beat escapement for watches (fig. 2). It consisted of a balance-wheel mounted on an axis of semi-cylindrical form with a notch in it, and a projecting stud. When the teeth of the scape-wheel came Rs//\C 7/\ against the cylindrical part of the axis they ' / \\ ' \N were held from going forward, but when the FIG. 2. motion of the axis was reversed, the teeth slipped past the notch and struck the projection, thus giving an impulse. This escapement was afterwards developed by George Graham (1673-1751) into the horizontal cylindrical escapement and into the well-known dead-beat escapement for clocks. The development of escapements in the i8th century greatly is shown by striking the watch bell, hanging on a beam of the fore- castle, or by the mainmast, with the clapper. One stroke is given for each half-hour. Thus 12.30 A.M. is one bell in the middle watch, and 3 A.M. is six bells. The bell was also used to indicate the course of a ship in a fog. A vessel on the starboard tack tolled the bell, a vessel on the port tack beat a drum. The watch guns were fired when setting the watch in the evening and relieving it in the morning. The gun is now only fired at sundown. WATCH 363 improved watches. But a defect still remained, namely, the influence of temperature upon the hair-spring of the balance- wheel. Many attempts were made to provide a remedy. John Harrison proposed a curb, so arranged that alterations of tempera- ture caused unequal expansion in two pieces of metal, and thus actuated an arm which moved and mechanically altered the length of the hair-spring, thus compensating the effect of its altered elasticity. But the best solution of the problem was ultimately proposed by Pierre le Roy (1717-1785) and perfected by Thomas Ikunshaw (1740-1829). This was to diminish the inertia of the balance-wheel in proportion to the increase of temperature, by means of the unequal expansion of the metals composing the rim. Invention in watches was greatly stimulated by the need of a good timepiece for finding longitudes at sea, and many successive rewards were offered by the government for watches which would keep accurate time and yet be able to bear the rocking motion of a ship. The difficulty ended by the invention of the chronometer, which was so perfected towards the early part of the ipth century as to have even now undergone but little change of form. In fact the only great triumph of later years has been the invention of watch-making machinery, whereby the price is so lowered that an excellent watch (in a brass case) can now be purchased for about £2 and a really accurate time-keeper for about £18. A modern watch consists of a case and framework containing the four essential parts of every timepiece, namely, a mainspring and apparatus for winding it UD, a train of wheels with hands and a face, an escapement and a balance-wheel and hair-spring. We shall describe these in order. The Mainspring. — As has been said, the mainspring of an ojd- fashioned watch was provided with a drum and fusee so astoequalize its action on the train. An arrangement was provided to prevent overwinding, consisting of a hook which when the chain was nearly wound up was pushed aside so as to engage a pin, and thus prevent further winding (see fig. i). Another arrangement for watches without a fusee, called a Geneva stop, consists of a wheel with one tooth affixed to the barrel arbour, working into another with only four or five teeth. This allows the barrel arbour only to be turned round four or five times. The " going-barrel, " which is fitted to most modern watches, con- tains no fusee, but the spring is delicately made to diminish in size from one end to the other, and it is wound up for only a few turns, so that the force derived from it does not vary very substantially. The unevenness of drive is in modern watches sought to be counter- acted by the construction of the escapement and balance-wheel. Watches used formerly to be wound with a separate key. They are now wound by a key permanently fixed to the case. The de- pression of a small knob gears the winding key with the hands so as to enable them to be set. With this contrivance watches are well protected against the entry of dust and damp. Watch Escapements. — The escapements that have come into practical use are — (i) the old vertical escapement, now disused; (2) the lever, very much the most common in English watches; (3) the horizontal or cylinder, which is equally common in foreign watches, though it was of English invention; (4) the duplex, which used to be more in fashion for first-rate watches than it is now; and (5) the detached or chronometer escapement, so called because it is always used in marine chronometers. The vertical escapement is simply the original clock escapement adapted to the position of the wheels in a watch and the balance, in the manner exhibited in fig. 3. As it requires considerable thickness in the watch, is inferior in going to all the others and is no cheaper than the level escape- ment can now be made, it has gone out ol use. The lever escapement, as it is now univer- sally made, was brought into use late in the i8th century by Thomas Mudge. Fig. 4 shows its action. The position of the lever with reference to the pallets is immaterial in principle, and is only a question of convenience in the arrangement; but it is generally such as we have given it. The principle is the same as in the dead-beat clock escapement, with the advantage that there is no friction on the dead faces of the pallets beyond what is necessary for locking. The reason why this friction cannot be avoided with a pendulum is that its arc of vibration is so small that the requisite depth of intersection cannot be got between the two circles described by the end S of the lever and any pin in the pendulum which would work into it; whereas, in a watch, the pin P, which is set in a cylinder on the verge of the balance, does not generally slip out of the nick in the end of the lever until the balance has got 15° past its middle position. The pallets are under- cut a little, as it is called, i.e. the dead faces are so sloped as to FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. give a little recoil the wrong way, or slightly to resist the unlocking, because otherwise there would be a risk that a shake of the watch would let a tooth escape while the pin is dis- engaged from the lever. There is also a further provision added for safety. In the cylinder which carries the impulse pin P there is a notch just in front of P, into which the other pin S on the lever fits as they pass; but when the notch has got past the cylinder it would prevent the lever from returning, because the safety-pin S cannot pass except through the notch, which is only in the position for letting it pass at the same time that the impulse-pin is engaged in the lever. The pallets in a lever escapement (except bad and cheap ones) are always jewelled, and the scape- wheel is of brass. The staff of the lever also has jewelled pivot- holes in expensive watches, and the scape- wheel has in all good ones. The holes for the balance-pivots are now always jewelled. The scape- wheel in this and most of the watch escapements generally beats five times in a second, in large chronometers four times; and the wheel next to the scape-wheel carries the seconds-hand. Fig. 5 is a plan of the horizontal or cylinder escapement, cutting through the cylinder, which is on the verge of the balance, at the level of the tops of the teeth of the escape-wheel ; for the triangular pieces A, B are not flat projections in the same plane as the teeth, but are raised on short stems above the plane of the wheel ; and stil! more of the cylinder than the portion shown at ACD is cut away where the wheel itself has to pass. The author of this escapement was G. Graham, and it resembles his dead escapements in clocks in principle more than the lever escape- ment does, though much less in appear- ance, because in this escapement there is the dead friction of the teeth against the cylinder, first on the outside, as here repre- sented, and then on the inside, as shown by the dotted lines, during the whole vibration of the balance, except that portion which belongs to the impulse. The impulse is given by the oblique outside edges Aa, Bb of the teeth against the edges A, D of the cylinder alternately. The portion of the cylinder which is cut away at the point of action is about 30° less than the semicircle. The cylinder itself is made either of steel or ruby, and, from the small quantity of it which is left at the level of the wheel, it is very delicate; and probably this has been the main reason why, although it is an English invention, it has been most entirely abandoned by the English watchmakers in favour of the lever, which was originally a French invention, though very much improved by Mudge, for before his invention the lever had a rack or portion of a toothed wheel on its end, working into a pinion on the balance verge, and consequently it was affected by the dead friction, and that of this wheel and pinion besides. This used to be called the rack lever, and Mudge's the detached lever; but, the rack lever being now quite obsolete, the word " detached " has become confined to the chronometer, to which it is more appropriate, as will be seen presently. The Swiss watches have almost universally the horizontal escapement. It is found that — for some reason which is apparently unknown, as the rule certainly does not hold in cases seemingly analogous — a steel scape-wheel acts better in this escapement than a brass one, although in some other cases steel upon steel, or even upon a ruby, very soon throws off a film of rust, unless they are kept well oiled, while brass and steel, or stone, will act with scarcely any oil at all, and in some cases with none. The duplex escapement (fig. 6) is probably so called because there is a double set of teeth in the scape-wheel — the long ones (like those of the lever escapement in shape) . for locking only, and short ones (or rather upright pins on the rim cf the wheel) for giving the impulse to the pallet P on the verge of the balance. It is a single-beat escapement; i.e. the balance only receives the impulse one way, or at every alter- nate beat, as in the chronometer escape- ment. When the balance is turning in the direction marked by the arrow, and arrives at the position in which the dotted tooth b has its point against the triangular notch V, the tooth end slips into the notch, and, as the verge turns farther round, the tooth goes on with it till at last it escapes when the tooth has got into the position A; and by that time the long tooth or pallet which projects from the verge has moved from * to P, and just come in front of the pin T, which stands on the rim of the scape-wheel, and which now begins to push against P, and so gives the impulse until it also escapes when it has arrived at /; and the wheel is then stopped by the next tooth B having got into the position b, with its point resting against the verge.and there Is dead friction between them, and this friction is lessened by the FIG. 6. WATCH distance of the points of the long teeth from the centre of the scape- wheel. As the balance turns back, the nick V goes past the end of the tooth b. and in consequence of its smallness it passes without visibly affecting the motion of the scape-wheel, though of course it does produce a very slight shake in passing. It is evident that, if it did not pass, the tooth could not get into the nick for the next escape. The objection to this escapement is that it requires very great delicacy of adjustment, and the watch also requires to be worn care- fully; for, if by accident the balance is once stopped from swinging back far enough to carry the nick V past the tooth end, it will stop altogether, as it will lose still more of its vibration the next time from receiving no impulse. The performance of this escapement, when well made, and its independence of oil, are nearly equal to those of the detached escapement; but, as lever watches are now made sufficiently good for all but astronomical purposes, for which chrono- meters are used, and they are cheaper both to make and to mend than duplex ones, the manufacture of duplex watches has almost disappeared. The chronometer or detached escapement is shown at fig. 7 in the form to which it was brought by Earnshaw, and in which it has remained ever since, with the very slight difference that the pallet P, on which the impulse is given (corresponding exactly to the pallet P in the duplex escapement), is now generally set in a radial direction from the verge, whereas Earnshaw made it sloped backward, or undercut, like the scape-wheel teeth. The early history of escape- ments on this principle does not seem to be very clear. They appear to have originated in France ; but there is no doubt that they were considerably improved by the first Arnold (John), who died in 1799. Earnshaw's watches, however, generally beat his in trials. In fig. 7 the small tooth or cam V, on the verge of the balance, !s just on the point of unlocking the detent DT from the tooth T of the scape- wheel ; and the tooth A will immediately begin to give the impulse on the pallet P, which, in good chronometers, is always a jewel set in the cylinder; the tooth V is also a jewel. This part of the action is so evident as to require no further notice. When the balance returns, the tooth V has to get past the end of the detent, without disturbing it; for, as soon as it has been unlocked, it falls against the banking-pin E, and is ready to receive the next tooth B, and must stay there until it is again unlocked. It ends, or rather begins, in a stiffish spring, which is screwed to the block D on the watch frame, so that it moves without any friction of pivots, like a pendulum. The passing is done by means of another spring VT, G , to FIG. 7. called the passing spring, which can be pushed away from the body of the detent towards the left, but cannot be pushed the other way without carrying the detent with it. In the back vibration, there- fore, as in the duplex escapement, the balance receives no impulse, and it has to overcome the slight resistance of the passing spring besides; but it has no other faction, and is entirely detached from the scape-wheel the whole time, except when receiving the impulse. That is also the case in the lever escapement ; but the impulse in that escapement is given obliquely, and consequently with a good deal of friction; and, besides, the scape-wheel only acts on the balance through the intervention of the lever, which has the friction of its own pivots and of the impulse pin. The locking-pallet T is undercut a little for safety, and is also a jewel in the best chronometers; and the passing spring is usually of gold. In the duplex and detached escapements, the timing of the action of the different parts requires great care, i.e. the adjusting them so that each may be ready to act exactly at the right time; and it is curious that the arrangement which would be geometrically correct, or suitable for a very slow motion of the balance, will not do for the real motion. If the pallet P were really set so as just to point to the tooth A in both escapements at the moment of unlocking (as it has been drawn, because otherwise it would look as if it could not act at all), it would run away some distance before the tooth could catch it, because in the duplex escapement the scape-wheel is then only moving slowly, and in the detached it is not moving at all, and has to start from rest. The pallet P is therefore, in fact, set a little farther back, so that it may arrive at the tooth A just at the time when A is ready for it, without wasting time and force in running after it. The detached escapement has also been made on the duplex plan of having long teeth for the locking and short ones or pins nearer the centre for the impulse; but the advantages do not appear to be worth the addi- tional trouble, and the force required for unlocking is not sensibly diminished by the arrangement, as the spring D must in any case be fairly stiff, to provide against the watch being carried in the position in which the weight of the detent helps to unlock it. An escapement called the lever chronometer has been several times reinvented, which implies that it has never come into general use. It is a combination of the lever as to the locking and the chronometer as to the impulse. It involves a little drop and therefore waste of force as a tooth of the wheel just escapes at the " passing " beat where no impulse is given. But it should be understood that a single-beat escapement involves no more loss of force and the escape of no more teeth than a double one, except the slight drop in the duplex and this lever chronometer or others on the same principle. There have been several contrivances for remontoire escapements ; but there are defects in all of them ; and there is not the same advantage to be obtained by giving the impulse to a watch-balance by means of some other spring instead of tne mainspring as there is in turret-clocks, where the force of the train is liable to very much greater variations than in chronometers or small clocks. The balance-wheel and hair-spring consist of a small wheel, usually of brass, to which is affixed a spiral, or in chronometers a helical, spring. This wheel swings through an angle of from 1 80° to 270° and its motions are approximately isochronous. The time of the watch can be regulated by an arm to which is attached a pair of pins which embrace the hair-spring at a point near its outer end, and by the movement of which the spring can be lengthened or shortened. The first essential in a balance-wheel is that its centre of gravity should be exactly in the axis, and that the centre of gravity of the hair-spring should also be in the axis of the balance-wheel. True isochronism is disturbed by variations in the driving force of the train or by variations in temperature, and also by variations in barometric pressure. Isochronism is produced in the first place by a proper shape of the spring and its overcoil. It is usual to time the watch's going when the mainspring is partly wound up, as well as when it is fully wound up, and then by removing parts of the hair-spring to get such an adjustment that the rate is not influenced by the lesser or greater extent to which the watch has been wound. The variations in length and still more in elasticity caused in a hair- spring by changes of temperature were for long not only a trouble to watchmakers but a bar to the progress of the art. A pendulum requires scarcely any compensation except for its own elongation by heat; but a balance requires compensation, not only for its own expansion, which increases its moment of inertia just like the pendulum, but far more on account of the decrease in the strength of the spring under increased heat. E. G. Dent, in a pamphlet on compensation balances, gave the following results of some experi- ments with a glass balance, which he used for the purpose on account of its less expansibility than a metal one: at 32° F., 3606 vibrations in an hour; at 66°, 3598-5: and at 100°, 3599. If therefore it had been adjusted to go right (or 3600 times in an hour) at 32°. it would have lost 7$ and 8j seconds an. hour, or more than three minutes a day, for each successive increase of 34°, which is about fifteen times as much as a common wire pendulum would lose under the same increase of heat ; and if a metal balance had been used instead of a glass one the difference would have been still greater. The necessity for this large amount of compensation having arisen from the variation of the elasticity of the spring, the first attempts at correcting it were by acting on the spring itself in the manner of a common regulator. Harrison's compensation consisted of a compound bar of brass and steel soldered together, having one end fixed to the watch-frame and the other carrying two curb pins which embraced the spring. As the brass expands more than the steel, any increase of heat made the bar bend ; and so, if it was set the right way, it carried the pins along the spring, so as to shorten it. This contrivance is called a compensation curb; and it has often been reinvented, or applied in a modified form. But there are two objections to it: the motion of the curb pins does not correspond accurately enough to the variations in the force of the spring, and it disturbs the isochronism, which only subsists at certain definite lengths of the spring. The compensation which was next invented left the spring un- touched, and provided for the variations of temperature by the construction of the balance itself. Fig. 8 shows the plan of the ordinary compensation balance. Each portion of the rim of the balance is composed of an inner bar of steel with an outer one of brass soldered, or rather melted, upon it, and carrying the weights b, b, which are screwed to it. As the temperature increases, the brass expanding must bend the steel inwards, and so carries the weights farther in, and diminishes the moment of inertia of the balance, the decrease of rate being inversely as the diameter of the balance-wheel. The metals are generally soldered together by pouring melted brass round a solid steel disk, and the whole is afterwards turned and filed away till it leaves only the crossbar in the middle lying flat and the two portions of the rim standing edgeways. The first person to practise this method of uniting them appears to have been either Thomas Earnshaw or Pierre le Roy. The adjustment of a balance for compensation can only be done by trial, and requires a good deal of time. It must be done in- dependently of that for time — the former by shifting the weights, because the nearer they are to the crossbar the less distance they will move over as the rim bends with them. The timing is done by screws with heavy heads (/, t, fig. 8), which are just opposite to the ends of the crossbar, and consequently not affectea by the bending of the rim; other screws are also provided round the rim for adjusting the moment of inertia and centre of gravity of the balance-wheel. The compensation may be done approximately by FIG. 8. WATCH 365 the known results of previous experience with similar balances; and many watches are sold with compensation balances which have never been tried or adjusted, and sometimes with a mere sham compensation balance, not even cut through. Secondary Compensation. — When chronometers had been brought to great perfection it was perceived that there was a residuary error, which was due to changes of temperature, but which no adjustment of the compensation would correct. The cause of the secondary error is that as the temperature rises the elasticity of the spring decreases, and therefore its accelerating force upon the balance- wheel diminishes. Hence the watch tends to go slower. In order to compensate this the split rim of the balance-wheel is made with the more expansible metal on the outside, and therefore tends to curl inwards with increase of temperature, thus diminishing tin- moment of inertia of the wheel. Now the rate of error caused by the increase of temperature of the spring varies approximately with the temperature according to a certain law, but the rate of correction due to the diminution of the moment of inertia caused by the change of form of the rim of the wheel does not alter proportionally, but according to a more complex law of its own, varying more rapidly with cold than with heat, so that if the rate of the chronometer is correct, say, at 30" F. and also at 90° F., it will gain at all intermediate temperatures, the spring being thus under-corrected for high tempera- tures and over-corrected for low. Attempts have been made by alterations of shape of the balance-wheel to harmonize the progress of the error with the progress of the correction, but not with very conspicuous success. We shall give a short description of the principal classes of in- ventions for this purpose. The first disclosed was that of J. S. Eiffe (sometimes attributed to Robert Molyneux), which was com- municated to the astronomer-royal in 1835. In one of several methods proposed by him a compensation curb was used; and though, for the reasons given before, this will not answer for the primary compensation, it may for the secondary, where the motion required is very much smaller. In another the primary compensation bar, or a screw in it, was made to reach a spring set within it with a small weight attached at some mean temperature, and, as it bent farther in, it carried this secondary compensation weight along with it. The obvious objection to this is that it is discontinuous; but the whole motion is so small, not more than the thickness of a piece of paper, that this and other compensations on the same principle appear to have been on some occasions quite successful. Another large class of balances, all more or less alike, may be represented by E. J. Dent's, which came next in order of time. He described several forms of his invention; the following descrip- tion applies to the one he thought the best. In fig. 9 the flat cross- bar rr is itself a compensation bar which bends upwards under increased heat; so that, if the weights v, v were merely set upon up- right stems rising from the ends of the cross- bar, they would approach the axis when that bar bends upwards. But, instead of the stems rising from the crossbar, they rise from the two secondary compensation pieces stu, in the form of staples, which are set on the crossbar; and, as these secondary pieces themselves also bend upwards, they make the weights approach the axis more rapidly as the heat increases; and by a proper adjustment of the height of the weights on the stems the moment of inertia of the balance can be made to vary in the proper ratio to the variation of the intensity of the spring. The cylindrical spring stands above the crossbar and between the staples. Fig. 10 represents E. T. Loseby's mercurial compensation balance. Besides the weights D, D, set near the end of the primary compen- sation bars B, B, there are small bent tubes FE, FE with mercury in them, like a thermometer, the bulbs being at F, F. As the heat increases, not only do the primary weights D, D and the bulbs F, F approach the centre of the balance, but some of the mercury is driven along the tube, thus carrying some more of the weight towards the centre, at a ratio increasing more rapidly than the temperature. The tubes are sealed at the thin end, with a little air included. The action is here equally continuous with Dent's, and the adjustments for primary and secondary com- pensation are apparently more in- dependent of each other; and this modification of Le Roy's use of mercury for compensated balances (which does not appear to have Answered) is certainly very elegant and ingenious. Nevertheless an analysis of the Greenwich lists for seven years of Loseby's trials proved that the advantage of this method over the others was more theoretical than practical; Dent's compensation was the most suc- cessful of all in three years out of the seven, and Loseby's in only one. FIG. 9. FIG. 10. Loseby's method has never been adopted by any other chronometer- maker, whereas the principles both of Eiffe's and of Dent's methods have been adopted by several other makers. A few chronometers have been made with glass balance-springs, which have the advantage of requiring very little primary and no secondary compensation, on account of the very small variation in their elasticity, compared with springs of steel or any other metal. One of the most important and interesting attempts to correct the temperature errors of a hair-spring by a series cf corresponding temperature changes in the moment of inertia of the balance-wheel has been made by means of the use of the nickel-steel compound called invar, which, on account of its very small coefficient of ex- pansion, has been of great use for pendulum rods. In a memoir published in 1904 at Geneva, Dr Charles Guillaume, the inventor of invar, shows that in order to get a true secondary compensation what is wanted is a material having the property of causing the curve of the rim of the wheel to change at an increasing rate as compared with changes in the temperature. This is founo! in those specimens of invar in which the second coefficient of expansion is negative, i.e. which are less dilatable at higher temperatures than at lower ones. It is satisfactory to add that such balance-wheels have been tried successfully on chronometers, and notably in a deck watch by Paul Ditisheim of Neuchatel, who has made a chronometer with a tourbillon escapement and an invar balance-wheel, which holds the highest record ever obtained by a watch of its class. It is obvious that in order that a watch may keep good time the centre of gravity of the balance-wheel and hair-spring must be exactly in the axis; for if this were not the case, then the wheel would act partly like a pendulum, so that the time would vary according as the watch was placed in different positions. It is exceedingly difficult to adjust a watch so that these " position errors " are eliminated. Accordingly it has been proposed to neutralize their effect by mounting the balance-wheel and hair- spring upon a revolving carriage which shall slowly rotate, so that in succession every possible position of the balance-wheel and spring is assumed, and thus errors are averaged and mutually destroy one another. This is called the tourbillon escapement. There are several forms of it, and watches fitted with it often keep excellent time. Stop watches or chronographs are of several kinds. In the usual and simplest form there is a centre seconds hand which normally remains at rest, but which, when the winding handle is pressed in, is linked on to the train of the watch and begins to count seconds, usually by fifths. A second pressure arrests its path, enabling the time to be taken since the start. A third pressure almost instantaneously brings the seconds hand back to zero, this result being effected by means of a heart-shaped cam which, when a lever presses on it instantaneously, flies round to zero position. The number of complete revolutions of the seconds hand, i.e. minutes, is recorded on a separate dial. Calendar work on watches is, of course, fatal to-great accuracy of time-keeping, and is very complicated. A watch is made to record days of the week and month, and to take account of leap years usually by the aid of star-wheels with suitable pauls and stops. The type of this mechanism is to be found in the calendar motion of an ordinary grandfather's clock. Watches have also been made containing small musical boxes and arranged with performing figures on the dials. Repeaters are striking watches which can be made at will to strike the hours and either the quarters or the minutes, by pressing a handle which winds up a striking mechanism. They were much in vogue as a means of dis- covering the time in the dark before the invention of lucifer matches, when to obtain a light by means of flint and steel was a troublesome affair. From what has been said it will be seen that for many years the form of escapements and balance-wheels has not greatly altered. The great improvements which modern science has been able to effect in watches are chiefly in the use of new metals and in the employment of machinery, which, though they have altered the form but little, have effected an enormous revolution in the price. The cases of modern watches are made sometimes of steel, artificially blackened, sometimes of compounds of aluminium and copper, known as aluminium gold. Silver is at present being less employed than formerly. The hair-springs are often of palladium in order to render the watch non-magnetizable. An ordinary watch, if the wearer goes near a dynamo, will probably become magnetized and quite useless for time-keeping. One of the simplest cures for this accident is to twirl it rapidly round while retreating- from the dynamo and to continue the motion till at a considerable distance. The use of invar has been already noticed. It would be impossible to enumerate, still more to describe, the vast number of modern machines that have been invented for making watches. It may be said briefly that every part, including the toothed wheels, is stamped out of metal. The stamped pieces are then finished by cutters and with milling machinery. Each machine as a rule only does one operation, so that a factory will contain many hundreds of different sorts of machines. The modern watchmaker therefore is not so much of a craftsman as an engineer. The effect of making all the parts of a watch by machinery is that each is interchangeable, so that one part will fit any watch. It is 366 WATER not an easy thing to secure this result, for as the machines are used the cutting edges wear down and require regrinding and resetting. Hence a tool is not allowed to make more than a given quantity of parts without being examined and readjusted, and from time to time the pieces being put out are tested with callipers. The parts thus made are put in groups and sorted into boxes, which are then given over to the watch-adjusters, who put the parts together and make the watch go. The work of adjustment for common watches is a simple matter. But expert adjusters select their pieces, measure them and correct errors with their tools. The finest watches are thus largely machine-made, but hand-finished. The prejudice against machine-made watches has been very strong in England, but is dying out — not, unfortunately, before much of the trade has been lost. A flourishing watch industry exists in Switzerland in the neighbourhood of Neuchatel. A watch in a stamped steel case can now be made for about five shillings. There is no reason why in such a neighbourhood as Birmingham the English watch industry should not revive. The use of jewelled bearings for watch pivots was introduced by Nicholas Facio about the beginning of the i8th century. Diamonds and sapphires are usually employed and pierced either by diamond drills or by drills covered with diamond dust. Rubies are not a very favourite stone for jewels, but as they and sapphires can now be made artificially for about two shillings a carat the difficulty of obtaining material for watch jewelling has nearly disappeared. Watches have also been fitted with machinery whereby electric contacts are made by them at intervals, so that if wires are led to and away from them, they can be made to give electric signals and thus mark dots at regular intervals on a moving strip of paper. As in the case of clocks, the accuracy of going of a watch is esti- mated by observation of the variations of its mean daily rate. This is officially done at Kew Observatory, near Richmond, and also for admiralty purposes at Greenwich. At Richmond watches are divided into two classes, A and B. For an A certificate the trials last for forty-five days, and include tests in temperatures varying from 40° to 90° F., going in every position with dial vertical, face up and face down. The average daily departure from the mean daily rate, that is the average error due to irregular departures from the average going rate, must not exceed 2 seconds a day except where due to position, when it may amount to 5 seconds. The errors should not increase more than 0-3 seconds a day for each I ° F. The trial for the B certificate is somewhat similar but less severe. Chronometers are put through trials lasting 55 days, and their average error from mean rate is expected not to exceed 0-5 seconds per diem. The fees for these tests are various sums from two guineas down- wards. In estimating the time-keeping qualities of a watch or clock, the error of rate is of no consequence. It is simply due to the time- keeper going too fast or too slow, and this can easily be corrected. What is wanted for a good watch is that the rate, whatever it is, shall be constant. The daily error is of no account provided it is a uniform daily error and not an irregular one. Hence the object of the trials is to determine not merely the daily rate but the variations of the daily rate, and on the smallness of these the value of the watch as a time-keeper depends. (G.; H. H.C.) WATER. Strictly speaking, water is the oxide of hydrogen which is usually stated to have the formula H2O (see below), but in popular use the term is applied to a great variety of different substances, all of which agree, however, in being the water of the chemist modified differently in the several varieties by the nature or proportion of impurities. In all ordinary waters, such as are used for primary purposes, the impurities amount to very little by weight — as a rule to less than ^th of i %. Of all natural stores of water the ocean is by far the most abundant, and from it all other water may be said to be derived. From the surface of the ocean a continuous stream of vapour is rising up into the atmosphere to be recondensed in colder regions and precipitated as rain, snow or sleet, &c. Some^ths of these precipitates of course return directly to the ocean; the rest, falling on land, collects into pools, lakes, rivers, &c., or else penetrates into the earth, perhaps to reappear as springs or wells. As all the saline components of the ocean are non- volatile, rain water, in its natural state, can be contaminated only with the ordinary atmospheric gases — oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Rain water also contains perceptible traces of ammonia, combined as a rule, at least partly, with the nitric acid, which is produced wherever an electric discharge pervades the atmosphere. Lake waters, as a class, are relatively pure, especially if the mountain slopes over which the rain collects into a lake are relatively free of soluble components. For example, the water of Loch Katrine (Scotland) is almost chemically pure, apart from small, but perceptible, traces of richly carboniferous matter taken up from the peat of the surrounding hills, and whii mpart to it a faint brownish hue, while really pure water is alue when viewed through a considerable thickness. River water varies very much in composition even in the same bed, as a river in the course of its journey towards the ocean passes from one kind of earth to others; while, compared with spring waters, relatively poor in dissolved salts, rivers are liable to be contaminated with more or less of suspended matter. Spring waters, having been filtered through more or less considerable strata of earth, are, as a class, clear of suspended, but rich in dissolved, mineral and organic matter, and may also contain gases in solution. Of ordinarily occurring minerals only a few are perceptibly soluble in water, and of these calcium carbonate and sulphate and common salt are most widely diffused. Common salt, however, in its natural occurrence, is very much localized; and so it comes that spring and well waters are contaminated chiefly with calcium carbonate and sulphate. Of these two salts, however, the former is held in solution only by the carbonic acid of the water, as calcium bicarbonate. But a carbonate-of-lime water, if exposed to the atmosphere, even at ordinary temperatures, loses its carbonic acid, and the calcium carbonate is precipitated. The stalactites (q.v.) which adorn the roofs and sides of certain caverns are produced in this manner. Many waters are valuable medicinal agents owing to their contained gases and salts (see MINERAL WATERS). In addition to its natural components, water :s liable to be con- taminated through accidental influxes of foreign matter. Thus, for instance, all the Scottish Highland lochs are brown through the presence in them of dissolved peaty matter. Rivers flowing through, or wells sunk in, populous districts may be contaminated with excrementitious matter, discharges from industrial establish- ments, &c. The presence of especially nitrogenous organic matter is a serious source of danger, inasmuch as such matter forms the natural food or soil for the development of micro-organisms, includ- ing those kinds of bacteria which are now supposed to propagate infectious diseases. Happily nature has provided a remedy. The nitrogenous organic matter dissolved in (say) a river speedily suffers disintegration by the action of certain kinds of bacteria, with forma- tion of ammonia and other (harmless) products; and the ammonia, again, is no sooner formed than, by the conjoint action of other bacteria and atmospheric oxygen, it passes first into (salts of) nitrous and then nitric acid. A water which contains combined nitrogen in the form of nitrates only is, as a rule, safe organically; if nitrites are present it becomes liable to suspicion ; the presence of ammonia is a worse symptom; and if actual nitrogenous organic matter is found in more than microscopic traces the water is possibly (not necessarily) a dangerous water to drink. All waters, unless very impure, become safe by boiling, which process kills any bacteria or germs that may be present. Of the ordinary saline components of waters, soluble magnesium and calcium salts are the only ones which are objectionable sanitarily if present in relatively large proportion. Calcium carbonate is harmless; but, on the other hand, the notion that the presence of this component adds to the value of a water as a drinking water is a mistake. The farinaceous part of food alone is sufficient to supply all the lime the body needs; besides, it is questionable whether lime introduced in any other form than that of phosphate is available for the formation of, for instance, bone tissue. The fitness of a water for washing is determined by its degree of softness. A water which contains lime or magnesia salts decom- poses soap with formation of insoluble lime or magnesia salts of the fatty acids of the soap used. So much of the soap is simply wasted ; only the surplus can effect any detergent action. Several methods for determining the hardness of a water have been devised. The most exact method is to determine the lime and magnesia gravi- metrically or by alkalimetry; or by Clark's soap test, but this process frequently gives inaccurate results. In this method, which, however, is largely used, a measured volume of the water is placed in a stoppered bottle, and a standard solution of soap is then dropped in from a graduated vessel, until the mixture, by addition of the last drop of soap, has acquired the property of throwing up a peculiar kind of creamy froth when violently shaken, which shows that all the soap-destroying components have been precipitated. The volume of soap required measures the hardness of the water. The soap-solution is referred to a standard by means of a water of a known degree of hardness prepared from a known weight of carbonate of lime by converting it into neutral chloride of calcium, dissolving this in water and diluting to a certain volume. The hardness is variously ex- pressed. On Clark's scale it is the grains of calcium carbonate per gallon of 70,000 grains; in Germany the parts of lime per 100,000 of water, and in France the parts of calcium carbonate per 100,000. WATER-BOATMAN— WATERBURY On the English scale, a water of 15° and over is hard, between 5° and 15" moderately hard, and of less than 5° soft. That part of the hardness of a water which is actually owing to carbonate of lime (or magnesia) can easily be removed in two ways, (ij By boiling, the free carbonic acid goes off with the steam, and the carbonate of lime, being bereft of its solvent, comes down as a precipitate which can be removed by filtration, or by allowing it to settle, and decanting off the clear supernatant liquor. (2) A method of Clark's is to mix the water with just enough of milk of lime to convert the free carbonic acid into carbonate. Both this and the original carbonate of lime are precipitated, and can be removed as in the first case. From any uncontaminated natural water pure water is easily prepared. The dissolved salts are removed by distillation; if care be taken that the steam to be condensed is dry, and if its condensation be effected within a tube made of a suitable metal (platinum or silver are best, but copper or block tin work well enough for ordinary purposes), the distillate can contain no impurities except atmospheric gases, which latter, if necessary, must be removed by boiling the distilled water in a narrow-necked flask until it begins to " bump," and then allowing it to cool in the absence of air. This latter opera- tion ought, strictly speaking, to be performed in a silver or platinum flask, as glass is appreciably attacked by hot water. For most purposes distilled water, taken as it comes from the condenser, is sufficiently pure. The preparation of absolutely pure water is a matter of great difficulty. Stas, in his stoichiometric researches, mixed water with potassium manganate, and distilled after twenty- four hours; the product being redistilled and condensed in a platinum tube just before it was required. Pure water, being so easily procured in any quantity, is used largely as a standard of reference in metrology and in the quantita- tive definition of physical properties. Thus a " gallon " is defined as the volume at 62" F. of a quantity of water whose unconnected mass, as determined by weighing in air of 3O-in. pressure and 62° F. of temperature, is equal to 10 ID avoirdupois. The kilogramme in like manner is defined as the mass of I cubic decimetre of water, measured at the temperature corresponding to its maximum density (4° C.). The two fixed points of the thermometer correspond — the lower (o° C., or 32° F.) to the temperature at which ice melts, the upper (100° C., or 212° F.) to that at which the maximum tension of steam, as it rises from boiling water, is equal to 760 mm. or 3O-in. mercury pressure. 30 in. being a little more than 760 mm., 212° F. is, strictly speaking, a higher temperature than 100° C., but the difference is very trifling. Specific heats are customarily measured by that of water, which is taken as = I. All other specific heats of liquids or solids (with one exception, formed by a certain strength of aqueous methyl alcohol) are less than i. The temperate character of insular climates is greatly owing to this property of water. Another physiographically important peculiarity of water is that it expands on freezing (into ice), while most other liquids do the reverse, n volumes of ice fuse into only 10 volumes of water at o° C. ; and the ice-water produced, when brought up gradually to higher and higher temperatures, again exhibits the very exceptional property that it contracts between o° and 4° C. (by about ToJffo of its volume) and then expands again by more and more per degree of increase of temperature, so that the volume at 100° C. is I -043 times that at 4° C. In former times water was viewed as an element," and the notion remained in force after this term (about the time of Boyle) had assumed its present meaning, although cases of decomposition of water were familiar to chemists. In Boyle's time it was already well known that iron, tin and zinc dissolve in aqueous hydrochloric or sulphuric acid with evolution of a stinking inflammable gas. Even Boyle, however, took this gas to be ordinary air contaminated with inflammable stinking oils. This view was held by all chemists until Cavendish, before 1784, showed that the gas referred to, if properly purified, is free of smell and constant in its properties, which are widely different from those of air — the most important point of difference being that the gas when kindled in air burns with evolution of much heat and formation of water. Cavendish, however, did not satisfy himself with merely proving this fact qualitatively; he determined the quantitative relations, and found that it takes very nearly 1000 volumes of air to burn 423 volumes of " hydrogen " gas; but 1000 volumes of air, again, according to Cavendish, contain 210 volumes of oxygen; hence, very nearly, 2 volumes of hydrogen take up I volume of oxygen to become water. This important discovery was only confirmed by the sub- sequent experiments of Humboldt and Gay-Lussac, which were no more competent than Cavendish's to prove that the surplus of 3 units (423 volumes instead of 420) of hydrogen was an observational error. More recent work, e.g. of Money, Leduc and Scott, has shown that the ratio is not exactly 2-1. The gravimetric composition was determined by Berzelius and Dulong, and later by Dumas by passing pure hydrogen over red-hot copper oxide. It has also been determined by several other variations and methods (see HYDROGEN). The molecular weight of liquid water has attracted much attention, for it was perceived long ago that its high boiling point, refractive index and other properties were not consistent with the simple formula H«O. Cryoscopic measurements led to the probable formula (HjO)i, whilst the surface tension leads to (HjO)i. The Question has been considered by H. E. Armstrong, who suggests that the simple molecule, HjO, which he calls hydrone, condenses in liquid water to form cyclic or chained compounds, containing tetravalent oxygen, resembling in structure the polymethylenes or paraffins. WATER-BOATMAN, an aquatic hemipterous insect of the family Nolonectidae, of which the best known species (Notonecta glauca) is a prominent feature in the pond-life of Great Britain. The technical name, Notonecta, meaning " back-swimmer," alludes to the habit of the insect of swimming upside down, the body being propelled through the water by powerful strokes of the hind legs, which are fringed with hair and, when at rest, are extended laterally like a pair of sculls in a boat. As is the case with other water-bugs, this insect is predaceous and feeds upon aquatic grubs or worms. The body is richly supplied with long hairs, which serve to entangle bubbles of air for purposes of respiration. The eggs are laid in the stems of water plants. WATERBUCK (Wasserbok), the name of a large South African antelope (Cobus ellipsiprymnus) belonging to the subfamily Cervtcaprinae, characterized by the white elliptical ring on the buttocks, and the general reddish grey colour of the long and coarse hair. . They have heavily fringed necks and tufted tails; the bucks carry long sub- lyrate and heavily ringed horns, but the does are horn- less. They seek refuge from pur- suit in the water. The name is ex- tended to include the sing-sing or defassa waterbuck (C. dejassa), a widespread species, without the white ring on the buttocks, and represented by several local races, one of which is foxy red while a second is greyish. Both species equal in size the red deer. The smaller members of the genus Cobus (which is exclusively African) are generally called kobs. (See ANTELOPE.) WATERBURY, a city and one of the county-seats of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., since 1900 coextensive with the township of Waterbury, on the Naugatuck river, in the west central part of the state, about 32 m. S.W. of Hartford. Pop. (1900) 51,139, of whom 15,368 were foreign-born (5866 being Irish, 2007 Italian, 1777 French Canadian, 1265 Russian, 1195 French, and 938 English); (1910 census) 73,141. Area 29 sq. m. Waterbury is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and is connected by electric lines with New Haven, Bridgeport, Thomaston, Woodbury and Watertown. It has four public parks (the Green, Chase, Hamilton and Forest), with a total acreage of 80 acres, and a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, designed by George E. Bissell. The most im- portant public buildings are the Federal building, the county court house, a state armoury, the Silas Bronson Public Library (1870; with an endowment of $200,000 and with 81,500 volumes in 1910), the Odd Fellows Temple, a Y.M.C.A. building and the Buckingham Music Hall (1007); and among the charitable in- stitutions are the Southmayd Home (1898) for aged women, the Waterbury hospital (1890) and the St Mary's hospital (1008). In the city are the St Margaret's Diocesan School for Girls (Protestant Episcopal, 1875), the Waterbury Industrial School and the Academy of Notre Dame (1868). There is good water power here from the Naugatuck river and its tributaries Mad river and Great Brook. In 1905 Waterbury ranked third among the manufacturing cities of Connecticut (being surpassed only by Waterbuck. 368 WATER-DEER— WATERFORD Bridgeport and New Haven), with a factory product valued at $32,367,359 (6-7 % more than in 1900). The most important manu- factures are rolled brass and copper (value in 1905, $12,599,736, or 24-3 % of the total for the United States), brass-ware (value in 1905, $7,387,228, or 42-2% of the total for the United States), clocks and watches — over a million watches are made here each year — and stamped ware (value in 1905, $1,037,666). The manufacture of brass- ware originated here in 1802 with the making of brass buttons; iron buttons covered with silver were first made here about 1760, block tin and pewter buttons about 1800, bone and ivory buttons about 1812, sheet brass in 1830, and pins and plated metals for daguerreotypes in 1842. Old-fashioned tall wooden clocks were made in Waterbury in the latter part of the i8th century, and cheap watches were first made here in 1879; these were long distinctive of Waterbury, and were often called " Waterbury watches." The manufacture of cloth dates from 1814, and broadcloth was first made here in 1833. The city has a large wholesale trade and is a shipping point for dairy products. The municipality owns and operates the water- works. The township of Waterbury was incorporated in 1686, having been since its settlement in 1677 a part of Farmington township known as Mattatuck. The city of Waterbury was first chartered in 1853. The city and the township were consolidated in 1901. City elections are held biennially and the mayor, city clerk, treasurer, comptroller, city sheriff and aldermen hold office for two years. With the consent of the Board of Aldermen the mayor appoints five electors who with the mayor constitute a department of public works; appoints three electors who with the mayor, comptroller, and president of the Board of Aldermen constitute a department of finance; appoints five electors who with the mayor constitute a department of public safety; and appoints five electors who constitute a department of public health. In 1902 there was a destructive fire in the business district of the city, and during a strike of street railway employees in 1903 state troops were called out to maintain order. WATER-DEER, a small member of the deer-tribe from northern China differing from all other Ceroidae except the musk- deer (with which it has no affinity) by the absence of antlers in both sexes. To compensate for this deficiency, the bucks are armed with long sabre-like upper tusks (see DEER). The species typifies a genus, and is known as Hydrelaphus (or Hydro- poles) inermis; but a second form has been described from Hankow under the name of H. kreyenbergi, although further evidence as to its claim to distinction is required. Water-deer frequent the neighbourhood of the large Chinese rivers where they crouch amid the reeds and grass in such a manner as to be invisible, even when not completely concealed by the covert. When running, they arch their backs and scurry away in a series of short leaps. In captivity as many as three have been produced at a birth. This is one of the few deer in which there are glands neither on the hock nor on the skin covering the cannon-bone. These glands probably enable deer to ascertain the whereabouts of their fellows by the scent they leave on the ground and herbage. The sub-aquatic habits of the present species probably render such a function impossible, hence the absence of the glands. The tail is represented by a mere stump. (R. L.*) WATERFALL, a point in the course of a stream or river where the water descends perpendicularly or nearly so. Even a very small stream of water falling from any considerable height is a striking object in scenery. Such falls, of small volume though often of immense depth, are common, for a small stream has not the power to erode a steady slope, and thus at any con- siderable irregularity of level in its course it forms a fall. In many mountainous districts a stream may descend into the valley of the larger river to which it is tributary by way of a fall, its own valley having been eroded more slowly and less deeply than the main valley. Mechanical considerations apart, the usual cause of the occurrence of a waterfall is a sudden change in geological structure. For example, if there be three horizontal strata, so laid down that a hard stratum occurs between two soft ones, a river will be able to grade its course through the upper or lower soft strata, but not at the same rate through the intermediate hard stratum, over a ledge of which it will con- sequently fall. The same will occur if the course of the river has been interrupted by a hard barrier, such as an intrusive dyke of basalt, or by glacial or other deposits. Where a river falls over an escarpment of hard rock overlying softer strata, it powerfully erodes the soft rock at the base of the fall and may undermine the hard rock above so that this is broken away. In this way the river gradually cuts back the point of fall, and a gorge is left below the fall. The classic example of this process is provided by the most famous falls in the world — Niagara. WATER-FLEA, a name given by the earlier microscopists (Swammerdam, 1669) to certain minute aquatic Crustacea of the order Cladocera, but often applied also to other members of the division Entomostraca (?.».). The Cladocera are abundant everywhere in fresh water. One of the commonest species, Daphnia pulex, found in ponds and ditches, is less than one- tenth of an inch in length and has the body enclosed in a trans- parent bivalved shell. The head, projecting in front of the shell, bears a pair of branched feathery antennae which are the chief swim- ming organs and propel the animal, in a succession of rapid bounds, through the water. There is a single large black eye. In the living animal five pairs of leaf-like limbs acting as gills can be observed in constant motion between the valves of the shell, and the pulsating heart may be seen near the dorsal surface, a little way behind the head. The body ends behind in a kind of tail dyt Parker and HaswetPs Text-Book of Zojloty, by permission of Macmillan & Co. Daphnia (after Claus). ant. I. antennule. d.gl. Digestive ant. 2. Antenna. eland. with a double curved daw br Brain f_ Swimming- which can be protruded br.p. Brood- feet, from the shell. The female pouch, ht. Heart, carries the eggs in a brood- E- Eve- sh-&- Shell-gland, chamber between the back of the body and the shell until hatching takes place. Through- out the greater part of the year only females occur and the eggs develop " parthenogenetically," without fertiliza- tion. When the small males appear, generally in the autumn, fertilized " winter " or " resting eggs " are produced which are cast adrift in a case of " ephippium " formed by a specially modified part of the shell. These resting eggs enable the race to survive the cold of winter or the drying up of the water. For a fuller account of the Cladocera and of other organisms which sometimes share with them the name of " water-fleas," see the article ENTOMOSTRACA. (W. T. CA.) WATERFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster, bounded E. by Waterford Harbour, separating it from Wexford, N. by Kilkenny and by Tipperary, W. by Cork, and S. by the Atlantic. The area is 458,108 acres, or about 716 sq. m. The coast line is in some parts bold and rocky, and is indented by numerous bays and inlets, the principal being Waterford Harbour; Tramore Bay, with picturesque cliffs and some extensive caves, and noted for its shipwrecks, on account of the rocky character of its bed; Dungarvan Harbour, much fre- quented for refuge in stormy weather; and Youghal Harbour, partly separating county Waterford from county Cork. The surface of the county is to a large extent mountainous, providing beautiful inland scenery, especially towards the west and north- west. The Knockmealdown Mountains, which attain a height of 2609 ft., form the northern boundary with Tipperary. A wide extent of country between Clonmel and Dungarvan is occupied by the two ranges of the Comeragh and Monavallagh WATERFORD 369 Mountains, reaching a height of 2504 ft. To the south of Dun- garvan there is a lower but very rugged range, called the Drum Hills. The south-eastern division of the county is for the most part level. Though Waterford benefits in its communications by the important rivers in its vicinity, the only large river it can properly claim as belonging to it is the Blackwater. This river is famous for salmon fishing, and, particularly in the stretch between Cappoquin and Lismore, flows between high, well- wooded banks, contrasting beautifully with the background of mountains. It enters the county east of Fermoy, and flows eastward to Cappoquin, the head of navigation, where it turns abruptly southward, to fall into the sea at Youghal Harbour. Waterford Harbour may be called the estuary of three important rivers, the Suir, the Nore and the Barrow, but neither of the two last touches the county. The Suir reaches it about 8 m. from Clonmel, and thence forms its northern boundary with Tipperary and Kilkenny. It is navigable to Clonmel, but the traffic lies mainly on the left bank, outside the county. Geology. — The Knockmealdown Mountains are an anticline of Old Red Sandstone, cut away at the eastern end to expose Silurian strata, which are associated with an extensive series of volcanic and intrusive rocks, often crushed by earth-movement. The impressive scarp formed by the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate above this lower ground is called the Comeragh Mountains. The moraine- dammed cirque of Lough Coumshingaun lies in these, with a precipice 1000 ft. in height. The unconformity of the Old Red Sandstone on the greenish and yellowish Silurian shales is excellently seen on the north bank of the Suir at Waterford. Carboniferous Limestone is found in the floor of the synclinals on either side of the great anticline, that is, in the Suir valley on the north, and in the green and richly- wooded hollow of the Blackwater on the south. Rapidly repeated anticlinal and synclinal folds continue this structure across the country befween Dungarvan and Youghal. Rich copper-mines were worked, mainly in the igth century, in the Silurian area near Bon- mahon, and the region remains full of mineral promise. Industries. — The land is generally better adapted for pasturage than for tillage, although there are considerable tracts of rich soil in the south-eastern districts. The proportion of tillage to pasture is, however, roughly as I to 3$, though the acreage under the principal crops of oats, potatoes and turnips is on the whole fairly maintained. The numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry increase steadily, and pigs are extensively reared. The woollen manufacture, except for home use, is practically extinct, but the cotton manufacture is still of some importance. There are also breweries, distilleries and a large number of flour-mills. The valuable deep sea and coast fisheries have distinct headquarters at Waterford, and the noted salmon fisheries of the Suir and Blackwater have theirs at Waterford and Lismore respectively. Railway communication is provided by the Waterford, Dungarvan, Lismore and Co. Cork branch of the Great Southern and Western railway, traversing the county from E. to W. ; and by the Waterford and Tramore railway, while the city of Water- ford is approached by lines of the first-named company from the N. (from Dublin) and W. (from Limerick). Population and Administration. — The population (95,702 in 1891; 87,187 in 1901) decreases at a rate about equal to the average of the Irish counties, and emigration is considerable. Nearly 95% of the total are Roman Catholics, and about 74% constitute the rural population. The chief towns are the city of Waterford (pop. 26,769), Dungarvan (4850), and Lismore (1583); Portlaw and Tramore, and Cappoquin are lesser towns. The county is divided into eight baronies. Down to the Union in 1800 the county returned two members, and the boroughs of Dungarvan, Lismore and Tallow two each. Thereafter, and before the Redistribution Act of 1885, the county returned two members, the borough of Waterford two, and Dungarvan one. The county now returns two members, for the east and west divisions respectively, while the county of the city of Waterford returns one member. Assizes are held at Waterford, and quarter sessions at Lismore, Dungarvan, and Waterford. The county is mainly in the Protestant diocese of Ossory, and the Roman Catholic diocese of Waterford and Lismore. History and A nliquilies. — In the 9th century the Danes landed in the district, and afterwards made a permanent settlement. Waterford was one of the twelve counties into which King John is stated to have divided that part of Ireland which he nominally annexed to the English crown. On account of the convenience of the city as a landing place, many subsequent expeditions passed through the county, directed against disaffected or rebellious tribes. In 1444 the greater part of it was granted to James, earl of Desmond, and in 1447 it was bestowed on John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who was created earl of Waterford. The county suffered severely during the Desmond rebellion, in the reign of Elizabeth, as well as in the rebellion of 1641 and during the Cromwellian period. There are in the county a considerable number of banows, duns, cromlechs and similar relics of the ancient inhabitants. At Ardmore, overlooking the sea from Ram Head, there is a round tower 95 ft. in height, and near it a huge rath and a large number of circular entrenchments. Among the old castles special mention may be made of Lismore, originally erected in 1185, but now in great part comparatively modern. The chief ecclesiastical remains are those of the chancel and nave of the cathedral of Ardmore, where a monastery and oratory were founded by St Declan in the 7th century. The see of Ardmore was abolished in the i2th century. Here are also remains of a church and oratory, and a holy well. Mention should be made of the existing monastery of Mount Melleray, a convent of Trappists founded near Cappoquin in 1830, on the expulsion of the foreign members of this order from France. Schools, both free and boarding, are maintained; and there is a branch of the order at Roscrea (Co. Tipperary). WATERFORD, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough, seaport, and the chief town of Co. Waterford, Ireland. Pop. (1901) 26,769. It is finely situated on the south bank of the Suir 4 m. above its junction with the Barrow, at the head of the tidal estuary called Waterford Harbour, mm. S.S.W. from Dublin by the Great Southern and Western railway. This is the principal railway serving the city, having lines from Dublin and from the north-west, besides the trunk line between Rosslare, Waterford and Cork. Waterford is also, however, the terminus of the Dublin and South-Eastern line from Dublin via New Ross, and for the Waterford and Tramore line, serving the seaside resort of Tramore, 7 m. S. The Suir is crossed by a wooden bridge of thirty-nine arches, and 832 ft. long, con- necting Waterford with the suburb of Ferrybank. The city is built chiefly along the banks of the river, occupying for the most part low and level ground except at its western extremity, and excepting the quay and the Mall, which connects with the southern end of the quay, its internal appearance is hardly of a piece with the beauty of its environs. The modern Protestant cathedral of the Holy Trinity, generally called Christ Church, a plain structure with a lofty spire, occupies the site of the church built by the Danes in 1096, in the Mall. Near it are the episcopal palace and deanery. There is a handsome Roman Catholic cathedral, and the training seminary for priests called St John's College deserves notice. The principal secular buildings are the town-hall, the county and city courts and prisons, the custom-house and the barracks. At the extremity of the quay is a large circular tower, called Reginald's Tower, forming at one time a portion of the city walls, and occupying the site of the tower built by Reginald the Dane in 1003. Near the summit one of the balls shot from the cannon of Cromwell while besieging the city is still embedded in the wall. Other remains of the fortifications, consisting of towers and bastions, are to be seen as in the Tramore railway sidings and in Castle Street. There are a number of hospitals and similar benevolent institutions, including the leper house founded in the reign of King John, now used practically as an infirmary. The town possesses breweries, salt-houses, foundries and flour mills; and there is a large export trade in cattle, sheep and pigs, and in agricultural produce. It is the headquarters of extensive salmon and sea fisheries. Waterford is second in importance to Cork among the ports of the south coast of Ireland. There is regular com- munication by steamer with Cork, with Dublin and Belfast, with Fishguard, Glasgow, Liverpool, Bristol, Plymouth, South- ampton, London and other ports. Local steamers ply to Dun- cannon, New Ross and other places on the neighbouring estuaries. Waterford Harbour is a winding and well-sheltered bay formed by the estuary of the river Suir, and afterwards by the joint estuary of the Nore and Barrow. Its length to the sea is about 15 m. Its entrance is 3 m. wide, and is lighted by a fixed light WATERFORD--WATERHOUSE, J. W. 37° on the ancient donjon of Hook Tower (139 ft. in height) and others. The quay, at which there is a depth of 22 ft. of water at low tide, was enlarged in 1 705 by the removal of the city walls, and is about ij m. in length. At Ferrybank, on the Kilkenny side of the river, there is a shipbuilding yard with patent slip and graving dock. By the Suir there is navigation for barges to Clonmel, and for sailing vessels to Carrick-on-Suir; by the Barrow for sailing vessels to New Ross and thence for barges to Athy, and so to Dublin by a branch of the Grand Canal ; and by the Nore for barges to Inistioge. The shores of the harbour are picturesque and well-wooded, studded with country residences and waterside villages, of which Passage and Duncannon are popular resorts of the citizens of Waterford. Anciently Waterford was called Cuan-na-groith, the haven of the sun. By early writers it was named Menapia. It is supposed to have existed in very early times, but first acquired importance under the Danes, of whom it remained one of the principal strongholds until its capture by Strongbow in 1171. On the i8th of October 1172 Henry II. landed near Waterford, and he here received the hostages of the people of Munster. It became a cathedral city in 1096. The Protestant dioceses of Cashel, Emly, Waterford and Lismore were united in 1833. Prince John, afterwards king of England, who had been declared lord of Ireland in 1 1 7 7 , landed at Waterford in 1 1 8 5 . After ascending the English throne he granted it a fair in 1204, and in 1206 a charter of incorporation. He landed at Waterford in 1210, in order to establish within his nominal territories in Ireland a more distinct form of government. The city received a new charter from Henry III. in 1 23 2. Richard II. landed at Waterford in October 1394 and again in 1399. In 1447 it was granted by Henry VI. to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who was created earl of Waterford. In 1497 it successfully resisted an attempt of Perkin Warbeck to capture it, in recognition of which it received various privileges from Henry VII., who gave it the title of urbs intacla. In 1603, after the accession of James I. to the English crown, the city, along with Cork, took a prominent part in opposition to the government and to the Protestant religion, but on the approach of Mountjoy it formally submitted. From this time, however, the magistrates whom it elected refused to take the oath of supremacy, and, as by its charter it possessed the right to refuse admission to the king's judges, and therefore to dispense with the right of holding assizes, a rule was obtained in the Irish chancery for the seizure of its charter, which was carried into effect in 1618. In 1619 an attempt was made to induce Bristol merchants to settle in the city and undertake its government, but no one would respond to the invitation, and in 1626 the charter was restored. The city was unsuccessfully attacked by Cromwell in 1649, but surrendered to Ireton on the loth of August 1650. After the battle of the Boyne James II. embarked at it for France (July 1690). Shortly afterwards it surrendered to William, who sailed from it to England. It sent two members to parliament from 1374 to 1885, when the number was reduced to one. In 1898 it was constituted one of the six county boroughs having separate county councils. WATERFORD, a village of Saratoga county, New York, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, near the mouth of the Mohawk river, and about 10 m. N. of Albany. Pop. (1900) 3146, of whom 474 were foreign-born; (1905) 3134; (1910) 3245. Waterford is served by the Delaware & Hudson rail- way, and is at the junction of the Erie and the Champlain divisions of the great barge canal connecting Lake Erie and Lake Champlain. There was a settlement here probably as early as 1630, and Waterford was laid out in 1784, and was incorporated as a village in 1794. WATERHOUSE, ALFRED (1830-1005), English architect, was born at Liverpool on the igth of July 1830, and passed his professional pupilage under Richard Lane in Manchester. His earliest commissions were of a domestic nature, but his position as a designer of public buildings was assured as early as 1859 by success in the open competition for the Manchester assize courts. This work marked him not only as an adept in the planning of a complicated building on a large scale, but also as a champion of the Gothic cause. Nine years later, in 1868, another competition secured for Waterhouse the execution of the Manchester town- hall, where he was able to show a firmer and perhaps more original handling of the Gothic manner. The same year brought him the rebuilding of part of Caius College, Cambridge, not his first uni- versity work, for Balliol, Oxford, had been put into his hands in 1867. At Caius, out of deference to the Renaissance treat- ment of the older parts of the college, the Gothic element was intentionally mingled with classic detail, while Balliol and Pembroke, Cambridge, which followed in 1871, may be looked upon as typical specimens of the style of his mid career — Gothic tradition (European rather than British) tempered by individual taste and by adaptation to modern needs. Girton College, Cambridge, a building of simpler type, dates originally from the same period (1870), but has been periodically enlarged by further buildings. Two important domestic works were undertaken in 1870 and 1871 respectively — Eaton Hall for the duke, then marquis, of Westminster, and Heythrop Hall, Oxfordshire, the latter, a restoration, being of a fairly strict classic type. Iwerne Minster for Lord Wolverton was begun in 1877. In 1865 Water- house had removed his practice from Manchester to London, and he was one of the architects selected to compete for the Royal Courts of Justice. He received from the government, without competition, the commission to build the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, a design which marks an epoch in the modern use of terra-cotta. The new University Club — a Gothic design — was undertaken in 1866, to be followed nearly twenty years later by the National Liberal Club, a study in Renaissance composition. Waterhouse's series of works for Victoria University, of which he was made LL.D. in- 1895, date from 1870, when he was first engaged on Owens College, Man- chester. Yorkshire College, Leeds, was begun in 1878; and Liverpool University College in 1885. St Paul's School, Hammer- smith, was begun in 1881, and in the same year the Central Technical College in Exhibition Road, London. Waterhouse's chief remaining works in London are the new Prudential Assur- ance Company's offices in Holborn; the new University College Hospital; the National Provincial Bank, Piccadilly, 1892; the Surveyors' Institution, Great George Street, 1896; and the Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea, 1895. For the Prudential Company he designed many provincial branch offices, while for the National Provincial Bank he also designed premises at Manchester. The Liverpool Infirmary is Water- house's largest hospital; and St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester, the Alexandra Hospital, Rhyl, and extensive additions at the general hospital, Nottingham, also engaged him. Among works not already mentioned are the Salford gaol; St Margaret's School, Bushey; the Metropole Hotel, Brighton; Hove town- hall; Alloa town-hall; St Elizabeth's church, Reddish; the Weigh House chapel, Mayfair; and Hutton Hall, Yorks. He died on the 22nd of August, 1905. Waterhouse became a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1861, and president from 1888 to 1891. He obtained a grand prix for architecture at the Paris Exposition of 1867, and a " Rappel " in 1878. In the same year he received the Royal gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and was made an associate of the Royal Academy, of which body he became a full member in 1885 and treasurer in 1898. He became a member of the academies of Vienna (1869), Brussels (1886), Antwerp (1887), Milan (1888) and Berlin (1889), and a corresponding member of the Institut de France (1893). After 1886 he was constantly called upon to act as assessor in architectural competitions, and was a member of the international jury appointed to adjudicate on the designs for the west front of Milan Cathedral in 1887. In 1890 he served as architectural member of the Royal Commission on the proposed enlargement of Westminster Abbey as a place of burial. From 1891 to 1902, when he retired, his work was conducted in partnership with his son, Paul Waterhouse. WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847- ), English painter, was the son of an artist, by whom he was mainly trained. As a figure-painter he shows in his work much imaginative power and a very personal style, and his pictures are for the most part illustrations of classic myths treated with attractive fantasy. An able draughtsman and a fine colourist, he must be ranked among the best artists of the British school. He was WATER-LILY—WATERLOO CAMPAIGN elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1885 and acade- mician in 1895. Four of his paintings, " Consulting the Oracle," " St Eulalia," " The Lady of Shalott " and " The Magic Circle," are in the National Gallery of British Art. See " J. W. Waterhouse and his Work," by A. L. Baldry, Studio, vol. iv. WATER-LILY, a name somewhat vaguely given to almost any floating plant with conspicuous flowers, but applying more especially to the species of Nymphaea, Nuphar, and other members of the order Nymphaeaceae. These are aquatic plants with thick fleshy rootstocks or tubers embedded in the mud, and throwing up to the surface circular shield-like leaves, and leafless flower-stalks, each terminated by a single flower, often of great beauty, and consisting of four or five sepals, and numer- ous petals gradually passing into the very numerous stamens without any definite line of demarcation between them. The ovary consists of numerous carpels united together and free, or more or less embedded in the top of the flower-stalk. The ovary has many cavities with a large number of ovules attached to its walls, and is surmounted by a flat stigma of many radiating rows as in a poppy. The fruit is berry-like, and the seeds are remarkable for having their embryo surrounded by an endosperm as well as by a perisperm. The anatomical construction of these plants presents many peculiarities which have given rise to discussion as to the allocation of the order among the dicotyledons or among the monocotyledons, the general balance of opinion being in favour of the former view. The leaf-stalks and flower- stalks are traversed by longitudinal air-passages, whose dis- position varies in different species. The species of Nymphaea are found in every quarter of the globe. Their flowers range from white to rose-coloured, yellow and blue. Some expand in the evening only, others close soon after noon. Nymphaea alba (Castalia alba) is common in some parts of Britain, as is also the yellow Nuphar luteum (Nymphaea lutca). The seeds and the rhizomes contain an abundance of starch, which renders them serviceable in some places for food. Of recent years great strides have been made in the culture of new varieties of water-lilies in the open air. Many beautiful Nymphaea hybrids have been raised between the tender and hardy varieties of different colours, and there are now in com- merce lovely forms having not only white, but also yellow, rose, pink and carmine flowers. In many gardens open-air tanks have been fitted up with hot-water pipes running through them to keep the water sufficiently warm in severe weather. The open-air water-lily tank in the Royal gardens, Kew, is one of the latest and most up-to-date in construction. These coloured hybrids were originated by M. Latour Marliac, of Temple-sur-Lot, France, some of the most favoured varieties being cornea, chroma- tella, flammea, ignea, rosea, Robinsoni, Aurora, blanda, &c. Amongst hardy species of Nymphaea now much grown are Candida, nitida, odorata, pygmaea and tuberosa, all with white, more or less sweet-scented flowers ; flava, yellow, and sphaerocarpa, rpsed declared that Ney had ruined France? This was tumult ot the fatal mistake of the campaign, and Fortune turned Welling- now against her former favourite. Although the smouldering fires of his old energy flamed out once more and Napoleon began a rapid pursuit of the cavalry screen, which crumpled up and decamped as he advanced, yet all his efforts were powerless to entangle the Anglo-Dutch rearguard in such an extent that Wellington must turn back to its assist- ance. The pursuit, too, was carried out in the midst of a tropical thunderstorm which broke at the roar of the opening cannonade, and very considerably retarded the French pursuit. It was not until the light was failing that Napoleon reached the heights of Rossomme opposite to Wellington's position and, by a masterly reconnaissance in force, compelled the duke to disclose the pres- ence of practically the whole Anglo-Dutch army. The French halted, somewhat loosened by pursuit, between Rossomme and Genappe and spent a wretched night in the sodden fields. During the night Wellington received the reassuring news that Blucher would bring two corps certainly, and possibly four, to Waterloo, and determined to accept battle. Napoleon's plan being to penetrate between the allies and then defeat them successively, the left was really the threatened flank of the Anglo-Dutch army. Yet so far was Wellington from divining Napoleon's object that he stationed 17,000 men (including Colville's British division) at Hal and Tubize, 8 m. away to his right, to repel the turning movement that he ground- lessly anticipated and to form a rallying point for his right in case his centre was broken. By deliberately depriving himself of this detachment, on June 18, the duke ran a very grave risk. With the 67,600 men whom he had in hand, however, he took up a truly admirable " Wellingtonian " position astride the Nivelles-Brussels and Charleroi-Brussels roads which meet at Mt S. Jean. He used a low ridge to screen his main defensive position, exposing comparatively few troops in front of the crest. Of his 156 guns, 78 belonged to the British artillery; but of his 67,600 men only 29,800 were British or King's German Legion troops, whereas all Napoleon's were Frenchmen and veterans. Wellington occupied Hougoumont in strength, chiefly with detachments of the British Guards; and he also placed a garrison of the K.G.L. in La Haye Sainte, the tactical key of the allied position. Both these farms were strengthened; but, still nervous about his right flank, the duke occupied Hougoumont in much greater force than La Haye Sainte, and massed the bulk of his troops on his right. The main position was very skilfully taken up, and care was taken to distribute the troops so that the indifferent and immature were closely supported by those who were " better disciplined and more accustomed to war." Owing to a misconception, one Dutch-Belgian brigade formed up in front of the ridge. Full arrangements were made for BlUcher's co-operation through General Muffling, the Prussian attache on the duke's staff. The duke was to stand fast to receive the attack, whilst the Prussians should close round Napoleon's exposed right and support Wellington's left. The Prussians were thus the real general reserve, and it was Wellington's task to receive Napoleon's attack and prepare him for the decisive counter-stroke. Blucher loyally kept his promise to his ally; but the execution left much to be desired. He did not start his corps on their westward march until a considerable time after dawn, and then, owing to bad staff work, the rear corps of all (Biilow) was selected to lead the march. This unnecessary delay was aggravated further by a fire that broke out in Wavre and delayed the march. In spite of his hurts the old marshal was in the saddle. Meanwhile Napoleon formed his army for the attack on Wellington's position. The wet state of the ground (largely composed of corn-fields) and the scattered bivouacs of the French army prevented the attack from being made at 6 A.M. as Napoleon had desired. It was therefore put off first of all until o A.M., and later until 11.30, to permit the sodden ground to dry sufficiently for the mounted arms to manoeuvre freely and give time to the French army to close up. During the night the emperor had received a report from Marshal Grouchy, dated Gembloux, 10 P.M., I7th, which stated that the Prussians were retiring in two columns towards Wavre and Perwez. Grouchy added that if he found that the bulk of the Prussians were moving on Wavre he would follow them and separate them from Wellington. But a glance at the map shows that this was impossible. By following the Prussians Grouchy, who had taken up a position outside the Prussian left flank, would inevitably drive the allies together. It was 10 A.M. when the emperor answered this letter, and he directed the marshal to march for Wavre, thus approaching the French army and entering the zone of the main operations. The underlying idea of manceuvring in two wings and a reserve should be kept in mind when considering this letter. Its meaning will then clearly be, that Grouchy was to endeavour to place his force on the inner Prussian flank and hold them back from Waterloo. But this is just what the despatch does not state verbally and precisely, and accordingly Grouchy, like Ney on the i6th and I7th, misread it. The French army proceeded to form up in an imposing an-ay some 1300 yards from Wellington's position, and if some mis- givings as to the result filled the minds of men like Soult, Reillc and Foy, who had had previous experience of Wellington in the field, none at any rate dwelt in Napoleon's mind. The lateness of the hour at which the attack was delivered, and the emperor's determination to break Wellington's centre instead of outflanking the Anglo-Dutch left and further separating the allies, deprived him of whatever chance he still possessed of beating Wellington before Blucher could intervene. Napoleon drew up his army of 74,000 men and 246 guns in three lines, fully in view of the allies. In the first line were the corps of Reille and D'Erlon, who were destined to attack the allied line and prepare it for the final assault. In the second line were Kellermann's cuirassiers, the incomplete corps of Lobau, the squadrons of Demon and Subervie, and Milhaud's cuirassiers. In the third line was the Guard. It was an imposing array of veteran troops, and when their emperor rode along the lines they received him with extraordinary enthusiasm. The battle of Waterloo may be divided into five phases. About 11.30 the first phase opened with an attack by one of Reille's divisions on Hougoumont. This was a mere side-issue, destined to draw Wellington's attention JJ^"***1' to his right, and in this it failed. About noon, how- pi,*se. ever, a battery of 80 French guns unlimbered on the long spur to the S.E. of La Haye Sainte, to prepare the duke's centre for the main attack. Here the form of the ground so skilfully chosen sheltered the defence in some degree from the tempest of iron that now beat against the position. After i P.M., and just before he gave orders for Ney to lead the main attack, the emperor scanned the battlefield, and on his right front he saw a dense dark cloud emerging from the woods at Chapelle Saint Lambert. It was soon discovered that this was Billow's corps marching to Wellington's assistance. A letter was now awaiting despatch to Grouchy, and to it was added a postscript that the battle was raging with Wellington, that Billow's corps had been sighted by the emperor, and that the marshal was to hasten to the field and crush Biilow. This order at least was precise and clear, but it was sent 1 2 hours too late, and when Grouchy received it he was unable to carry it out. To neutralize Biilow when necessity arose, the emperor now detached Lobau together with the squadrons of Demon and Subervie. The French general, however, hardly drew out far enough from the French right; otherwise the magnificent resolution he displayed and the admirable obstinacy with which his troops fought against ever-increasing odds are worthy of all praise. Thus as early as 1.30 P.M. the Prussian interven- tion deranged the symmetry of Napoleon's battle-array. It did not occur to the emperor that it would be wise to break off the fight now and seek a more favourable opportunity of beating the allies in detail. He was still determined to play the game out to the bitter end, and involve Wellington and Billow's corps in a common ruin. 38o WATERLOO CAMPAIGN • French Troops. ...._^HmAnQlo-Dutclt Troops.^,} 1 Prussian 7Voopc,.w •r Lobmi 2nd.position\L^ Anglo-Dutch Shlrmithers ooo Approximate Contour MAP III. Second phase. Ney was therefore ordered to attack Wellington's centre with D'Erlon's corps. Owing to a misconception the columns used for advance were over-heavy and unwieldy, and the corps failed to achieve anything of importance. As D'Erlon's troops advanced the Dutch-Belgian brigade in front of the ridge, which had been subjected to an overwhelm- ing fire from the 80 French guns at close range, turned about and retired in disorder through the main position. This, however, was the solitary success secured by the I. corps; for the left division failed to storm La Haye Sainte, which was most gallantly defended, and Picton's division met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps face to face, engaging them in a murderous infantry duel in which Picton fell. It was during this struggle that Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades on the enemy; and the " Union brigade " catching the French infantry unawares rode over them, broke them up, and drove them to the bottom of the slope with the loss of two eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen hurled on them by the emperor, were driven back with great loss. So far no success against Wellington had been achieved, and Billow was still an onlooker. Ney was now ordered to attack La Haye Sainte again, but the attack failed. A furious cannonade raged, and the Anglo-Dutch line withdrew slightly to gain more cover from the ridge. Ney misinterpreted this manoeuvre and led out, about 4 P.M., Milhaud's and Lefebvre-Desnouettes' horsemen (43 squadrons) to charge the allied centre between the two farms. For several reasons, the cavalry could only advance at a trot. As the horsemen closed they were received with Third phase. volleys of case from the guns, and the infantry formed into squares. Against the squares the horsemen were powerless, and failing to break a single square, they were finally swept off the plateau by fresh allied horsemen. Kellermann's cuirassiers and the heavy horse of the Guard (37 fresh squadrons) now advanced to support the baffled cavalry, the latter falling in as supports. The whole 80 squadrons resumed the attack, but with no better result. The cavalry gradually became hopelessly entangled among the squares they were unable to break, and at last they were driven down the face of the ridge and the most dramatic part of the battle came to an end. Had these great cavalry attacks been closely supported by infantry, there can be little doubt that they must have achieved their object. But they were not. In his handling of the three arms together, Napoleon on this day failed to do justice to his reputation. About 4.30 P.M. Billow at last engaged. Lobau's men were gradually overpowered and forced back into Plancenoit, the village was stormed, and the Prussian round shot reached the main road. To set his right flank free the emperor called further on his reserve, and sent Duhesme with the Young Guard to Lobau's support. Together, these troops drove Billow out of Plancenoit, and forced him back towards the Paris wood. But the Prussians had not yet changed the fate of the day. Napoleon now ordered Ney to carry La Haye Sainte at what- ever cost, and this the marshal accomplished with the wrecks of D'Erlon's corps soon after 6 P.M. The garrison (King's German Legion) had run out of rifle ammuni- phase. tion and the French bursting in seized the post. This was the first decided advantage that Napoleon had gained during WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH— WATERLOW Fifth phase the day. The key of the duke's position was now in Napoleon's hands, Wellington's centre was dangerously shaken, the troops were exhausted, and the reserves inadequate. But the Iron Duke faced the situation unmoved. Calmly he readjusted his line and strengthened the torn centre. Happily for him, Pirch I.'s and Zieten's corps were now at hand. Pirch I. moved to support Billow; together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. Napoleon, therefore, had to free his right flank before he could make use of Ney's capture. To this end he sent two battalions of the Old Guard to storm Plancenoit. The veterans did the work magnificently with the bayonet, ousted the Prussians from the place, and drove them back 600 yards beyond it. But Napoleon could not turn now on Wellington. Zieten was fast coming up on the duke's left, and the crisis was past. Zieten's advent permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on the duke's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. The value of this reinforcement at this particular moment can hardly be overestimated. The French army now fiercely attacked Wellington all along the line; and the culminating point of this phase was reached when Napoleon sent forward the Guard, less 5 battalions, to attack Wellington's centre. Delivered in three Echelons, these final attacks were repulsed, the first Schelon by Colin Halkett's British Brigade, a Dutch-Belgian battery, and a brigade of Chasse's Dutch-Belgian division; the second and third echelons by the Guards, the 52nd, and the Royal Artillery. Thus ended the fifth phase. As the Guard recoiled (about 8 P.M.) Zieten pierced the north- east corner of the French front, and their whole line gave way as the allies rushed forward on their now defenceless Fnach '*" Prev • Tnree battalions of the Guard indeed stood their ground for some time, but they were finally over- whelmed. Afterwards, amidst the ruins of their army, two battalions of the ist Grenadiers of the Guard defied all efforts to break them. But, with the exception of these two battalions, the French army was quickly transformed into a flying rabble. Biilow and Pirch I. now finally overpowered Lobau, once more recaptured Plancenoit, and sealed the doom of the French army. But Lobau 's heroic efforts had not been in vain; they had given his master time to make his last effort against Wellington; and when the Guard was beaten back the French troops holding Plancenoit kept free the Charleroi road, and prevented the Prussians from seizing Napoleon's line of retreat. When Wellington and Bliicher met about 9.15 P.M. at " La Belle Alliance, " the victorious chiefs arranged that the Prussians should take up the pursuit, and they faithfully carried out the agreement. Pushing on through the night, they drove the French out of seven successive bivouacs and at length drove them over the Sambre. The campaign was virtually at an end, and the price paid was great. The French had lost over 40,000 men and almost all their artillery on June 18; the Prussians lost 7000, and Wellington over 15,000 men. So desperate was the fighting that some 45,000 killed and wounded lay on an area of roughly 3 sq. m. At one point on the plateau "the 27th (Inniskillings) were lying literally dead in square "; and the position that the British infantry held was plainly marked by the red line of dead and wounded they left behind them. A few words may now be bestowed on Marshal Grouchy, commanding the right wing. The marshal wrongly determined Orouchy's on tne X8th to continue his march to Wavre in a single operations column, and he determined, still more wrongly, to June move by the right bank of the Dyle. Breaking up from bivouac long after dawn, he marched forward, via Walhain. Here he stopped to report to the emperor some intelligence which turned out to be false, and he remained for breakfast. Hardly had he finished when the opening roar of the cannonade at Waterloo was heard. Grouchy was now urged by his generals, especially by Gerard, to march to the sound of the firing, but he refused to take their advice, and pushed on to Wavre, where he found the Prussians (Thielemann's corps of 16,000 men) holding the passages across the Dyle. A fierce fight (called the Action of Wavre) began about 4 P.M., in which the Prussians were for long victorious. Instead of concentrating his force upon one bridge over the swampy and unfordable Dyle, Grouchy scattered it in attacks upon several; and when the emperor's despatch arrived, saying Btilow was in sight, the marshal was powerless to move westward. Towards the end of the day Colonel Vallin's Hussars stormed the Limale bridge, and a large part of Grouchy's force then promptly gained the left bank. The action continued til! about 1 1 P.M., when it died out, to recommence shortly after dawn. Thielemann was at length overborne by sheer weight of numbers, and towards n A.M. he was forced to retire towards Louvain. The losses were con- siderable, about 2400 men on each side. Grouchy's victory was barren. In the far higher duty of co- operation he had failed miserably. His tactical achievement could avail the emperor nothing, and it exposed his own force to considerable danger. Whilst pondering on the course he should follow, the marshal received the news of the.awful disaster that had oyertaken-the emperor at Waterloo. In a flash he-realized his danger and made prompt arrangements to begin his retreat on Namur, the only line to France that was then available. This retreat he carried out resolutely, skilfully and rapidly, slipping past Bliicher and finally bringing his force to Paris. But the rapid advance of the allies gave France no time to rally. Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and finding escape was impos- sible, he surrendered (on July 14) to the British — " the most powerful, the most unwavering and the most generous of his foes." The causes of Napoleon's failure in the Waterloo campaign were as follows: — The French army was numerically too weak for the gigantic task it undertook. Napoleon himself was no longer the Napoleon of Marengo or Austerhtz, and though he was not Droken down, his physical strength was certainly impaired. 'Ney failed to grasp and hold Wellington on the critical I7th June; and on the I7th and i8th Grouchy's feeble and false manoeuvres enabled Bliicher to march and join Wellington at Waterloo. Napoleon's chance of success was dangerously diminished, if not utterly de- stroyed, by the incompetence of the two marshals whom in an evil hour he selected for high commands. Another dominant influence in shaping the course of events was the loyalty of Bliicher to his ally, and the consequent appearance of the Prussian army at Waterloo. Nor must we overlook Wellington's unswerving determination to co-operate with Bliicher at all costs, and his firmness on June 18; or the invincible steadiness shewn by the British troops and those of the King's German Legion. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Some of the principal books on the campaign are : Colonel Grouard, Critique de 1813; H. Houssaye, Waterloo; General Pollio, Waterloo (ltf/5); Shaw-Kennedy, BoMle of Waterloo; Captain W. Siborne, 9th Foot, History of the Waterloo Campaign ; Clausewitz, Campagne de 1815; Colonel Charras, Histoire de la Campagne de 1815, Waterloo; L. Navez, Les Quatre Bras, Ligny, Waterloo et Wavre; General H. T. Siborne, R.E., Waterloo Letters; Colonel Chesney, Waterloo Lectures; Wellington, Despatches and Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo; Correspondence and Com- mentaires of Napoleon. In this article the writer has been greatly assisted by the advice and suggestions of Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, R.A. (A. F. B.*) WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH, an urban district in the Bootle and Onnskirk parliamentary divisions of Lancashire, England/at the mouth of the Mersey, 4 m. N. by W. of Liverpool. Pop. (1891) 17,225; (1901) 23,102. On account of its facilities for bathing, firm sands, pleasant scenery and nearness to Liver- pool, of which it is a suburb, it is much frequented both by visitors and by residents. WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850- ), English painter, was born in London, and received the main part of his art education in the Royal Academy schools, where, in 1873, he gained the Turner medal for landscape-painting. He was elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours in 1880, member in 1894, and president in* 1897; associate of the Royal Academy in 1890, and academician in 1903"; and he was knighted in 1902. He began to exhibit in 1872 and has produced a considerable number of admirable landscapes, in oil and water-colour, handled with grace and distinction. One of his pictures, " Galway Gossips, " is in the National Gallery of British Art. See Sir E. A. Waterlow, R.A., P.R.W.S., by C. Collins Baker (Art Journal Office, 1906). 382 WATER MOTORS i, WATER MOTORS. The subject of hydraulic transmission of power is treated generally under POWER TRANSMISSION (Hydraulic), and the present article is confined to water motors. Hydraulic Lifts.— The direct-acting lift is perhaps the simplest of all machines using pressure-water, but as the height of the lift increases, certain problems in construction become exceedingly difficult to cope with, notably those due to the great increase in the weight and displacement of the ram. In fact, with a simple ram it is not possible to lift beyond a certain height with a given pressure and load. It becomes, therefore, necessary to balance in some way the varying displacement of the ram if economy is to be secured in the working: this is often done by the use of counter-weights attached to chains travelling over head sheaves, but this largely destroys the simplicity and safety of the direct-acting lift, and hence some form of hydraulic balancing is more satisfactory and more certain. In one form, shown in fig. I, the lift cylinder is in hydraulic connexion with a pair of short cylinders placed one above the other, the pistons working in them being connected together by a common rod. Below the piston of the upper cylinder is an annular space E (surrounding the common piston rod) with a capacity equal to the maximum displacement of the lift- ram, while the corresponding annular area C of the piston of the lower cylinder is just large enough when subjected to the working water pressure to enable the work of lifting the net load to be done and any friction to be overcome. The area B of the top side of the upper piston is proportioned in suet a way that when under the ful water pressure the dead weight ol the ram and cage is just balancec when the former is at the bottom of its stroke. With this arrange- ment the lift - ram and the two balance pistons are always in equi- librium, or, in other words, the ever-changing displacement of the lift-ram is automatically in balance To work the lift, pressure- water is admitted to the annular space C above the lower of the two balance pistons (the space B above the upper one is always in communication with the pressure- water), and tht combined pressure on the two pis tons is sufficient to lift the cage ram and load. As the ram ascend' it apparently increases in weight but this is balanced by the greate pressure on the two balance piston as they descend, owing to the in crease of the head of water acting on them. To allow the lift-ram to descend, the pressure-water in ( above the lower balance piston i discharged through the exhaust inti the drain, while that above th upper piston is simply pushed bad into the pressure main. As ar illustration of the economy of thi system, it may be mentioned tha in one lift having a 6-in. ram with i lift of 90 ft., the working load bein I ton and the maximum workin; speed 1 80 ft. a minute, the quantit of pressure-water used per journey o 90 ft. was reduced from 109 to 24 gallons by the use of this method o balancing. From Supply] FIG. I. — Hydraulic; Balancing. In another system of hydraulic balance (fig. 2) the ram A has a annular area so proportioned that when it is connected with th water in an elevated tank (usually placed somewhere in the roof o the building), the hydraulic pressure upon it just balances the weigh of the ram and cage. Here again, since the intensity of the pressur on A becomes greater as it descends owing to the increased head, th apparent increase of weight of the lift-ram as it rises is automatical!' balanced ; water from the high-pressure system is admitted dow the hollow ram B and does the work of lifting the live load. Since the introduction of deep-level electric railways in Londo nd elsewhere, hydraulic passenger lifts on a large scale have been irought into use for conveying passengers up and down from the treet level to the underground stations. Direct-acting Water Motors. — Owing to the difficulty of securing a durable motor with a simple and trustworthy means of auto- matically regulating the quantity of water used o the power needed at various times from he motor, not much advance has been ecently made in the use of water motors with reciprocating rams or pistons. Prob- ably the most successful one has been a •otary engine invented by Mr Arthur Rigg.1 In this engine the stroke, and therefore the amount of water used, can be varied either by land or by a governor while it is running; the speed can also be varied, very high rates, as much as 600 revolutions a minute, being attain- able without the question of shock or vibration jecoming troublesome. The cylinders are cast n one piece with a circular valve, and rotate about a main stud S (fig. 3), while their alungers are connected to a disk crank which rotates above the point O, which is the centre of the main crank; O S being the crank length or half stroke of the engine, any variation in its length will vary the power of Che engine and at the same time the quantity of water used. The movement of S is obtained by means of a relay engine, in which there are two rams of different qiameters; a constant pressure is always acting on the smaller of these when the motor is at work, while the governor (or hand- power if desired) admits or exhausts pressure- water from the face of the other, and the move- ments to and fro thus given to the two rams alter the position of the stud S, and thus change the stroke of the plungers of the main engine. Fig. 4 gives an outside view of a 3O-H.P. engine capable of using water at a pressure of 700 ft per sq. in.; the governor is carried within the driving pulley shown at the right-hand end, while the working revolving cylinders are carried insic'e the boxed-in flywheel at the left-hand end, the relay cylinder and its attachments being fixed to the bed-plate in front of the flywheel. On a test one of these engines gave an efficiency or duty of 80%. Water Wheels. — The Pelton water wheel (fig. 5) has proved a most successful motor when very high heads are available, heads of 2000 feet having been used occasionally. Such machines have been extensively em- ployed in America, and have also lately been used in Great Britain, worked by the high-pressure water supplied in large towns. The wheel carries a series of cups placed at egual distances around the circumference. A jet or jets of water impinge on the cups, the interiors of which are shaped in such a way that the jet is discharged parallel to its original direction. If the linear velocity of the cups in feet a second is Vi, and the linear velocity of the jet is \t, then the velocity of the jet relative to the cup is Vz— Vi feet a second, and if the whole energy of the water is to be given up to the cups, the water must leave the cup with zero absolute velocity. But its velocity relative to the cup, as it passes back- wards, is — (V2 — Vi), and since the forward velocity of the cup is Vi, the abso- lute velocity of the water is -(V2-y,)+V,or2VI-V?. This will become zero if Vi is |V2, that is, if the linear velocity of the cup- centres is one-half that of the jet of water impinging upon them. The theoretical efficiency of the wheel would then be 1 00%. The actual efficiency of these wheels when used with high FIG. 3.— Section of Rigg's Water- Engine. falls is from 80 to 86%; when WI1CC13 W1ICTII UO^VJ »*»ci» »*•&" - used in connexion with high-pressure water in London an el 1 This engine was fully described in Engineering, vol. xlv p. 61. WATER MOTORS 383 of 70% has been obtained, and when a dynamo is driven directly by them about 66 % of the hydraulic energy has been converted into electric energy. Pelton wheels are very sensitive to variation of load, and con- siderable trouble was experienced at first in securing adequate FIG. 4. — External View of Rigg's Water-Engine. l governing when they were used to generate electric energy; but this difficulty has been overcome, and they have been rendered most efficient machines for use with high falls, where ordinary turbines would be difficult to manage owing to the excessive speed at which they would run. In a small installation in the United States water is brought in a 36-in. pipe a distance of 1800 ft., and supplies six Pelton wheels each 28 in. in diameter, running at 135 revolutions a minute under a head of 130 ft. The total power developed is 600 H.P., and though the load factor varies very greatly in this case, the differential type of governor used secures perfect control of the running of the wheels. Turbines. — The turbine has now become one of the most efficient of the prime movers employed by man, and in the United States of America and on the continent of Europe2 its use has enormously increased of recent years. Though no radical changes have been made in the design of tur- bines for some years, an immense amount of skill and ingenuity has been shown in perfecting and improving details, and such machines of great size and power are now constantly being made, and give every satisfaction when in use. In the " Hercules " turbine, shown in fig. 6, the flow is what is called mixed, that is, it is partly a radial inward and partly an axial flow machine. On entering, the water flows at first in a radial direction, and then gradually, as it passes through the wheel, it receives a downward component which becomes more and more important. Professor Thurston has published the results of a test 1 This and some of the other drawings have been taken from Blaine's Hydraulic Machinery. * The following statistics of turbine construction in Switzerland arc taken from Schweizerische Bauzeitung (IQOI), p. 128, which, in the same volume at p. 53, contains a valuable article on the most important improvements in turbines and their regulation shown in the Paris Exhibition of 1901 : — FIG. 5.— Pelton Wheel. Period. Number of Turbines. Total H.P. Averaee H.P 1844-1869 1869-1879 1879-1889 1889-1899 Totals 767 1006 1840 2231 36,894 66,688 133.579 400,474 48 661 72* I79J 5844 637.635 of one of these, which gave an efficiency of 87 % at full load and 70% at about three-fifths full load. Another turbine of the mixed flow type is the " Victor," which consists of three parts — the outer guide case, and, inside this, the register gate, and the wheel. The gate regulates the speed of the wheel by varying the quantity of water ; when fully open it merely forms a continuation of the guide passages, and thus offers no obstruction to the flow of the water, but by giving it a movement through a part of a revolution the passages are partly blocked and the flow of the water is checked. This form of regulation is fairly efficient down to three-quarter opening. Turbines of this type may also be used on horizontal shafts, and are very useful in the case of low falls where there is a large amount of water and the head is fairly constant. At Massena, in New York State, 75,000 H.P. is to be developed from fifteen sets of these turbines working under a head of 40 ft. Each generator can develop 5000 H.P. at a potential of 2200 volts, and is driven by three horizontal double turbines on the same shaft; when working under a minimum head of 32 ft, at 150 revolutions, each turbine will have a nominal horse- power of looo. Probably the most important application of turbines to the generation of power on a great scale is that at Niagara Falls. The water is tapped off from the river Niagara about i m. above the falls and brought by a canal to the power- house. The wheel-pit is 180 ft. in depth, and is connected with the river below the falls by a tail-race, consisting of a tunnel 21 ft. high and 18 ft. 10 in. wide at its largest section. The original turbines were of the " Fourneyron " type, and a pai/ were mounted on each vertical shaft, the two being capable of giving out 5000 H.P. with a fall of 136 ft. Each pair of wheels is built in three storeys, and the outflow of the water is controlled by a cylindrical gate or sluice, which is moved up and down by the action of the governor. As the pair of wheels and the big vertical shaft (which is of hollow steel 38 in. in diameter) with the revolving part of the dynamo mounted on the upper end of the shaft weigh about 152,000 ft, a special device, since adopted in other similar power plants, was designed to balance in part this FIG. 6. — " Hercules " Turbine. dead weight. The water passes from the penstock through the guide blades of the upper wheel, and in doing so acts in an upward direction on a cover of the upper wheel, which thus becomes, as it were, a balance-piston. The total upward pressure on this piston is cal- culated to be equal to 150,000 Ib; hence the shaft-bearings are practically relieved from pressure when the wheels are running. Another turbine which has come into extensive use is the " Francis, ' an exceedingly efficient turbine on a low fall with large quantities of water. At Schaffhausen two of them with a fall of 12 J ft. de- veloped 430 H.P., when the older turbines only gave 260 H.P., the WATER-OPOSSUM—WATER POLO efficiency of the Francis turbine being in this case 86 % at full load and 77 % at half load. A recent form of the Jonval turbine is shown in fig. 7. This turbine was designed to give 1250 H.P. with a fall of 25 ft. and an efficiency of 77 %. It is fitted with a suction pipe and a circular balanced sluice for admitting and cutting off the water-supply. The wheel is 12 ft. 3^ in. in diameter, and has a speed of fifty revolu- tions per minute, and the power generated is transmitted through bevel-gearing to a horizontal shaft from which the power is taken FIG. 7. — Jonval Turbine. off for various purposes. When complete the turbine weighed about 140 tons. There is a regulating arrangement, by which one- half of the guide-passages can be shut off in pairs from the water, and at the same time air is freely admitted into these Unused passages by pipes which pass through the hinges of the controlling shutter. Tests of a turbine of this slow-moving type showed an efficiency of 82 % at full gate, and one of 75 % when half of the passages in the guide-blades were closed by the shutters, as described above. As an illustration of the use of water-power, even at a considerable distance from a town, the case of Lausanne may be described. The town has secured the right of using a waterfall of 113 to 118 ft. high, by impounding the Rh6nenear Saint Maurice. In dry seasons this will supply 6000 H.P., and for quite ten months in an ordinary year 14,000 H.P. The plant in 1902 consisted of five turbines, having horizontal axles, and each developing 1000 H.P. when running at 300 revolutions a minute. They drive electric generators, and the current so produced is taken at a pressure of 22,000 volts on overhead wires a distance of 35 m. to Lausanne, the loss being estimated not to exceed 10% in the long transmission. Near the town is a station for reducing the voltage, and current is distributed at 125 volts for lighting purposes and at 500 volts for use on the tramways and for other power purposes. AUTHORITIES. — For further information concerning the construc- tion and employment of water motors, the reader is referred to the following papers and textbooks : — Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1882), p.H9 (1889), p. 350; (1895), p. 353. (These papers contain full accounts of recent forms of lifts.) — Engineering, vol. Ixvii. pp. 91, 128, 160, " Power Station at Niagara ; vol. Txxii. pp. 391-767, "Govern- ing of Water Wheels." — Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. Ixxxvi. p. 60, "Mersey Railway Lifts"; vol. xciii. p. 596, "Experiments on Jonval and Girard Turbines at Alching ''; vol. xcvi. p. 182, " Hy- draulic Canal Lifts"; vol. cii. p. 154, " Keswick Water-Power Electric Station " ; vol. cxii. p. 410, " Hydraulic Works at Niagara " ; vol. cxviii. p. 537, " A 12-Mile Transmission of Power Generated by Pelton Wheels "; vol. cxxiii. p. 530, " The Pelton Water Wheel "; vol. cxxiv. p. 223, "The Niagara Power Works"; vol. cxxvi. p. 494, "The Rheinfelden Power Transmission Plant "; vol. cxli. p. 269, " Electric Transmission Plants in Transvaal," p. 307, " Tur- bines "; vol. cxlii. p. 451, " Electrical Installations at Lausanne "; vol. cxlv. p. 423, Water Power at Massena "; vol. cxlvii. p. 467, "Some Large Turbine Installations." — Wood, Theory of Turbines; Bovey, Hydraulics; Bjorling, Hydraulic Motors; Elaine, Hydraulic Machinery; Bodmer, Hydraulic Motors; Unwin, "Water Motors" (Lectures on Hydro-Mechanics, Inst. Civil Eng., 1885). (T. H. B.) WATER-OPOSSUM, or YAPOCK (Chironectes minimus), the single representative of the genus. This animal is distinguished from other opossums by its webbed hind-feet, non-tuberculated soles, and peculiar coloration. Its ground colour is light grey, with four or five sharply contrasted brown bands passing across its head and back, giving it a very peculiar mottled appearance; the head and body together are about 14 in. long, and the tail measures a little more. It is almost wholly aquatic in its habits, living on small fish, crustaceans and other water animals; it range extends from Guatemala to southern Braz.il. WATER POLO, a game which has done much to advanc swimming in popular favour and to improve the stamina swimmers. It is played either in a bath or open water, the teams consisting of seven a side. The field of play must not exceed 30 yds. or be less than 19 yds. in length, and the width must not be more than 20 yds. The ball used must be round and fully inflated, and must not measure less than 265, nor more than 28 in. in circumference. It must be waterproof, with no strapped seams outside, and no grease or other objectionable substance placed on it. The goals must be 10 ft. in width, with a cross-bar 3 ft. above the surface when the water is 5 ft. or over in depth, and 8 ft. from the bottom when the water is less than 5 ft. in depth; in no case must the water in which a game is played be less than 3 ft. Goal nets are used in all important matches. The duration of a match is supposed to be 14 minutes, seven minutes each way. The officials consist of a referee, a time- keeper and two goal scorers, the first-named official starting the game by throwing the ball into the centre of the bath. A goal is scored by the entire ball passing between the goal posts and under the cross-bar. The players have to place themselves in a line with their respective goals, and are not allowed to start swimming to the centre of the bath until the word " Go " is given. They are usually divided into 3 forwards, I half-back, 2 backs and a goalkeeper. To the fastest swimmer is usually assigned the place of centre-forward, and it is his duty to make all headway possible so as to reach the ball before the opposing forward of the other side, then pass rapidly back to the half or one of the backs and swim on to within close proximity of the opponent's goal and wait for a pass. The other forwards should rapidly follow him up and each man carefully shadow one of the opposing side. In handling the ball only one hand may be used, for to touch the ball with both hands at the same time constitutes a foul, as also does the holding of the rail or the side, during any part of the game, the standing on or touching of the bottom of the bath except for the purpose of resting, interfering or impeding an opponent in any way, unless he be holding the ball, holding the ball under water when tackled, jumping from the bottom or pushing off from the side (except at starting or restarting) in order to play the ball or duck an opponent, holding, pulling back or pushing off from an opponent, turning on the back to kick at an opponent, assisting a player at the start or restart to get a good push off, throwing the ball at the goalkeeper from a free throw or refusing to play the ball at the command of the referee after a foul or the ball has been out of the field of play. Dribbling or striking the ball is held to be not holding, but lifting, carrying, pressing under water or placing the hand under or over the ball when actually touching, is holding; dribbling up the bath and through the posts is permissible. There is a penalty area, 4 yds. from each goal-post, and the imaginary line across the bath is not allowed to be passed by the respective goal- keepers, otherwise they commit a foul. They may stand to defend their goal, touch the ball with both hands or jump from the bottom to play the ball, but in all other respects the same rules as to fouls apply to them as to other players. In any case they are not allowed to throw the ball beyond half -distance. If they do so the opposing side is awarded a free throw. For fouls which the referee considers to have been committed wilfully there are very severe penalties, and those guilty of them are ordered out of the water until a goal has been scored, thus for the time being crippling the side. Deliberately wasting time, starting before the word " Go," taking up a position within 2 yds. of the opponent's goal, changing position after the whistle has blown for a free throw or other similar stoppage of play, or deliberately splashing an opponent in the face, are all held to be wilful fouls. Whenever the whistle blows for fouls the players have to remain in their respective places until the ball has left the hand of the player to whom the free throw was awarded. A player who has been wilfully fouled within 4 yds. of his opponent's goal line is given a penalty throw, and the consequence is that a close match is often won by reason of a player deliberately breaking the rules when his goal is hotly assailed. In ordinary fouls the ball must touch another player before a goal can be scored, but in penalty throws it need not. Any player throwing the ball over his own goal line concedes a corner throw to the other side, but if an opposing player sends it over it is a free throw for the goalkeeper. After each goal is scored the players return to their respective ends, waiting for the word " Go, and at half-time they are allowed a rest of three minutes, during which they leave the water. Fouls, half-time and time are declared by whistle, and goals by bell. The game requires careful practice of smart and scientific passing, side and back-handed throws, and accurate shooting. For this purpose " throwing the water-polo ball " contests are commonly held by the leading clubs, who also engineer competitions on points for shooting at goal. WATER RIGHTS 385 , It was not until the formation of the London Water Polo League in 1889 that the game was specially catered for, but a form of it had previously been known and played in several parts of England and Scotland. In 1870 the old London Swim- ming Association, the forerunner of the present Amateur Swimming Association, appointed a committee to draw up rules for a game of " Football in the water," but no report of that committee appears to have been presented. In 1876 aquatic handball matches were played in the sea off Bournemouth by members of the Bournemouth Premier Rowing Club, and in 1877 there were similar matches at the annual competition for the Bon Accord Club in the river Dee, and a year prior to that some rules had been drawn up for the Aberdeen Club. The game at length found its way to the Midlands, and led to the foundation of the Midland Aquatic Football Association, whose rules were somewhat similar to those in vogue in America, where goals are scored by placing the ball in a marked-out space called " goal." In 1883 Birmingham Leander played All England at Portsmouth; in 1885 the Amateur Swimming Association took official recognition of the game, and in 1888 started the English championship, this being won the first year by Burton-on-Trent. Then came the foundation of the London Water Polo League, through whose agency county associations came into being, inter-county matches were played, and international games arranged. The first county matches were played in 1890, and the first international the same year, the game being between England and Scotland at Kensington Baths on 28th July. England was beaten by four goals to none, but the outcome of the match was the cementing of friendly relations between the English and Scottish associations, and the gradual spread of the game, until the English, Irish, Scottish and Welsh associa- tions joined together and formed an international board, without whose sanction none of the rules of the game can now be altered. Oxford and Cambridge met for the first time in 1891, and since then the Blues' committee of each university have given swimming and water polo a " half blue." The eame has become popular in many European countries, and friendly matches between English and continental clubs are frequently played. It has also extended to Egypt, India and Australia, in which countries the British rules have been adopted. See the Amateur Swimming Association's Handbook for rules of the game and instructions to referees. (W. Hy.) WATER RIGHTS. By the law of England the property in the bed and water of a tidal river, as high as the tide ebbs and flows at a medium spring tide, is presumed to be in the crown or as a franchise in a grantee of the crown, such as the lord of a manor, or a district council, and to be extra-parochial. The bed and water of a non-tidal river are presumed to belong to the person through whose land it flows, or, if it divide two properties, to the riparian proprietors, the rights of each extend- ing to midstream (ad medium filum aquae). In order to give riparian rights, the river must flow in a defined channel, or at least above ground. The diminution of underground water collected by percolation, even though malicious, does not give a cause of action to the owner of the land in which it collects, it being merely damnum sine injuria, though he is entitled to have it unpolluted unless a right of pollution be gained against him by prescription. The right to draw water from another's well is an easement, not a profit a prendre, and is therefore claimable by custom. As a general rule a riparian proprietor, whether on a tidal or a non-tidal river, has full rights of user of his property. Most of the statute law will be found in the Sea Fisheries Acts 1843 to 1891, and the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1861 to 1886. In certain cases the rights of the riparian proprietors are subject to the intervening rights of other persons. These rights vary according as the river is navigable or not, or tidal or not. For instance, all the riparian proprietors might combine to divert a non-navigable river, though one alone could not do so as against the others, but no combination of riparian proprietors could defeat the right of the public to have a navigable river maintained undiverted. We shall here consider shortly the rights enjoyed by, and the limitations XXVHI. 13 imposed upon, riparian proprietors, in addition to those falling under the head of fishery or navigation. In these matters English law is in substantial accordance with the law of other countries, most of the rules being deduced from Roman law. Perhaps the main difference is that running water is in Roman law a res communis, like the air and the sea. In England, owing to the greater value of river water for manufacturing and other purposes, it cannot be said to be common property, even though it may be used for navigation. The effect of this difference is that certain rights, public in Roman law, such as mooring and unloading cargo, bathing, drying nets, fishing for oysters, digging for sand, towing, &c., are only acquirable by prescription or custom in England. By Roman law, a hut might lawfully be built on the shore of the sea or of a tidal river; in England such a building would be a mere trespass. Preaching on the foreshore is not legal unless by custom or prescription (Llandudno Urban Council v. Woods, 1899, 2 Ch. 705). Nor may a fisherman who dredges for oysters appropriate a part of the foreshore for storing them (Truro Corporation v. Rowe, 1902, 2 K.B. 709). The right of use of the water of a natural stream cannot be better described than in the words of Lord Kingsdown in 1858: " By the general law applicable to running streams, every riparian proprietor has a right to what may be called the ordinary use of water flowing past his land — for instance, to the reasonable use of the water for domestic purposes and for his cattle, and this without regard to the effect which such use may have in case of a deficiency upon pro- prietors lower down the stream. But, further, he has a right to the use of it for any purpose, or what may be deemed the extraordinary use of it, provided he does not thereby interfere with the rights of other proprietors, either above or below him. Subject to this con- dition, he may dam up a stream for the purposes of a mill, or divert the water for the purpose of irrigation. But he has no right to inter- cept the regular flow of the stream, if he thereby interferes with the lawful use of the water by other proprietors, and inflicts upon them a sensible injury " (Miner v. Gilmour, 12 Moore's P.C. Cases, 156). The rights of riparian proprietors where the flow of water is artificial rest on a different principle. As the artificial stream is made by a person for his own benefit, any right of another person as a riparian proprietor does not arise at common law, as in the case of a natural stream, but must be established by grant or prescription. If its origin be unknown the inference appears to be that riparian pro- prietors have the same rights as if the stream had been a natural one (Baily v. Clark, 1902, I Ch. 649). The rights of a person not a riparian proprietor who uses land abutting on a river or stream by the licence or grant of the riparian proprietor are not as full as though he were a riparian proprietor, for he cannot be imposed as a riparian proprietor upon the other proprietors without their consent. The effect of this appears to be that he is not entitled to sensibly affect their rights, even by the ordinary as distinguished from the extra- ordinary use of the water. Even a riparian proprietor cannot divert the stream to a place outside his tenement and there use it for pur- poses unconnected with the tenement (McCartney v. Londonderry & Lough Swilly Rly. Co., 1904, A.C. 301). The limitations to which the right of the riparian proprietor is subject may be divided into those existing by common right, those imposed for public purposes, and those established against him by- crown grant or by custom or prescription. Under the first head comes the public right of navigation, of anchorage and fishery from boats (in tidal waters), and of taking shell-fish (and probably other fish except royal fish) on the shore of tidal waters as far as any right of several fishery does not intervene. Under the second head would fall the right of eminent domain by which the state takes riparian rights for public purposes, compensating the proprietor, the restrictions upon the sporting rights of the proprietor, as by acts forbidding the taking of fish in close time, and tne Wild Birds Protection Acts, and the restrictions on the ground of public health, as by the Rivers Pollution Act 1876 and the regulations of port sanitary authorities. The jurisdiction of the state over rivers in England may be exercised by officers of the crown, as by commis- sioners of sewers or by the Board of Trade, under the Crown Lands Act 1866. A bridge is erected and maintained by the county authorities, and the riparian proprietor must bear any inconvenience resulting from it. An example of an adverse right by crown grant is a ferry or a port. The crown, moreover, as the guardian of the realm, has jurisdiction to restrain the removal of the foreshore, the natural barrier of the sea, by its owner in case of apprehended danger to the coast. The rights established against a riparian proprietor oy private persons must as a rule be based on prescription or custom, only on prescription where they are in the nature of profits a prendre. The public cannot claim such rights by prescription, still less by custom. Among such rights are the right to land, to discharge cargo, to tow, to dry nets, to beach boats, to take sand, shingle or water, to have a sea-wall maintained, to pollute the water (subject to the Rivers 386 WATER-SCORPION—WATERSPOUT Pollution Act), to water cattle, &c. In some cases the validity of local riparian customs has been recognized by the legislature. The right to enter on lands adjoining tidal waters for the purpose of watch- ing for and landing herrings, pilchards and other sea-fish was con- firmed to the fishermen of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall by I Jac. I. c. 23. Digging sand on the shore of tidal waters for use as manure on the land was granted to the inhabitants of Devon and Cornwall by 7 Jac. I. c. 18. The public right of taking or killing rabbits in the day- time on any sea bank or river bank in the county of Lincoln, so far as the tide extends, or within one furlong of such bank, was preserved by the Larceny Act 1881. It should be noticed that rights of the public may be subject to private rights. Where the river is navi- gable, although the right of navigation is common to the subjects of the realm, it may be connected with a right to exclusive access to riparian land, the invasion of which may form the ground for legal proceedings by the riparian proprietor (see Lyon v. The Fishmongers' Company, 1876, I A.C. 662). There is no common-law right of support by subterranean water. A grant of land passes all water- courses, unless reserved to the grantor. A freshwater lake appears to be governed by the same law as a non-tidal river, surface water being pars soli. The preponderance of authority is in favour of the right ofthe riparian proprietors as against the crown. Most of the law will be found in Bristow v. Cormican, 1878, 3 A.C. 648. Unlawful and malicious injury to sea and river banks, towing paths, sluices, flood-gates, mill-dams, &c., or poisoning fish, is a crime under the Malicious Damage Act 1861. Ferry is a franchise created by grant or prescription. When created it is a highway of a special description, a monopoly to be used only .for the public advantage, so that the toll levied must be reasonable. The grantee may have an action or an injunction for infringement of his rights by competition unless the infringement be by act of parliament. In Hopkins v. G.N. Ry. Co., 1877, 2 Q.B.D. 224 (followed in Dibden v. Skirrow, 10x37, I Ch. 437), it was held that the owner of a ferry cannot maintain an action for loss of traffic caused by a new bridge or ferry made to provide for new traffic. Many ferries are now regulated by local acts. Weir, the gurges of Domesday, the kideUus of Magna Carta, as appurtenant to a fishery, is a nuisance at common law unless granted by the crown before 1272. From the etymology of kidellus the weir was probably at first of wicker, later of timber or stone. The owner of a several fishery in tidal waters cannot maintain his claim to a weir unless he can show a title going back to Magna Carta. In private waters he must claim by grant or prescription. Numerous fishery acts from 25 Ed w. I II . st . 4, c. 4 deal with weirs, especially with regard to salmon fishery. An interesting case is Hanbury v. Jenkins, 1901, 2 Ch. 401, where it was held that a grant of " wears " in the Usk by Henry VIII. i» 1516 passed the bed of the river as well as the right of fishing. Mill may be erected by any one, subject to local regulations and to his detaining the water no longer than is reasonably necessary for the working of the wheel. But if a dam be put across running water, the erection of it can only be justified by grant or prescription, or (in a manor) by manorial custom. On navigable rivers it must have existed before 1272. The owner of it cannot pen up the water permanently so as to make a pond of it. Bathing. — The reported cases affect only sea-bathing, but Hall (p. 160) is of opinion that a right to bathe in private waters may exist by prescription or custom. There is no common-law right to bathe in the sea or to place bathing-machines on the shore. Pre- scription or custom is necessary to support a claim, whether the fore- shore is the property of the crown or of a private owner (Brinckman v. Matley, 1904, 2 Ch. 313). Bathing in the sea or in rivers is now often regulated by the by-laws of a local authority. Scotland. — The law of Scotland is in general accordance with that of England. One of the principal differences is that in Scotland, if a charter state that the sea is the boundary of a grant, the foreshore is included in the grant, subject to the burden of crown rights for public purposes. Persons engaged in the herring fishery off the coast of Scotland have, by n Geo. III. c. 31, the right to use the shore for 100 yds. from high-water mark for landing and drying nets, erecting huts and curing fish. By the Army Act 1881, s. 143, soldiers on the march in Scotland pay only half toll at ferries. The right of ferry is one of the regalia minora acquirable by prescriptive possession on a charter of barony. Sea-greens are private property. The right to take seaweed from another's foreshore may be prescribed as a servitude. Interference with the free passage of salmon by abstraction of water to artificial channels is restrainable by interdict (Pirie v. Earl of Kintore, 1906, A.C. 478). See the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Acts 1828 to 1868. In Ireland the law is in general accordance with that of England. In R. v. Clinton, I.R. 4 C.L. 6, the Irish court went perhaps beyond any English precedent in holding that to carry away drift seaweed from the foreshore is not larceny. The Rivers Pollution Act 1876 was re-enacted for Ireland by the similar act of 1893. In the United States the common law of England was originally the law, the state succeeding to the right of the crown. This was no doubt sufficient in the thirteen original states, which are not traversed by rivers of the largest size, but was not generally followed when it became obvious that new conditions, unknown in England, had arisen. Accordingly the soil cf navigable rivers, fresh or salt, and of lakes, is vested in the state, which has power to regulate navigation and impose tolls. The admiralty jurisdiction of the United States extends to all public navigable rivers and lakes where commerce is carried on between different states or with foreign nations (Genesee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 Howard's Rep. 443). And in a case decided in 1893 it was held that the open waters of the great lakes are " high seas " within the meaning of § 5346 of the Revised Statutes (U.S. v. Rodgers, 150 U.S. Rep. 249). A state may establish ferries and authorize dams. But if water from a dam overflow a public highway, an indictable nuisance is caused. The right of eminent domain is exercised to a greater extent than in England in the compulsory acquisition of sites for mills and the construction of levees or embankments, especially on the Mississippi. In the drier country of the west and in the mining districts, the common law as to irrigation has had to be altered, and what was called the " Arid Region Doctrine " was gradually established. By it the first user of water has a right by priority of occupation if he give notice to the public of an intention to appropriate, provided that he be competent to hold land. AUTHORITIES.— Hall's Essay on the Rights of the Crown on the Sea- Shore (1830) has been re-edited in 1875 and 1888. See also S. A. and H. S. Moore, History and Law of Fisheries (1903). Among American authorities are the works of Angell, Gould and Pomeroy, on Waters and Watercourses, Washburn on Easements, Angell on the Right of Property in Tide Waters, Kirney on Irrigation and the Report to the Senate on Irrigation (1900). (J. W.) WATER-SCORPION, an aquatic hemipterous insect of the family Nepidae, so called from its superficial resemblance to a scorpion, which is due to the modification of the legs of the anterior pair for prehension, and to the presence of a long slender process, simulating a tail, at the posterior end of the abdomen. The common British species (Nepa cinerea) lives in ponds and stagnant water, and feeds upon aquatic animal organisms principally of the insect kind. Respiration in the adult is effected by means of the caudal process, which consists of a pair of half-tubes capable of being locked together to form a siphon by means of which air is conducted to the tracheae at the apex of the abdomen when the tip of the tube is thrust above the surface of the water. In immature forms the siphon is undeveloped and breathing takes place through six pairs of abdominal spiracles. The eggs, laid in the stems of plants, are supplied with seven filamentous processes which float freely in the water. In Nepa the body is broad and flat; but in an allied water-bug, Ranatra, which contains a single British species (R. linearis), it is long and narrow, while the legs are very slender and elongate. Certain exotic members of this group, sometimes erroneously referred to the Nepidae, but really forming a special family, Belo- stomidae, are of large size, a South American species, Belostoma grande, reaching a length of between 4 and 5 in. WATERSHED, in physical geography, the line separating the headstreams tributary to two different river-systems or basins. Alternative terms are " water-parting " and " divide." The crest of a mountain ridge forms the most clearly marked water- shed; in a plain country of gentle slope (e.g. the central plain of Ireland) the watershed is often difficult to trace, as the head- waters of two different river systems may merge in marshes or lakes at the highest levels. In a mountainous country, where two streams, flowing in opposite directions but having their sources adjacent, are both gradually eroding or cutting back the land at their heads, a pass is formed. In such cases, where one stream erodes faster than the other, the stronger may ultimately " behead " the weaker, and " capture " some of its waters, whose flow is diverted from one basin to another. WATERSPOUT, a local vorticular storm occurring over a water-surface, and in origin and form similar to a tornado (q.v.) over the land. A whirling, funnel-shaped cloud, first observed as a pendant from the mass of storm-cloud above, seems to grow downwards, tapering, towards the water-surface, which is violently agitated, and finally (when the spout is fully developed) appears to be drawn up to meet the cloud from above. This appearance is deceptive, as the bulk of the water carried along by the whirling spout is condensed from the atmosphere, and, even when the spout is formed over a salt-water surface, is found to be fresh. Waterspouts occur most frequently over the w^rm seas of the tropics, but they are not confined to the warmer tropical seasons, or even to low latitudes. COLLECTING AREAS] WATER SUPPLY 387 WATER SUPPLY. This article is confined to the collection and storage of water for domestic and industrial uses and irrigation, and its purification on a large scale. The conveyance of water is dealt with in the article AQUEDUCT. COLLECTING AREAS Surface Waters. — Any area, large or small, of the earth's surface from any part of which, if the ground were impermeable, water would flow by gravitation past any point in a natural watercourse is commonly known in Europe as the " hydro- graphic basin " above that point. In English it has been called indifferently the " catchment basin," the " gathering ground," the " drainage area " and the " watershed." The latter term, though originally equivalent to the German W asserscheide — " water-parting " — is perhaps least open to objection. The water-parting is the line bounding such an area and separating it from other watersheds. The banks of a watercourse or sides of a valley are distinguished as the right and left bank respectively, the spectator being understood to be looking down the valley. The surface of the earth is rarely impermeable, and the structure of the rocks largely determines the direction of flow of so much of the rainfall as sinks into the ground and is not evaporated. Thus the figure and area of a surface watershed may not be coincident with that of the corresponding under- ground watershed: and the flow in any watercourse, especially from a small watershed, may, by reason of underground flow from or into other watersheds, be dispropor- tionate to the area apparently drained by that watercourse. When no reservoir exists, the volume of continuous supply from any watershed area Dly is evidently limited to the minimum, weather or, so-called, extreme dry weather /low of flov> Of the stream draining it. This /ream. cannot be determined from the rain- fall; it entirely depends upon the power of the soil and rock to store water in the particular area under consideration, and to yield it con- tinuously to the stream by means of concen- trated springs or diffused seepage. Mountain areas of 10,000 acres and upwards, largely covered with moorland, upon nearly imper- meable rocks with few water-bearing fissures, yield in tem- perate climates, towards the end of the driest seasons, and therefore solely from underground, between a fifth and a quarter of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Through- out the course of the river Severn, the head-waters of which are chiefly supplied from such formations, this rate does not materially change, even down to the city of Worcester, past which the discharge flows from 1,256,000 acres. But in smaller areas, which on the average are necessarily nearer to the water- parting, the limits are much wider, and the rate of minimum discharge is generally smaller. Thus, for example, on 1000 acres or less, it commonly falls to one- tenth of a cubic foot, and upon an upland Silurian area of 940 acres, giving no visible sign of any peculiarity, the discharge fell, on the aist of September 1895, to one-thirty-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. In this case, however, some of the water probably passed through the beds and joints of rocks to an adjoining valley lying at a lower level, and had both streams been gauged the average would probably have been considerably greater. The Thames at Teddington, fed largely from cretaceous areas, fell during ten days in September 1898 (the artificial abstractions for the supply of London being added) to about one-sixth of a cubic foot, and since 1880 the discharge has occasionally fallen, in each of six other cases, to about one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Owing, however, to the very variable permeability of the strata, the tributaries of the Thames, when separately gauged in dry seasons, yield the most divergent results. It may be taken as an axiom that the variation of minimum discharges from their mean values increases as the separate areas diminish. In the eastern and south-eastern counties of England even greater variety of dry weather flow prevails than in the west, and upon the chalk formations there are generally no surface streams, except such as burst out after wet weather and form the so-called " bournes." On the other hand, some rocks in mountain districts, notably the granites, owing to the great quantity of water stored in their numerous fissures or joints, commonly yield a much higher proportion of so-called dry weather flow. When, however, a reservoir is employed to equalize the flow during and before the period of dry weather, the minimum flow continuously available may be increased to a much higher figure, depending upon the capacity of that reservoir in relation to the mean flow of the stream supplying it. In such a case the first essential in determining the yield is to ascertain the rainfall. For this purpose, if there are no rain-gauges on the drainage area in question, an estimate may be formed from numerous gaugings throughout the country, most of which are published in British Rainfall, initiated by the late Mr G. J. Symons, F.R.S., and now carried on by Dr H. R. Mill.1 But except in the hands of those who have spent years in such investigations, this method may lead to most incorrect conclusions. If any observations exist upon the drainage area itself they are commonly only from a single gauge, and this gauge, unless the area is very level, may give results widely different from the mean fall on the whole area. Unqualified reliance upon single gauges in the past has been the cause of serious errors in the estimated relation between rainfall and flow off the ground. The uncertainties are illustrated by the following actual example : A battery of fourteen rain-gauges, in the same vertical plane, on ground having the natural profile shown by the section (fig. l), gave during three consecutive years the respective falls shown by FIG. i. the height of the dotted lines above the datum line. Thus on the average, gauge C recorded 20% more than gauge D only 70 ft. distant; while at C, in 1897, the rainfall was actually 30% greater than at J only 560 ft. away. The greatly varying distribution of rainfall over that length of 1600 ft. is shown by the dotted lines measured upwards from the datum to have been remarkably con- sistent in the three years; and its cause — the path necessarily taken in a vertical plane by the prevailing winds blowing from A towards N — after passing the steep bank at C D — may be readily understood. Such examples show the importance of placing any rain-gauge, so far as possible, upon a plane surface of the earth — horizontal, or so inclined that, if produced, especially in the direction of prevailing winds, it will cut the mean levels of the area whose mean rainfall is intended to be represented by that gauge. It has been commonly stated that rainfall increases with the altitude. This is broadly true. A rain-cloud raised vertically upwards expands, cools and tends to precipitate; but in the actual passage of rain-clouds over the surface of the earth other influences are at work. In fig. 2 the thick line FIG. 2. represents the profile of a vertical section crossing two ranges of hills and one valley. The arrows indicate the directions of the prevailing winds. At the extreme left the rain-clouds are thrown up, and if this were all, they would precipitate a larger proportion of the moisture 1 Since the above was written, this work has been taken over by the " British Rainfall Organization." 388 WATER SUPPLY [COLLECTING ARE they contained as the altitude increased. But until the clouds rise above the hill there is an obvious countervailing tendency to com- pression, and in steep slopes this may reduce or entirely prevent pre- cipitation until the summit is reached, when a fall of pressure with commotion must occur. Very high mountain ranges usually consist of many ridges, among which rain-clouds are entangled in their ascent, and in such cases precipitation towards the windward side of the main range, though on the leeward sides of the minor ridges of which it is formed, may occur to so large an extent that before the summit is reached the clouds are exhausted or nearly so, and in this case the total precipitation is less on the leeward than on the wind- ward side of the main range; but in the moderate heights of the United Kingdom it more commonly happens from the causes ex- plained that precipitation is prevented or greatly retarded until the summit of the ridge is reached. The following cause also contributes to the latter effect. Imagine eleven raindrops A to K to fall simul- taneously and equi-distantly from the horizontal plane AM. A strong wind is urging the drops from left to right. The drops A and K may- be readily conceived to be equally diverted by the wind, and to fall near the tops of the two hills respectively. Not so drop C, for directly the summit is passed the wind necessarily widens put vertically and, having a greater space to fill, loses forward velocity. It may even eddy backwards, as indicated by the curved arrows, and it is no uncommon thing, in walking up a steep hill in the contrary direction to the flight of the clouds, to find that the rain is coming from behind. Much the same tendency exists with respect to all drops between B and E, but at F the wind has begun to accommodate itself to the new regime and to assume more regular forward motion, and as | is approached, where vertical contraction of the passage through which the wind must pass takes place, there is an increasing tendency to lift the raindrops beyond their proper limits. The general effect is that the rain falling from between G and K is spread over a greater area of the earth G'K' than that falling from the equal space between B and F, which reaches the ground within the smaller area B'F'. From this cause also, therefore, the leeward side of the valley re- ceives more rain than the windward side. In the United Kingdom the prevailing winds are from the south-west, and some misapprehen- sion has been caused by the- bare, but perfectly correct, statement that the general slope towards the western coast is wetter than that towards the eastern. Over the whole width of the country from coast to coast, or of the Welsh mountain ranges only, this is so; but it is nevertheless true that the leeward side of an individual valley or range of hills generally receives more rain than the windward side. Successive abstraction of raindrops as the rain-clouds pass over ridge after ridge causes a gradually diminishing precipitation, but this is generally insufficient to reverse the local conditions, which tend to the contrary effect in individual ranges. The neglect of these facts has led to many errors in estimating the mean rainfall on watershed areas from the fall observed at gauges in particular parts of those areas. In the simplest case of a single mountain valley to be used for the supply of an impounding reservoir, the rainfall should be known at five points, three being in the axis of the valley, of which one is near the point of intersection of that axis with the boundary of the watershed. Then, in order to connect with these the effect of the right- and left-hand slopes, there should be at least one gauge on each side about the middle height, and approximately in a line perpendicu- lar to the axis of the valley passing through the central gauge. The relative depths recorded in the several gauges depend mainly upon the direction of the valley and steepness of the bounding hills. The gauge in the bottom of the valley farthest from the source will in a wide valley generally record the least rainfall, and one of those on the south-west side, the highest. Much will depend upon the judicious placing of the gauges. Each gauge should have for 10 or 15 yds. around it an uninterrupted plane fairly representing the general level or inclination, as the case may be, of the ground for a much larger distance around it. The earliest records of such gauges should be carefully examined, and if any apparently anomalous result is obtained, the cause should be traced, and when not found in the gauge itself, or in its treatment, other gauges should be used to check it. The central gauge is useful for correcting and checking the others, but in such a perfectly simple case as the straight valley above assumed it may be omitted in calculating the results, and if the other four gauges are properly placed, the arithmetical mean of their results will probably not differ widely from the true mean for the valley. But such records carried on for a year or many years would afford no knowledge of the worst conditions that could arise in longer periods, were it not for the existence of much older gauges not far distant and subject to somewhat similar conditions. The nearer such long-period gauges are to the local gauges the more likely are their records to rise and fall in the same proportion. The work of the late Mr JamesGlaisher.F.R.S., of the lateMr G.J. Symons, F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office and of the Royal Meteorological Society, has resulted in the establishment of a vast number of rain- gauges in different parts of the United Kingdom, and it is generally, though not always, found that the mean rainfall over a long period can be determined, for an area upon which the actual fall is known only for a short period, by assigning to the missing years of the short- period gauges, rainfalls bearing the same proportion to those of corresponding years in the long-period gauges that the rainfalls of the known years in the short-period gauges bear to those of cor spending years in the long- period gauges. In making such compari- sons, it is always desirable, if possible, to select as standards long- period gauges which are so situated that the short-period district lies between them. Where suitably placed long-period gauges exist, and where care has been exercised in ascertaining the authenticit of their records and in making the comparisons, the short records c. the local gauges may be thus carried back into the long periods with nearly correct results. Rainfall is proverbially uncertain; but it would appear from the most trustworthy records that at any given place the total rainfall during any period of 50 years will be within I or 2 % of the total rainfall at the same place during any other period of 50 years, while the records of any period of 25 years will generally be found to fall within 3$ % of the mean of 50 years. It is equally satisfactory to know that there is a nearly constant ratio on any given area (ex- ceeding perhaps 1000 acres) between the true mean annual rainfall, the rainfall of the driest year, the two driest consecutive years and any other groups of driest consecutive years. Thus in any period of 50 years the driest year (not at an individual gauge but upon such an area) will be about 63% of the mean for the 50 years. That in the two driest consecutive years will be about 75 % of th mean for the 50 years. That in the three driest consecutive years will be about 80 % of the mean for the 50 years. That in the four driest consecutive years will be about 83 % of th mean for the 50 years. That in the five driest consecutive years will be about 85 % of the mean for the 50 years. That in the six driest consecutive years will be about 86J % of the mean for the 50 years. Apart altogether from the variations of actual rainfall produced by irregular surface levels, the very small area of a single rain-gauge is subject to much greater variations in short periods than can possibly occur over larger areas. If, therefore, instead of regarding only the mean rainfall of several gauges over a series of years, we compare the relative falls in short intervals of time among gauges yielding the same general averages, the discrepancies prove to be very great, and it follows that the maximum possible intensity of discharge from different areas rapidly increases as the size of the watershed decreases. Extreme cases of local discharge are due to the phenomena known in America as " cloud-bursts,' which occasionally occur in Great Britain and result in discharges, the intensities of which have rarely been recorded by rain-gauges. The periods of such discharges are so short, their positions so isolated and the areas affected so small, that we have little or no exact knowledge concerning them, though their disastrous results are well known. They do not directly affect the question of supply, but may very seriously affect the works from which that supply is given. Where in this article the term " evaporation " is used alone, it is to be understood to include absorption by vegetation. Of the total quantity of rainfall a very variable pro- _ ~ J Lvaporm- portion is rapidly absorbed or re-evaporated. Thus tioa and in the western mountain districts of Great Britain, absorp- largely composed of nearly impermeable rocks more WoD- or less covered with pasture and moorland, the water evaporated and absorbed by vegetation is from 13 to 15 in. out of a rainfall of 80 in., or from 16 to 19%, and is nearly constant down to about 60 in., where the proportion of loss is therefore from 22 to 25%. The Severn down to Worcester, draining 1,256,000 acres of generally flatter land largely of the same lithological character, gave in the dry season from the ist of July 1887 to the 3oth of June 1888 a loss of 17-93 in- upon a rainfall of 27-34 in. or about 66%; while in the wet season, ist of July 1882 to the 30th of June 1883, the loss was 21-09 in. upon a rainfall of 43-26 in., or only 49%. Upon the .Thames basin down to Teddington, having an area of 2,353,000 acres, the loss in the dry season from the ist of July 1890 to the 3oth of June 1891 was 17-22 in. out of a rainfall of 21-62 in., or 79%; while in the wet season, ist of July 1888 to the 3oth of June 1889, it was 18-96 out of 29-22 in., or only 65%. In the eastern counties the rainfall is lower and the evaporation approximately the same as upon the Thames area, so that the percentage of loss is greater. But these are merely broad examples and averages of many still greater variations over smaller areas. They show generally that, as the rainfall increases on any given area evapora- tion increases, but not in the same proportion. Again, the loss from a given rainfall depends greatly upon the previous season. An inch falling in a single day on a saturated mountain area will nearly all reach the rivers, but if it falls during a drought seven-eighths may be lost so far as the period of the drought COLLECTING AREAS] WATER SUPPLY 389 is concerned. In such a case most of the water is absorbed by the few upper inches of soil, only to be re-evaporated during the next few days, and the small proportion which sinks into the ground probably issues in springs many months later. Thus the actual yield of rainfall to the streams depends largely upon the mode of its time-distribution, and without a knowledge of this it is impossible to anticipate the yield of a particular rainfall. In estimating the evaporation to be deducted from the rainfall for the purpose of determining the flow into a reservoir, it is important to bear in mind that the loss from a constant water surface is nearly one and a half times as great as from the intermittently saturated land surface. Even neglecting the isolated and local discharges due to excessive and generally unrecorded rainfall, the variation in the discharge of all streams, and especially of mountain streams, is very great. We have seen that the average flow from mountain areas in Great Britain towards the end of a dry season does not exceed one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Adopting this general minimum as the unit, we find that the flow from such areas up to about 5000 acres, whose mean annual rainfall exceeds 50 in., may be expected occasionally to reach 300 cub. ft., or 1500 such units; while from similar areas of 20,000 or 30,000 acres with the same mean rainfall the discharge sometimes reaches 1 200 or 1300 such units. It is well to compare these results with those obtained from much larger areas but with lower mean rainfall. The Thames at Teddington has been continuously gauged by the Thames Conservators since 1883, and the Severn at Worcester by the writer, on behalf of the corporation of Liverpool, during the 10 years 1881 to 1890 inclusive. The highest flood, common to the two periods, was that which occurred in the middle of February 1883. On that occasion the Thames records gave a discharge of 7-6 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, and the Severn records a discharge of 8-6 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, or 38 and 43 respectively of the above units; while in February 1881, before the Thames gaugings were commenced, the Severn had risen to 47 of such units, and subsequently in May 1886 rose to 50 such units, though the Thames about the same time only rose to 13. But in November 1894 the Thames rose to about 80 such units, and old records on the Severn bridges show that that river must on many occasions have risen to considerably over too units. In both these cases the natural maximum discharge is somewhat diminished by the storage produced by artificial canalization of the rivers. These illustrations of the enormous variability of discharge serve to explain what is popularly so little understood, namely, the advantage which riparian owners, or other persons interested in a given stream, may derive from works constructed primarily for the purpose of diverting the water of that stream — it may be to a totally different watershed — for the purposes of a town supply. Under modern legislation no such abstraction of water is usually allowed, even if limited to times of flood, except on condition of an augmentation of the natural dry-weather flow, and this condition at once involves the construction of a reservoir. The water supplied to the stream from such a reservoir is known as " compensation water," and is generally a first charge upon the works. This water is usually given as a continuous and uniform flow, but in special cases, for the convenience of mill- owners, as an intermittent one.1 In the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Yorkshire it generally amounts to one-third of the whole so-called " available supply." In Wales it is usually about one-fourth, and elsewhere still less; but in any case it amounts to many times the above unit of one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Thus the benefit to the fisheries and to the riparian owners generally is beyond all question; but the cost to the water authority of conferring that benefit is also very great — commonly (according to the proportion of the natural flow intended to be rendered uniform) 20 to 35% of 1 The volume of compensation water is usually fixed as a given fraction of the so-called " available supply " (which by a convention that has served its purpose well, is understood to be the average flow of the stream during the three consecutive driest years). the whole expenditure upon the reservoir works. Down to the middle of the igth century, the proportioning of the size of a reservoir to its work was a very rough operation, yit/dof There were few rainfall statistics, little was known stream of the total loss by evaporation, and still less of its »** distribution over the different periods of dry and n*crvolr- wet weather. Certain general principles have since been laid down, and within the proper limits of their application have proved excellent guides. In conformity with the above-men- tioned convention (by which compensation water is determined as a certain fraction of the average flow during the three driest consecutive years) the available supply or flow from a given area is still understood to be the average annual rainfall during those years, less the corresponding evaporation and absorption by vegetation. But this is evidently only the case when the reservoir impounding the water from such an area is of just sufficient capacity to equalize that flow without possible exhaus- tion in any one of the three summers. If the reservoir were larger it might equalize the flow of the four or more driest consecutive years, which would be somewhat greater than that of the three; if smaller, we might only be able to count upon the average of the flow t>f the two driest consecutive years, and there are many reservoirs which will not yield continuously the average flow of the stream even in the single driest year. With further experience it has become obvious that very few reservoirs are capable of equalizing the full flow of the three consecutive driest years, and each engineer, in estimating the yield of such reservoirs, has deducted from the quantity ascer- tained on the assumption that they do so, a certain quantity representing, according to his judgment, the overflow which in one or more of such years might be lost from the reservoir. The actual size of the reservoir which would certainly yield the assumed supply throughout the driest periods has therefore been largely a matter of judgment. Empirical rules have grown up assigning to each district, according to its average rainfall, a particular number of days' supply, independently of any inflow, as the contents of the reservoir necessary to secure a given yield throughout the driest seasons. But any such generalizations are dangerous and have frequently led to disappointment and sometimes to needless expenditure. The exercise of sound judgment in such matters will always be necessary, but it is nevertheless important to formulate, so far as possible, the conditions upon which that judgment should be based. Thus in order to determine truly the continuously available discharge of any stream, it is necessary to know not only the mean flow of the stream, as represented by the rainfall less the evaporation, but also the least favourable distribution of that flow throughout any year. The most trying time-distribution of which the author has had experience in the United Kingdom, or which he has been able to discover from a comparison of rainfalls upon nearly impermeable areas exceeding 1000 acres, is graphically represented by the thick irregular line in the left-hand half of fig. 3, where the total flow for the driest year measures 100 on the vertical percentage scale; the horizontal time scale being divided into calendar months. The diagram applies to ordinary areas suitable for reservoir con- struction and in which the minimum flow of the stream reaches about one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Correspondingly, the straight line o a represents uniformly distributed supply, also cumulatively recorded, of the same quantity of water over the same period. But, apart from the diurnal fluctuations of consumption which may be equalized by local " service reservoirs," uniform distribution of supply throughout twelve months is rarely what we require; and to represent the demand in most towns correctly, we should increase the angle of this line to the horizontal during the summer and diminish it during the winter months, as indicated by the dotted lines b b. The most notable features of this particular diagram are as follows: Up to the end of 59 days (to the z8th Febru- ary) the rate of flow is shown, by the greater steepness of the thick line, to be greater than the mean for the year, and the surplus water — about 1 1 % of the flow during the year — must be stored ; but during the 184 days between this and the end of the 24^rd day (jjist August) the rate of flow is generally below the mean, while from that day to the end of the year it is again for the most part above the mean. Now, in order that a reservoir may enable the varying flow, represented cumulatively by the irregular line, to be discharged in a continuous and uniform flow to satisfy a demand represented 39° WATER SUPPLY [COLLECTING AREAS cumulatively by the straight line a a, its capacity must be such that it will hold not only the II % surplus of the same year, but that, on June loth, when this surplus has been used to satisfy the demand, it will still contain the water c d — 19% — stored from a previous year; otherwise between June loth and August 3ist the reservoir will be empty and only the dry weather flow of the stream will be available for supply. In short, if the reservoir is to equalize the whole flow of this year, it must have a capacity equal to the greatest deficiency c d of the cumulative flow below the cumulative demand, plus the greatest excess efof the cumulative flow over the cumulative demand. This capacity is represented by the height of the line a'a' (drawn parallel to a a from the point of maximum surplus/) vertically above the point of greatest deficiency c, and equal, on the vertical scale, to the difference between the height £ = 48% and 2 = 78% or 30% of the stream-flow during the driest year. A reservoir so proportioned to the stream-flow with a proper addition to avoid drawing off the bottom water, would probably be safe in Great Britain in any year **Q*c*cr»T or OKI, :, * Of cmtfT r*M rwo CONS, HfO YCA1S. 'Ct/rUf,- DRIEST YEAilS JAN tie <*M* *P* MAY JUffX JULY AUS 5£f> * 'ET- ^xT yrjveiwo DCC t/A/t FEU MA*. AP* MAY JUNE JULY AV« SEP OC 2 FIG. 3. for a uniform demand equal to the cumulative stream-flow; or, if it failed, that failure would be of very short duration, and would probably only occur once in 50 years. It may be at first sight objected that a case is assumed in which there is no overflow before the reservoir begins to fall, and therefore no such loss as generally occurs from that cause. This is true, but it is only so because we have made our reservoir large enough to contain in addition to its stock of 19%, at the beginning of the year, all the surplus water that passes during the earlier months in this driest year with its least favourable time-distribution of flow. Experience shows, in fact, that if a different distribution of the assumed rainfall occurs, that distribution will not try the reservoir more severely while the hitherto assumed uniform rate of demand is maintained. But, as above stated, the time-distribution of demand is never quite uniform. The particular drought shown on the diagram is the result of an exceptionally early deficiency of rainfall which, in conjunction with the variation of demand shown by the dotted line b b, is the most trying condition. The reservoir begins to fall at the end of February, and continues to do so with few and short exceptions until the end of August, and it so happens that about the end of August this dotted line, 6 b representing actual cumulative demand, crosses the straight line a a of uniform demand, so that the excess of demand, represented by the slope from June to September, is balanced by the deficiency of demand, represented by the flatter slope in the first five months, except as regards the small quantity b e near the end of February, which, not having been drawn off during January and February, must overflow before the end of February. To avoid this loss the 1 1 % is in this case to be increased by the small quantity b e determined by examination of the variation of the actual from a constant demand. After the reservoir begins to fall — in this case at the end of February — no ordinary change in the variation of demand can affect the question, subject of course to the cumulative demand not exceeding the reservoir yield for the assumed year of minimum rainfall. In assuming a demand at the beginning of the year below the mean, resulting in an overflow equal in this case to b e at the end of February and increasing our reservoir to meet it, we assume also that some additional supply to that reservoir beyond the 1 1 % of the stream- flow from the driest year can be obtained from the previous year. In relation to this supply from the previous year the most trying assumption is that the rainfall of that year, together with that of the driest year, will be the rainfall of the two driest consecutive years. We have already seen that while the rainfall of the driest of 50 years is about 63 % of the mean, that of the driest two consecutive years is about 75 % of the mean. It follows, therefore, that the year immediately preceding the driest cannot have a rainfall less than about 87 % of the mean. As the loss by evaporation is a deduction lying between a constant figure and a direct proportional to the rainfall, we should err on the safe side in assuming the flow in the second driest year to be increased proportionally to the rainfall, or by the difference between 63 and 87 equal to 24% of the mean of 50 years. This 24 % of the 50 years' mean now is 38 % of the driest year's flow in fig. 3, and is therefore much more than sufficient to ensure the reservoir begin- ning the driest year with a stock equal to the greatest deficiency — 19% — of the cumulative flow of that year beyond the cumulative demand. But in determining the capacity of reservoirs intended to yield a supply of water equal to the mean flow of two, three or more years, the error, though on the safe side, caused by assuming the evaporation to be pro- portional to the rainfall, is too great to be neglected. The evaporation slightly increases as the rainfall in- creases, but at nothing like so high a rate. Having determined this evaporation for the second driest con- secutive year and deducted it from the rainfall — which, as above stated, cannot be less than 87 % of the mean of 50 years — we may, as shown on fig. 3, extend our cumulative diagram of demand and flow into the reservoir from one to two years. The whole diagram shows, by the greater gradient of the unbroken straight lines, the greater demand which can be satisfied by the enlarge- ment of the reservoir to the extent necessary to equalize the flow of the two driest consecutive years. The new capacity is either c A or c' ti, whichever, in the particular case under investigation, is the greater. In the illustration the c' h' is a little greater, measuring 47! % of the flow of the driest year. In the same way we may group in a single diagram any number of consecutive driest years, and either ascertain the reservoir capacity necessary for a given uniform yield (represented cumulatively by a straight line corresponding with a'a! , but drawn over all the years instead of one), or conversely, having set up a vertical from the most trying point in the line of cumulative flow (c or c' in fig. 3 — representing, in percentage of the total annual flow of the driest year, the capacity of reservoir which it may be convenient to provide) we may draw a straight line a'" a'" of uniform yield from the head of that vertical to the previous point of maximum excess of cumulative flow. The line a" a" drawn from zero parallel to the first line, produced to the boundaries of the diagram, will cut the vertical at the end of the first year at the percentage of the driest year's flow which may be safely drawn continuously from the reservoir throughout the two years. It is to be observed that any irregularity in the rate of supply from the reservoir may occur between the critical periods of maximum excess of cumulative flow and maximum deficiency COLLECTING AREAS] WATER SUPPLY 391 DIAGRAM Or RESERVOIR CAPACITY AND YIELD :-/>/ net AT/ON TO FLOW or STREAM excesses t/* TERMS or *A,*rAu. .— The figures in the right-hand column at the ends of the curved lines are inches of mean annual rainfall over a period of 50 years. The co-ordinates to any point upon any curved line give respec- tively the required reservoir capacity and daily yield in gallons per acre of drainage area, corresponding with the mean annual rainfall represented by that curved line, The curves have been drawn for a mean annual evaporation of 14 in. For any increased rate of evaporation i% in. are to be sub- tracted from the rainfall for each inch of evaporation above 14 in. For any decreased rate of evaporation i % in. are to be added to the rainfall for each inch of evaporation below 14 in. Any excess of evaporation from the water surface and allowance for bottom water are to be added to the storage so found. The period over which the reservoir equalizes the flow is shown by the number of years marked on the straight radial lines. Where the absolute minimum stream flow is known to be greater than the minimum of Jcubicfoot persecond per 1000 acres (loSgallons per ncre per day) assumed in the diagram, the capacity of the reservoir as taken from thediagram may be reduced by the amount correspond- ing to that minimum flow for the particular rainfall and evaporation. CAPACITY Or RESERVOIR IN GALLONS PER ACRE OF DRAINAGE AREA FIG. 4. 392 WATER SUPPLY [COLLECTING AREAS of cumulative flow (/ and c respectively, in the one year diagram) which does not increase the aggregate cumulative supply between those points, or cause the line of cumulative supply from the reservoir to cut the line of cumulative flow into it. From diagrams constructed upon these principles, the general diagram (fig. 4) has been produced. To illustrate its use, assume the case of a mean rainfall of 50 in., figured in the tight-hand column at the end of a curved line, and of 14 in. of evaporation and absorption by vegetation as stated in the note on the diagram. The ordinate to any point upon this curved line then represents on the left-hand scale the maximum continuous yield per day for each acre of drainage area, from a reservoir whose capacity is equal to the corresponding abscissa. As an example, assume that we can conveniently construct a reservoir to contain, in addition to bottom water not to be used, 200,000 gallons for each acre of the watershed above the point of interception by the proposed dam. We find on the left-hand scale of yield that the height of the ordinate drawn to the so-inch mean rain- fall curve from 200,000 on the capacity scale, is 1457 gallons per day per acre; and the straight radial line, which cuts the point of inter- section of the curved line and the co-ordinates, tells us that this reservoir will equalize the flow of the two driest consecutive years. Similarly, if we wish to equalize the flow of the three driest con- secutive years we change the co-ordinates to the radial line figured 3, and thus find that the available capacity of the reservoir must be 276,000 gallons per acre, and that in consideration of the additional expense of such a reservoir we shall increase the daily yield to 1612 gallons per acre. In the same manner it will be found that by means of a reservoir having an available capacity of only 118,000 gallons per acre of the watershed, we may with the same rainfall and evapora- tion secure a daily supply of 1085 gallons per acre. In this case the left-hand radial line passes through the point at which the co- ordinates meet, showing that the reservoir will just equalize the flow of the driest year. Similarly, the yield from any given reservoir, or the capacity required for any yield, corresponding with any mean rainfall from 30 to too in., and with the flow over any period, from the driest year to the six or more consecutive driest years, may be determined from the diagram. It is instructive to note the ratio of increase of reservoir capacity and yield respectively for any given rainfall. Thus, assuming a mean rainfall of 60 in. during 50 years, subject to evaporation and absorption equal to 14 in. throughout the dry period under considera- tion, we find from the diagram the following quantities (in gallons per acre of drainage area) and corresponding ratios : — Net Capacity of Reservoir. Yield of Reservoir. Ill-o T> x s Jj E* a a «'3 . ,1^ O X i t~, ll. u O. o tt'o'a ||g ~|1| J3 rt ^ & ill p |ll-a -I V J« 3 r Jj§ (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) I 162,000 100 0 1475 IOO o 2 256,OOO 158-0 58-0 1922 130-3 30-3 3 352,000 217-3 37-5 2108 142-9 9-7 4 4l6,OOO 256-8 18-2 2220 150-5 5-3 5 466,000 287-7 12-0 2294 155-5 3-3 6 504,000 311-1 8-1 2350 159-3 2-4 On comparing columns 3 and 6 or 4 and 7 it appears that so great is the increase required in the size of a reservoir in relation to its in- creased yield, that only in the most favourable places for reservoir construction, or under the most pressing need, can it be worth while to go beyond the capacity necessary to render uniform the flow of the two or three driest consecutive years. It must be clearly understood that the diagram fig. 4 does not relieve the reader from any exercise of judgment, except as regards the net capacity of reservoirs when the necessary data have been obtained. It is merely a geometrical determination of the conditions necessarily consequent in England, Scotland and Wales, upon a given mean rainfall over many years, upon evaporation and absorption in particular years (both of which he must judge or determine for himself), and upon certain limiting variations of the rainfall, already stated to be the result of numerous records maintained in Great Britain for more than 50 years. It must also be remembered that the total capacity of a reservoir must be greater than its net available capacity, in order that in the driest seasons fish life may be main- tained and no foul water may be drawn off. Applied to most parts of Ireland and some parts of Great Britain, the diagram will give results rather unduly on the safe side, as the extreme annual variations of rainfall are less than in most parts of Great Britain. Throughout Europe the annual variations follow nearly the same law as in Great Britain, but in some parts the distribution of rainfall in a single year is often more trying. The droughts are longer, and the rain, when it falls, especially along the Springs and shallow wells. Mediterranean coast, is often concentrated into shorter periods. Moreover, it often falls upon sun-heated rocks, thus increasing the evaporation for the time; but gaugings made by the writer in. the northern Apennines indicate that this loss is more than compensated by the greater rapidity of the fall and of the consequent flow. In such regions, therefore, for reservoirs equalizing the flow of 2 or more years, the capacity necessary does not materially differ from that required in Great Britain. As the tropics are approached, even in mountain districts, the irregularities become greater, and occasion- ally the rainy season is entirely absent for a single year, though the mean rainfall is considerable. We have hitherto dealt only with the collection and sto: of that portion of the rainfall which flows over the surface of nearly impermeable areas. Upon such areas the loss by percolation into the ground, not retrieved in the form of springs above the point of interception may be neglected, and the only loss to the stream is that already considered of re-evaporation into the air and of absorption by vegetation. But the crust of the earth varies from almost complete impermeability to almost complete permeability. Among the sedimentary rocks we have, for example, in the clay slates of the Silurian formations, rocks no less cracked and fissured than others, but generally quite impermeable by reason of the joints being packed with the very fine clay resulting from the rubbing of slate upon slate in the earth movements to which the cracks are due. In the New Red Sandstone, the Greensand and the upper Chalk, we find the opposite extremes; while the igneous rocks are for the most part only permeable in virtue of the open fissures they contain. Wherever, below the surface, there are pores or open fissures, water derived from rainfall is (except in the rare cases of displace- ment by gas) found at levels above the sea determined by the resistance of solids to its passage towards some neighbouring sea, lake or watercourse. Any such level is commonly known as the level of saturation. The positions of springs are deter- mined by permeable depressions in the surface of the ground below the general level of saturation, and frequently also by the holding up of that level locally by comparatively impermeable strata, sometimes combined with a fault or a synclinal fold of the strata, forming the more permeable portion into an under- ground basin or channel lying within comparatively impermeable boundaries. At the lower lips or at the most permeable parts of these basins or channels such rainfall as does not flow over the surface, or is not evaporated or absorbed by vegetation, and does not, while still below ground reach the level of the sea, issues as springs, and is the cause of the continued flow of rivers and streams during prolonged droughts. The average volume in dry weather, of such flow, generally reduced to terms of the fraction of a cubic foot per second, per thousand acres of the contributing area, is commonly known in water engineering as the " dry weather flow " and its volume at the end of the dry season as the " extreme dry weather flow." Perennial springs of large volume rarely occur in Great Britain at a sufficient height to afford supplies by gravitation; but from the limestones of Italy and many other parts of the world very considerable volumes issue far above the sea-level, and are thus available, without pumping, for the supply of distant towns. On a small scale, however, springs are fairly distributed over the United Kingdom, for there are no formations, except perhaps blown sand, which do not vary greatly in their resistance to the percolation of water, and therefore tend to produce overflow from underground at some points above the valley levels. But even the rural popula- tions have generally found surface springs insufficiently constant for their use and have adopted the obvious remedy of sinking wells. Hence, throughout the world we find the shallow well still very common in rural districts. The shallow well, however, rarely supplies enough water for more than a few houses, and being commonly situated near to those houses the water is often seriously polluted. Deep wells owe their comparative immunity from pollution to the circumstances that the larger quantity of water yielded renders it worth while to pump that water and convey it by pipes from comparatively unpolluted areas; and that any impurities in the water must have passed through a Deep Welts. COLLECTING AREAS) WATER SUPPLY 393 considerable depth, and by far the larger part of them through a great length of filtering material, and must have taken so long a time to reach the well that their organic character has disappeared. The principal water-bearing formations, utilized in Great Britain by means of deep wells, are the Chalk and the New Red Sandstone. The Upper and Middle Chalk are perme- able almost through their mass. They hold water like a sponge, but part with it under pressure to fissures by which they are intersected, and, in the case of the Upper Chalk, to ducts following beds of flints. A well sunk in these formations without striking any fissure or water-bearing flint bed, receives water only at a very slow rate; but if, on the other hand, it strikes one or more of the natural water-ways, the quantity of water capable of being drawn from it will be greatly increased. It is a notable peculiarity of the Upper and Middle Chalk formations that below their present valleys the underground water passes more freely than elsewhere. This is explained by the fact that the Chalk fissures are almost invariably rounded and enlarged by the erosion of carbonic acid carried from the surface by the water passing through them. These fissures take the place of the streams in an impermeable area, and those beneath the valleys must obviously be called upon to discharge more water from the surface, and thus be brought in contact with more carbonic acid, than similar fissures elsewhere. Hence the best position for a well in the Chalk is generally that over which, if the strata were impermeable, the largest quantity of surface water would flow. The Lower Chalk formation is for the most part impermeable, though it contains many ruptures and dislocations or smashes, in the interstices of which large bodies of water, received from the Upper and Middle Chalk, may be naturally stored, or which may merely form passages for water derived from the Upper Chalk. Thus despite the impermeability of its mass large springs are occasionally found to issue from the Lower Chalk. A striking example is that known as Lydden Spout, under Abbot's Cliff, near Dover. In practice it is usual in chalk formations to imitate artificially the action of such underground watercourses, by driving from the well small tunnels, or " adits " as they are called, below the water-level, to intercept fissures and water-bearing beds, and thus to extend the collecting area. Next in importance to the Chalk formations as a source of underground water supply comes the Trias or New Red Sand- stone, consisting in Great Britain of two main divisions, the Keuper above and the Bunter below. With the exception of the Red Marls forming the upper part of the Keuper, most of the New Red Sandstone is permeable, and some parts contain, when saturated, even more water than solid chalk; but, just as in the case of the chalk, a well or borehole in the sandstone yields very little water unless it strikes a fissure; hence, in New Red Sandstone, also, it is a common thing to form underground chambers or adits in search of additional fissures, and sometimes to sink many vertical boreholes with the same object in view. As the formation approaches the condition of pure sand, the water-bearing property of any given mass increases, but the difficulty of drawing water from it without admixture of sand also increases. In sand below water there are, of course, no open fissures, and even if adits could be usefully employed, the cost of constructing and lining them through the loose sand would be prohibitive. The well itself must be lined; and its yield is therefore confined to such water as can be drawn through the sides or the bottom of the lining without setting up a sufficient velocity to cause any sand to flow with the water. Hence it arises that, in sand formations, only shallow wells or small boreholes are commonly found. Imagine for a moment that the sand grains were by any means rendered immobile without change in the permeability of their interspaces; we could then dispense with the iron or brickwork lining of the well ; but as there would still be no cracks or fissures to extend the area of percolating water exposed to the open well, the yield would be very small. Obviously, it must be very much smaller when the lining necessary to hold up loose sand is used, tlncemented brickwork, or perforated ironwork, are Wells la the usual materials employed for lining the well and holding up the sand, and the quantity of water drawn is kept below the comparatively small quantity necessary to produce a velocity, through the joints or orifices, capable of disturbing the sand. The rate of increase of velocity towards any isolated aperture through which water passes into the side of a well sunk in a deep bed of sand is, in the neighbourhood of that aperture, inversely proportional to the square of the distance therefrom. Thus, the velocity across a little hemisphere of sand only i in. radius covering a i-in. orifice in the lining is more than 1000 times the mean velocity of the same water approaching the orifice radially when 16 in. therefrom. This illustration gives some idea of the enormous increase of yield of such a well, if, by any means, we can get rid of the frictional sand, even from within the 16 in. radius. We cannot do this, but happily the grains in a sand formation differ very widely in diameter, and if, from the interstices between the larger grains in the neighbourhood of an orifice, we can remove the finer grains, the resistance to flow of water is at once enormously reduced. This was for the first time successfully done in a well, constructed by the Biggleswade Water Board in 1902, and now supplying water over a large area of North Bedfordshire. This well, 10 ft. diameter, was sunk through about no ft. of surface soil, glacial drift and impermeable gault clay and thence passed for a further depth of 70 ft. into the Lower Greensand formation, the outcrop of which, emerging on the south-eastern shore of the Wash, passes south-westwards, and in Bedfordshire attains a thickness exceeding 250 ft. The formation is probably more or less permeable throughout; it consists largely of loose sand and takes the general south-easterly dip of British strata. The Biggleswade well was sunk by processes better known in connexion with the sinking of mine shafts and foundations of bridges across the deep sands or gravels of bays, estuaries and great rivers. Its full capacity has not been ascertained; it much exceeds the present pumping power, and is probably greater than that of any other single well unassisted by adits or boreholes. This result is mainly due to the reduction of frictional resistance to the passage of water through the sand in the immediate neighbourhood of the well, by washing out the finer particles of sand and leaving only the coarser particles. For this purpose the lower 45 ft. of the cast-iron cylinders forming the well was provided with about 660 small orifices lined with gun-metal tubes or rings, each armed with numerous thicknesses of copper wire gauze, and temporarily closed with screwed plugs. On the removal of any plug, this wire gauze prevented the sand from flowing with the water into the well; but while the finer particles of sand remained in the neighbourhood of the orifice, the flow of water through the contracted area was very small. To remove this obstruction the water was pumped out while the plugs kept the orifices closed. A flexible pipe, brought down from a steam boiler above, was then connected with any opened orifice. This pipe was provided, close to the orifice, with a three-way cock, by means of which the steam might be first discharged into the sand, and the current between the cock and the well then suddenly reversed and diverted into the well. The effect of thus alternately forcing high-pressure steam among the sand, and of discharging high-pressure water contained in the sand into the well, is to break up any cohesion of the sand, and to allow all the finer particles in the neighbourhood of the orifice to rush out with the water through the wire gauze into the well. This process, in effect, leaves each orifice surrounded by a hemisphere of coarse sand across which the water flows with comparative freedom from a larger hemisphere where the corresponding velocity is very slow, and where the presence of finer and more obstructive particles is therefore unimportant. Many orifices through which water at first only dribbled were thus caused to discharge water with great force, and entirely free from sand, against the opposite side of the well, while the general result was to increase the inflow of water many times, and to entirely prevent the intrusion of sand. Where, however, a firm rock of any kind is encountered, the yield of a well (under a given head of water) can only be increased by enlargement 394 WATER SUPPLY [COLLECTING ARE/ of the main well in depth or diameter, or by boreholes or adits. No rule as to the adoption of any one of these courses can be laid down, nor is it possible, without examination of each particular case, to decide whether it is better to attempt to increase the yield of the well or to construct an additional well some distance away. By lowering the head of water in any well which draws its supply from porous rock, the yield is always temporarily increased. Every well has its own particular level of water while steady pumping at a given rate is going on, and if that level is lowered by harder pumping, it may take months, or even years, for the water hi the interstices of the rock to accommodate itself to the new conditions; but the permanent yield after such lowering will always be less than the quantity capable of being pumped shortly after the change. We have hitherto supposed the pumps for drawing the water to have been placed in the well at such a level as to be accessible, while the suction pipe only is below water. Pumps, however, bo™hoi'°s mav ^e (an<* nave been) placed deep down in boreholes, so that water may be pumped from much greater depths. By this means the head of pressure in the boreholes tending to hold the water back in the rock is reduced, and the supply consequently increased; but when the cost of main- tenance is included, the increased supply from the adoption of this method rarely justifies expectations. When the water has been drawn down by pumping to a lower level its passage through the sandstone or chalk in the neighbourhood of the borehole is further resisted by the smaller length of borehole below the water; and there are many instances in which repeated lowering and increased pumping, both from wells and boreholes, have had the result of reducing the water available, after a few years, nearly to the original quantity. One other method — the ; / use °^ t^ie so"ca^e<^ " air-lift " — should be mentioned. This ingenious device originated in America. The object attained by the air-lift is precisely the same as that attained by putting a pump some distance down a borehole; but instead of the head being reduced by means of the pump, it is reduced by mixing the water with air. A pipe is passed down the borehole to the desired depth, and connected with air-compressors at the surface. The compressors being set to work, the air is caused to issue from the lower end of the pipe and to mix in fine bubbles with the rising column of water, sometimes several hundred feet in height. The weight of the column of water, or rather of water and air mixed, is thus greatly reduced. The method will therefore always increase the yield for the time, and it may do so permanently, though to a very much smaller extent than at first; but its economy must always be less than that of direct pumping. In considering the principles of well supplies it is important to bear the following facts in mind. The crust of the earth, so far as it is permeable and above the sea-level, receives from rainfall its supply of fresh water. That supply, so far as it is not evaporated or absorbed by vegetation, passes away by the streams or rivers, or sinks into the ground. If the strata were uniformly porous the water would lie in the rock at different depths below the surface according to the previous quantity and distribution of the rainfall. It would slowly, but constantly, percolate downwards and towards the sea, and would ooze out at or below the sea-level, rarely regaining the earth's surface earlier except in deep valleys. Precisely the same thing happens in the actual crust of the earth, except that, in the formations usually met with, the strata are so irregularly permeable that no such uniform percolation occurs, and most of the water, instead of oozing out near the sea-level, meets with obstructions which cause it to issue, sometimes below the sea-level and sometimes above it, in the form of concentrated springs. After prolonged and heavy rainfall the upper boundary of the sub-soil water is, except in high ground, nearly coincident with the surface. After prolonged droughts it still retains more or less the same figure as the surface, but at lower depths and always with less pronounced differences of level. Sedimentary rocks, formed below the sea or salt lagoons, must originally have contained salt water in their interstices. On the upheaval of such rocks above the sea-level, fresh wat from rainfall began to flow over their exposed surfaces, and so far as the strata were permeable, to lie in their saline interstices upon the salt water. The weight of the water original salt water above the sea-level, and of the fresh below water so superimposed upon it, caused an overflow Kfouaa. towards the sea. A hill, as it were, of fresh water rested in the interstices of the rock upon the salt water, and continuing to press downwards, forced out the salt water even below the leve of the sea. Subject to the rock being porous this process would be continued until the greater column of the lighter fresh water balanced the smaller head of sea water. It would conceivably take but a small fraction of the period that has in most cases elapsed since such upheavals occurred for the salt water to be thus displaced by fresh water, and for the condition to be attained as regards saturation with fresh water, in which with few exceptions we now find the porous portions of the earth's crust wherever the rainfall exceeds the evaporation. There are cases, however, as in the valley of the Jordan, where the ground is actually below the sea-level, and where, as the tota evaporation is equal to or exceeds the rainfall, the lake surface also are below the sea-level. Thus, if there is any percolation between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it must be towards the latter. There are cases also where sedimentary rocks, fornied below the sea or salt lagoons, are almost impermeable: thus the salt deposited in parts of the Upper Keuper of the New Red Sandstone, is protected by the red marls of the formation, and has never been washed out. It is now worked as an im- portant industry in 'Cheshire. Perhaps the most instructive cases of nearly uniform percola- tion in nature are those which occur in some islands or peninsulas formed wholly of sea sand. Here water is maintained above the sea-level by the annual rainfall, and may be drawn off by wells or borings. On such an island, in the centre of which a borehole is put down, brackish water may be reached far below the sea-level; the salt water forming a saucer, as it were, in which the fresh water lies. Such a salt- water saucer of fresh water is maintained full to overflowing by the rainfall, and owing to the frictional resistance of the sand and to capillary action and the fact that a given column of fresh water is balanced by a shorter column of sea water, the fresh water never sinks to the mean sea-level unless artificially abstracted. Although such uniformly permeable sand is rarely met with in great masses, it is useful to consider in greater detail so simple a case. Let the irregular thick line in fig. 5 be the section of a circular island a mile and a quarter in diameter, of uniformly permeable sand. Virtual sca?t ISfbnrt lanottuiKnat grtdf. Diumfterofulantt ftHil>y Oder ana larfenataKf \J FIG. 5. The mean sea-level is shown by the horizontal line aa, dotted where it passes through the land, and the natural mean level of saturation 66, above the sea-level, by a curved dot and dash line. The water, contained in the interstices of the sand above the mean sea-level, would (except in so far as a film, coating the sand particles, is held up by capillary attraction) gradually .sink to the sea-level if there were no rainfall. The resistance to its passage through the sand is, how- ever, sufficiently great to prevent this from occurring while percola- tion of annual rainfall takes place. Hence we may suppose that a condition has been attained in which the denser salt water below and around the saucer CC (greatly exaggerated in vertical scale) balances the less dense, but deeper WATER SUPPLY DAMS] fresh water within it. Next suppose a well to be sunk in the middle of the island, and a certain quantity of water to be drawn therefrom daily. For small supplies such a well may be perfectly successful; but however small the quantity drawn, it must obviously have the i of diminishing the volume of fresh water, which contributes to the maintenance of the level of saturation above the sea-level; and with further pumping the fresh water would be so far drawn upon that the mean level of saturation would sink, first to a curved figure — a cone of depression — such as that represented by the new level of saturation ad, and later to the figure represented by the lines ee, in which the level of saturation has everywhere been drawn below the mean sea-level. Before this stage the converse process begins, the reduced column of fresh water is no longer capable of balancing the sea water in the sand, inflow occurs at c and e, resulting finally in the well water becoming saline. The figure, in this case of uniform percolation, assumed by the water in the neighbourhood of a deep well is a surface of revolution, and, however irregular the percolation and the consequent shape of the figure, it is commonly, but somewhat incorrectly, called the " cone of depression. " It cannot have straight, or approximately straight, sides in any vertical plane, but in nature is an exceedingly irregular figure drawn about curves — not unlike those in fig. 5. In this case, as in that of a level plane of uniformly porous sand, the vertical section of the figure is tangential to the vi-rt ical well and to the natural level of the subsoil water. The importance of this illustration is to be found elsewhere than in islands, or peninsulas, or in uniformly porous sand. Where the strata are not uniformly porous, they may resist the passage of water from the direction of the sea or they may assist it ; and round the whole coast of England, in the Magnesian limestone to the north- east, in the Chalk and Greensand to the east and south., and in the New Red Sandstone to the west, the number of wells which have been abandoned as sources of potable supply, owing to the percola- tion of sea water, is very great. Perhaps the first important cases occurred in the earlier part of the igth century on the Lancashire shore of the Mersey estuary, where, one after another, deep wells in the New Red Sandstone had to be abandoned for most purposes. On the opposite side, in the Cheshire peninsula, the total quantity of water drawn has been much less, but even here serious warnings have been received. In 1895 the single well then supplying Eastbourne was almost suddenly rendered unfit for use, and few years pass without some similar occurrence of a more or less serious kind. The remarkable suddenness with which such changes are brought about is not to be wondered at when the true cause is considered. The action of sandstone in filtering salt waters was investigated in 1878 by Dr Isaac Roberts, F.R.S., who showed that when salt water was allowed to percolate blocks of sandstone, the effluent was at first nearly fresh, the salt being filtered out and crystallized for the most part near the surface of ingress to the sandstone. As the process continued the salt-saturated layer, incapable of further effective filtration, grew in thickness downwards, until in the iprocess of time it filled the whole mass of sandstone. But before this was accom- plished the filtration of the effluent became defective, and brackish water was received, which rapidly increased nearly to the saltness of the inflow. Into such blocks, charged with salt crystals and thoroughly dried, fresh water was then passed, and precisely the converse process took place. A thickness of only 12 in. of Bunter sandstone proved at first to be capable of removing more than 80% of the chlorides from sea water; but, after the slow passage of only 0-6 gallon through I cub. ft. of stone, the proportion removed fell to 8-51 %. The general lesson to be learned from these facts is, that if the purity of the water of any well not far removed from the sea is to be maintained, that water must not be pumped down much below the sea-level. In short, the quantity of water drawn must in no case be allowed to exceed the quantity capable of being supplied to the well through the medium of the surrounding soil and rock, by rain falling upon the surface of the land. If it exceeds this, the stock of fresh water held in the inter- stices of the rock, and capable of flowing towards the well, must disappear; and the deficit between the supply and &*•/>' demand can only be made up by water filtering from the sea -^Si'i W •.-• and reaching the well at first quite free from salt, but sooner V or later in a condition unfit for use. 395 r river water whatever. Thus natural or artificial surfaces which are completely permeable to rainfall may become almost impermeable when protected by surface water from drought and frost, and from earth-worms, vegetation and artificial disturbance. The cause of this choking of the pores is precisely the same as that described below in the case of sand filters. But in order that the action may be complete the initial resistance to percolation of water at every part of the soil must be such that the motion of the water through it shall be insufficient to disturb the water-borne mineral and organic particles lodged on the surface or in the interstices of the soil. If, therefore, a reservoir so formed survives the first few years without serious leakage, it is not likely, in the absence of artificial disturbance, to succumb owing to leakage at a later period. Hence, as the survival of the fittest, there are many artificial waters, with low dams consisting exclusively of earth — and sometimes very sandy earth — satisfactorily performing their functions with no visible leakage. But it is never advisable to rely upon this action, where, as in the case of a reservoir for water supply, large portions of naturally permeable bottom are liable to be uncovered and exposed to the weather. The most important dams are those which close the outlets of existing valleys, but a dam may be wholly below ground, and according to the commoner method of construction in Great Britain, wherever sufficiently impermeable rising ground is not met with at the intended boundary of a reservoir, a trench is cut along such portion, and carried down to rock or such other formation as, in the engineer's opinion, forms a sufficiently impermeable sheet beneath the whole surface to be covered with water. Into this trench so- called " puddled clay," that is, clay rendered plastic by kneading with water, is filled and thoroughly worked with special tools, and trodden in layers. In this manner an underground compartment is formed, the bottom of which is natural, and the sides partly natural and partly artificial, both offering high resistance to the passage of water. Above ground, if the water level is to be higher than the natural boundary, the same puddle walls or cores are carried up to the required level, and are supported as they rise by embankments of earth on either side. Fig. 6 is a typical section of a low dam of this class, impounding water upon gravel overlying impermeable clay. In such a structure the whole attention as regards water-tightness should be concen- trated upon the puddle wall or core. When, as may happen in dry seasons, the puddle wall remains long above the water level, it parts with moisture and contracts. It is essential that this contraction shall not proceed to such an extent as may possibly produce cracking. Drying is retarded, and the contraction due to a given degree of drying is greatly reduced, by the presence of sand and small stones among the clay. Nearly all clays, notably those from the Glacial deposits, naturally contain sand and stones, 40 to 5O%_ by weight of which is not too much if uniformly distributed and if the clay is otherwise good. But in the lower parts of the trench, where the Earthen dams. DAMS Any well-made earthen embankment of moderate height, and of such thickness and uniformity of con- struction as to ensure freedom from excessive percolation at any point, will in the course of time become almost impermeable to surface water standing against it; and when permeable rocks are covered with many feet of soil, the leakage through such soil from standing water newly placed above it generally diminishes rapidly, and in process of time often ceases entirely. Even the beds of sluggish rivers flowing over porous strata generally become so impermeable that excavations made in their neighbour- hood, though freely collecting the subsoil water, receive no FIG. 6. — Section of Typical Low Earth Embankment in Flat Plain. clay can never become dry, plasticity and ductility are, for reasons to be explained below, the first consideration, and there the pro- portion of grit should be lower. The resistance of clay to percolation by water depends chiefly upon the density of the clay, while that density is rapidly reduced if the clay is permitted to absorb water. Thus, if dry clay is prevented from expanding, and one side be sub- jected to water pressure while the other side is held up by a com- pletely porous medium, the percolation will be exceedingly small; but if the pressure preventing the expansion is reduced the clay will swell, and the percolation will increase. On the restoration of the pressure, the density will be again increased by the reduction of the 396 WATER SUPPLY [DAMS water-filled interstices, and the percolation will be correspondingly checked. Hence the extreme importance in high dams with clay cores of loading the clay well for some time before water pressure is brought against it. If this is done, the largest possible quantity of clay will be slowly but surely forced into any space, and, being pre- vented from expanding, it will be unable subsequently to absorb more water. The percolation will then be very small, and the risk of disintegration will be reduced to a minimum. The embankments on either side of the puddle wall are merely to support the puddle and to keep it moist above the ground level when the reservoir is low. They may be quite per- meable, but to prevent undue settlement and distortion they must, like the puddle, be well consolidated. In order to prevent a tendency to slip, due to sudden and partial changes of satura- tion, the outer embankment should always be permeable, and well drained at the base except close to the puddle. The less permeable materials should be confined to the inner parts of the embankments; this is especially important in the case of the inner embankment in order that, when the water level falls, they may remain moist without becoming liable to slip. The inner slope should be protected from the action of waves by so-called " hand-pitching," consisting of roughly- squared stonework, bedded upon a layer of broken stone to prevent local disturbance of the embankment by action of the water between the joints of the larger stones. In mountain valleys, rock or shale, commonly the most impermeable materials met with in such positions, are sometimes not reached till con- siderable depths are attained. There are several cases in Great Britain where it has been neces- sary to carry down the puddle trench to about 200 ft. below the surface of the ground vertically above those parts. The highest dams of this class in the British islands impound water to a level of about no ft. above the bottom of the valley. Such great works have generally been well con- structed, and there are many which after fifty years of use are perfectly sound and water-tight, and afford no evidence of deterioration. On the other hand, the partial or total failure of smaller dams of this description, to retain the reservoir water, has been much more common in the past than is generally supposed. Throughout Great Britain there are still many reservoirs, with earthen dams, which cannot safely be filled; and others which, after remaining for years in this condition, have been repaired. From such cases and their successful repair valuable experience of the causes of failure may be derived. Most of these causes are perfectly well under- stood by experienced engineers, but instances of Era Ion bv ma'construction of recent date are still met with., A f™l " few such cases will now be mentioned. The base of a puddle trench is often found to have been placed upon rock, perfectly sound in itself, but having joints which are not impermeable. The loss of water by leakage through such joints or fissures below the puddle wall may or may not be a serious matter in itself; but if at any point there is sufficient movement of water across the base of the trench to produce the slightest erosion of the clay above it, that movement almost in- variably increases. The finer particles of clay in the line of the joint are washed away, while the sandy particles, which nearly all natural clays contain, remain behind and form a constantly deepening porous vein of sand crossing the base of the puddle. Percolation the sand. Thus the permeable vein grows vertically rather than horizontally, and ultimately assumes the form of a thin vertical sheet traversing the puddle wall, often diagonally in plan, and having a thickness which has varied in different cases from a few inches to a couple of feet or more, of almost clean sand rising to an observed height of 30 or 40 ft., and only arrested in its upward growth by the necessary lowering of the reservoir water to avoid serious danger. The settlement of the plastic clay above the eroded portion soon produces a surface depression at the top of the embankment over or FIG. 7. — Earth Embankment, with stone toe and concrete trench. through this sand is thus added to the original leakage. Having passed through the puddle core the leaking water sometimes rises to the _surface of the ground, producing a visibly turbid spring. As erosion proceeds, the contraction of the space from which the clay is washed continues, chiefly by the sinking down of the clay above FIG. 8. — Leakage due to improperly formed discharge culvert through puddle wall of reservoir. nearly over the leakage, and thus sometimes gives the first warning of impending danger. It is not always possible to prevent any leakage whatever through the strata below the bottom or beyond the ends of the trench, but it is always possible to render such leakage entirely harmless to the work above it, and to carry the water by relief-pipes to visible points at the lower toe of the dam. Wherever the base of a puddle wall cannot be worked into a continuous bed of clay or shale, or tied into a groove cut in sound rock free from water-bearing fissures, the safest course is to base it on an artificial material at once impermeable and incapable of erosion, interposed between the rock and the puddled clay. Water-tight concrete is a suitable material for the purpose; it need not be made so thick as the puddle core, and is therefore sometimes used with considerable advantage in lieu of the puddle for the whole depth below ground. In fig. 7 a case is shown to be so treated. Obviously, the junction between the puddle and the concrete might have been made at any lower level. However well the work may be done, the lower part of a mass of puddled clay invariably settles into a denser mass when weighted with the clay ( above. If, theretore, one part is held up, fett]ement. by unyielding rock for example, while an adjoining part has no support but the clay beneath it, a fracture— ^-not unlike a geological fault — must result. Fig. 8 is a part longitudinal section through the puddle wall of an earthen embankment. The puddle wall is crossed by a pedestal of concrete carry- ing the brick discharge culvert. The puddle at a was originally held up by the flat head of this pedestal; not so the puddle at 6, which under the superin- weight settled down and produced the fault be, cumbent _____ - . - accompanied with a shearing or tangential strain or, less probably, with actual fracture in the direction bd. Serious leakage at once began between c and 6 and washed out the clay, particle by particle, but did not wash out the sand associated with it, which remained DAMS] WATER SUPPLY 397 behind in the crevice. The clay roof, rather than the walls of this crevice of sand, gave way and pressed down to fill the vacancy, and the leakage worked up along the weakened plane of tangential strain bd. On the appearance of serious leakage the overflow level of the water originally at ef was lowered for safety to gh; and for many years the reservoir was worked with its general level much below gh. The sand-filled vein, several inches in width, was found, on taking out the puddle, to have terminated near the highest level to which the water was allowed to rise, but not to have worked downwards. There can be little doubt that the puddle at the right-hand angle j w.is also strained, but not to the point of rupture, as owing to the rise of the sandstone base there was comparatively little room for settlement on that side. In repairing this work the perfectly safe form shown by the dotted lines ka, kj was substituted for the flat surface aj, and this alone, if originally adopted, would have pre- vented dangerous shearing strains. As an additional precaution, however, deep tongues of concrete like those in fig. 7 were built in the rock throughout the length of the trench, and carried up the sides and over the top of the ped- estal. The puddle was then replaced, and remains sensibly watertight. The FIG. 9. — Overhanging Rock Leakage. lesson taught by fig. 8 applies also to the ends of puddle walls where they abut against steep faces of rock. Unless such faces are so far below the surface of the puddle, and so related to the lower parts of the trench, that no tension, and consequent tendency to separation of the puddle from the rock, can possibly take place, and unless abundant time is given, before the reservoir is charged, for the settlement and compression of the puddle to be completed, leakage with disastrous results may occur. In other cases leakage and failure have arisen from allowing a part of the rock bottom or end of a puddle trench to overhang, as in fig. 9. Here the straining of the original horizontal puddle in settling down is indicated in a purposely exaggerated way by the curved lines. There is considerable distortion ofthe clay, resulting from combined shearing and tensile stress, above each of the steps of rock, and reaching its maximum at and above the highest rise ab, where it has proved sufficient to produce a dangerous line of weakness ac, the tension at a either causing actual rupture, or such increased porosity as to permit of percolation capable of keeping open the wound. In such cases as are shown in figs. 8 and 9 the growth of the sand vein is not vertical, but inclined towards the plane of maximum shearing strain. Fig. 9 also illustrates a weak place at b where the clay either never pressed hard against the overhanging rock or has actually drawn away therefrom in the process of settling towards the lower part to the left. When it is considered that a parting of the clay, sufficient to allow the thinnest film of water to pass, may start the formation of a vein of porous sand in the manner above explained, it will be readily seen how great must be the attention to details, in unpleasant places below ground, and below the water level of the surrounding area, if safety is to be secured. In cases like fig. 9 the rock should always be cut away to a slope, such as that shown in fig. 10. If no considerable difference of water-pressure had been allowed between the two sides of the puddle trench in figs. 8 or 9 until the clay had ceased to settle down, !* 's Pr°bable that the interstices, at first formed between the puddle and the concrete or rock, would have been suffici- ently filled to prevent in- jurious percolation at any future time. Hence it is always a safe precaution to afford plenty of time for such settlement before FIG. 10. — Proper Figure for Rock Slope. a reservoir is charged with water. But to all such precautions should be added the use of concrete or brickwork tongues running longitudinally at the bottom of the trench, such as those shown at a higher level in fig. 7. In addition to defects arising out of the condition or figure of the rock or of artificial work upon which the puddle clay rests, the puddle Defect* la wa" itself is °"en defective. The original material may have been perfectly satisfactory, but if, for example, in wall. *"e Pr°gres? of the work a stream of water is allowed to flow across it, fine clay is sometimes washed away, and the gravel or sand associated with it left to a sufficient extent to permit f future percolation. Unless such places are carefully dug out or re-puddled before the work of filling is resumed, the percolation may increase along the vertical plane where it is greatest, by the erosion and falling in of the clay roof, as in the other cases cited. Two instances probably originating in some such cause are shown in fig. 1 1 in the relative positions in which they were found, and carefully measured, as the puddle was removed from a crippled reservoir dam. These fissures are in vertical planes stretching entirely across the puddle trench, and reaching in one case, oa, nearly to the highest level at which the reservoir had been worked for seventeen years after the leakage had been discovered. The larger and older of these veins was 44$ ft. high, of which 14 ft. was above the original ground level, and it is interesting to note that this portion, owing probably to easier access for the water from the reservoir and reduced com- pression of the puddle, was much wider than below. The little vein to the left marked bb, about 3! ft. deep, is curious. It looks like the beginning of success of an effort made by a slight percolation during the whole life of the reservoir to increase itself materially by erosion. EmbarJ&nent, malty intended top water level - Highest working level allowed f*»t FIG. n. — Vertical Vein of Leakage. There is no reason to believe that the initial cause of such a leakage could be developed except during construction, and it is certain that once begun it must increase. Only a knowledge of the great loss of capital that has resulted from abortive reservoir construction justifies this notice of defects which can always be avoided, and are too often the direct result, not of design, but of parsimony in pro- viding during the execution of such works, and especially below ground, a sufficiency of intelligent, experienced and conscientious supervision. In some cases, as, for example, when a high earthen embankment crosses a gorge, and there is plenty of stone to be had, it is desirable to place the outer bank upon a toe or platform of rubble stonework, as in fig. 7, by which means the height of the earthen portion is reduced and complete drainage secured. But here again great care must be exercised in the packing and consolidation of the stones, which will otherwise crack and settle. f As with many other engineering works, the tendency to slipping either of the sides of the valley or of the reservoir embankment itself has often given trouble, and has sometimes led to serious disaster. WATER SUPPLY [DAMS This, however, is^ kind of failure not always attributable to want of proper supervision during construction, but rather to improper choice of the site, or treatment of the case, by those primarily responsible. In .countries where good clay or retentive earth cannot be obtained, numerous alternative expedients have been adopted with more or less success. In the mining districts wMi'aht- °f America, for example^ where timber is cheap, rough phragms stone embankments have been lined on the water face efwood, wjtjj timber to form the water-tight septum. In such cre- full depth d, while the area s

~ 2 ' I +sin DAMS] WATER SUPPLY 401 RESERVOIR EMPTY RESERVOIR FULL ELLIPSES Or STRESS VERTICAL PRESSURES ON HORIZONTAL JOINTS. HORIZONTAL PRESSURE) ON VERTICAL JOINTS. SH E AHINS STR E S S ES FIG. 16. — Showing Stresses at base of model dam determined experimentally. where P is the horizontal pressure of the earth against the wall exerted at one-third its height, w the weight of unit volume of the material, x the height of the wall, and 0 the angle of repose of the material. That the pressure so given exceeds the maximum possible pressure we do not doubt; and, conversely, iT we put p,_w**.i +sin 2 I— sin ' we may have equal confidence that P' will be less than the maximum pressure which, if exerted by the wall against the earth, will be borne without disturbance. But like every pure theory the principles of conjugate pressures in earth may lead to danger if not applied with due consideration for the angle of repose of the material, the modi- fications brought about by the limited width of artificial embank- ments, the possible contraction away from the masonry, of clayey materials during dry weather for some feet in depth and the tendency of surface waters to produce scour between the wall and the em- bankment. Both the Neuadd and the Fisher Tarn dams are largely dependent upon the support of earthen embankments with much economy and with perfectly satisfactory results. In the construction of the Vyrnwy masonry dam Portland cement concrete was used in the joints. When more than six months old, 9 in. cubes of this material never failed under compression below in tons per sq. ft. with an average of 167 tons; and the mean resistance of all the blocks tested between two and three years after moulding exceeded 215 tons per sq. ft., while blocks cut from the concrete of the dam gave from 181 to 329 tons per sq. ft. It has been shown that the best hydraulic lime, or volcanic puzzuolana and lime, if properly ground while slaking, and otherwise treated in the best-known manner, as well as some of the so-called natural (calcareous) cements, will yield results certainly not inferior to those obtained from Portland cement. The only objection that can in any case be urged against most of the natural products is that a longer time is required for induration; but in the case of masonry dams sufficient time necessarily passes before any load, beyond that of the very gradually increasing masonry, is brought upon the structure. The result of using properly treated natural limes is not to be judged from the careless manner in which such limes have often been used in the past. Any stone of which it is desirable to build a masonry dam would certainly possess an average strength at least as great as the above figures for concrete; the clay slate of the Lower Silurian formation, used in the case of the Vyrnwy dam, had an ultimate crushing strength of from 700 to 1000 tons per sq. ft. If, therefore, with such materials the work is well done, and is not subsequently liable to be wasted or disintegrated by expansion or contraction or other actions which in the process of time affect all exposed surfaces, it is clear that 1 5 to 20 tons per sq. ft. must be a perfectly safe load. There are many structures at present in existence bearing considerably greater loads than this, and the granite ashlar masonry of at least one, the Bear Valley dam in California, is subject to compressive stresses, reaching, when the reservoir is full, at least 40 to 50 tons per sq. ft., while certain brickwork linings in mining shafts are subject to very high circumferential stresses, due to known water-pressures. In one case which has been investigated this circumferential pressure exceeds 26 tons per sq. ft., and the brickwork, which is 18 in. thick and 20 ft. internal diameter, is perfectly sound and water-tight. In portions of the structure liable to important changes of pressure from the rise and fall of the water and subject to the additional stresses which expansion and contraction by changes of temperature and of moisture induce, and in view of the great difficulty of securing that the average modulus of elasticity in all parts of the structure shall be approximately the same, it is probably desirable to limit the calculated load upon any external work, even of the best kind, to 15 or 20 tons per sq. ft. It is clear that the material upon which any high masonry dam is founded must also have a large factor of safety against crushing under the greatest load that the dam can impose upon it, and this consideration unfits any site for the construction of a masonry dam where sound rock, or at least a material equal in strength to the strongest shale, cannot be had; even in the case of such a material as shale the foundation must be well below the ground. 402 WATER SUPPLY The actual construction of successful masonry dams has varied from the roughest rubble masonry to ashlar work. It Materials. ls Pr°bable, however, that, all things considered, random rubble in which the flattest side of each block of stone is dressed to a fairly uniform surface, so that it may be bedded as it were in a tray of mortar, secures the nearest approach to uniform elasticity. Such stones may be of any size subject to each of them covering only a small proportion of the width of the structure (in the Vyrnwy dam they reached 8 or 10 tons each), and the spaces between them, where large enough, must be similarly built in with smaller, but always the largest possible, stones; spaces too small for this treatment must be filled and rammed with concrete. All stones must be beaten down into their beds until the mortar squeezes up into the joints around them. The faces of the work may be of squared masonry, thoroughly tied into the hearting; but, in view of the expansion and contraction mentioned below, it is better that the face masonry should not be coursed. Generally speaking, in the excavations for the foundations springs are met with; these may be only sufficient to indicate a continuous dampness at certain beds or joints of the rock, but all such places should be connected by relief drains carried to visible points at the back of the dam. It should be impossible, in short, for any part of the rock beneath the dam to become charged with water under pressure, either directly from the water in the reservoir or from higher places in the mountain sides. For similar reasons care must be taken to ensure that the structure of the water face of the dam shall be the least permeable of any part. In the best examples this has been secured by bedding the stones near to the water face in somewhat finer mortar than the rest, and sometimes also by placing pads to fill the joints for several inches from the water face, so that the mortar was kept away from the face and was well held up to its work. On the removal of the pads, or the cutting out of the face of the mortar where pads were not used, the vacant joint was gradually filled with almost dry mortar, a hammer and caulking tool being used to consolidate it. By these means practical impermeability was obtained. If the pores of the water face are thus rendered extremely fine, the surface water, carrying more or less fine detritus and organic matter, will soon close them entirely and assist in making that face the least permeable portion of the structure. But no care in construction can prevent the compression of the mass as the superincumbent weight comes upon it. Any given yard of height measured during construction, or at any time after construction, will be less than a yard when additional weight has been placed upon it; hence the ends of such dams placed against rock surfaces must move with respect to those surfaces when the superincumbent load conies upon them. This action is obviously much reduced where the rock sides of the valley rise slowly; but in cases where the rock is very steep, the safest course is to face the facts, and not to depend for water-tightness upon the cementing of the masonry to the rock, but rather to provide a vertical key, or dowel joint, of some material like asphalt, which will always remain water-tight. So far as the writer has been able to observe or ascertain, there are very few masonry dams in Europe or America which have not been cracked transversely in their higher parts. They generally leak a little near the junction with the rock, and at some other joints in intermediate positions. In the case of the Neuadd dam this difficulty was met by deliberately omitting the mortar in transverse joints at regular intervals near the top of the dam, except just at their faces, where it of course cracks harmlessly, and by filling the rest with asphalt. Serious move- ment from expansion and contraction does not usually extend to levels which are kept moderately damp, or to the greater mass of the dam, many feet below high-water level. The first masonry dam of importance constructed in Great Britain was that upon the river Vyrnwy, a tributary of the Severn, in con- nexion with the Liverpool water-supply (Plate I.). Its height, subject to water-pressure, is about 134 ft., and a carriage-way is carried on arches at an elevation of about 1 8 ft. higher. As this dam is about 1 180 ft. in length from rock to rock, it receives practic- [DAMS ally no support from the sides of the valley. Its construction drew much attention to the subject of masonry dams in England — where the earthwork dam, with a wall of puddled clay, had hitherto been almost universal — and since its completion nine more masonry dams of smaller size have been completed. In connexion with the Elan and Claerwen works, in Mid-Wales, for the supply of Birmingham, six masonry dams were projected, three of which are completed, in- cluding the Caban Gocn dam, 590 ft. long at the water level, and subject to a water-pressure of 152 ft. above the rock foundations and of 122 ft. above the river bed, and the Craig-yr-allt Goch dam, subject to a head of 133 ft. The latter dam is curved in plan, the radius being 740 ft. and the chord of the arc 515 ft. In the Derwent Valley scheme, in connexion with the water supplies of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham and Sheffield, six more masonry dams have received parliamentary sanction. Of these the highest is the Hag- glee, on the Ashop, a tributary of the Derwent, which will impound water to about 136 ft. above the river bed, the length from rock to rock being 980 ft. Two of these dams are now in course of construc- tion, one of which, the Howden, will be 1080 ft. in length and will impound water to a depth of 114 ft. above the river bed. In 1892 the excavation was begun for the foundations of a masonry dam across the Croton river, in connexion with the supply of New York. The length of this dam from rock to rock at the overflow level is about 1500 ft. The water face, over the maximum depth at which that face cuts the rock foundations, is subject to a water-pressure of about 260 ft., while the height of the dam above the river bed is 163 ft. The section, shown in fig. 17, has been well considered. The hearting is of rubble masonry, and the faces are coursed ashlar. T bnresttfqrtof '.^^ foiuulation,. vvv voc FIG. 17. — Section of Croton Dam. So-called " natural cement " has been used, except during frosty weather, when Portland cement was substituted on account of its more rapid setting. An important feature in connexion with this dam is the nature of the foundation upon which it stands. Part of the rock is schist, but the greater portion limestone, similar in physical qualities to the Carboniferous limestone of Great Britain. The lowest part of the surface of this rock was reached after excavat- ing through alluvial deposits to a depth of about 70 ft., but owing to its fissured and cavernous nature it became necessary to ex- cavate to much greater depths, reaching in places more than I2O ft. below the original bottom of the valley. Great pains appear to have been taken to ascertain that the cavernous portions of the rock had been cut out and built up before the building was begun. The Furens dam, already referred to as the earliest type of a scientifically designed structure of the kind, is subject to a pressure of about 166 ft. of water; the valley it crosses is only about 300 ft. wide at the water level, and the dam is curved in plan to a radius of 828 ft. Much discussion has taken place as to the utility of such curvature. The recent investigations already referred to indicate the desirability of curving dams in plan in order to reduce the possi- bility of tension and infiltration of water at the upstream face. In narrow rock gorges extremely interesting and complex problems re- lating to the combined action of horizontal and vertical stresses arise, and in some such cases it is evident that much may be done by means of horizontal curvature to reduce the quantity of masonry without reduction of strength. The Bear Valley dam, California, is the most WATER SUPPLY PLATE. THE VYRNWY VALLEY, MONTGOMERYSHIRE, June 1888. From Photographs by J . Maclardy. XXVIII. 4oj. LAKE VYRNWY, December 1889. RESERVOIRS] WATER SUPPLY 403 daring example in existence of the employment of the arch principle. Its height from the rock bed is 64 ft., and it is subject during floods to a head of water not much less. The length of the chord of the arc is the valley is about 250 ft. and the radius 335 ft. The dam was begun in 1883, with a base 20 ft. thick, narrowing to 13 ft. at a height of 16 ft. The cost of this thickness being regarded as too great, it abruptly reduced to 8 ft. 6 in., and for the remaining 48 ft. it was tapered up to a final width of about 3 ft. The masonry is de- scribed by Mr Schuyler as " a rough uncut granite ashlar, with a hearting of rough rubble all laid in cement mortar and gravel." This dam has been in satisfactory use since 1885, and the slight filtration through the masonry which occurred at first is said to have almost entirely ceased. In New South Wales thirteen thin concrete dams, dependent upon horizontal curvature for their resistance to water pressure, have been constructed in narrow gorges at comparatively small cost to impound water for the use of villages. The depth of water varies from 1 8 ft. to 76 ft. and five of them have cracked vertically, owing apparently to the impossibility of the base of the dam partaking of the changes of curvature induced by changes of temperature and of moisture in the upper parts. It is stated, however, that these cracks close up and become practically water-tight as the water rises. Something has been said of the failures of earthen dams. Many masonry dams have also failed, but, speaking generally, we know less of the causes which have led to such failures. The Failures, examination of one case, however, namely, the bursting in 1895 of the Bouzey dam, near Epinal, in France, by which many lives were lost, has brought out several points of great interest. It is probably the only instance in which a masonry dam has slipped upon its foundations, and also the only case in which a masonry dam has actually overturned, while curiously enough there is every probability that the two circumstances had no connexion with each other. A short time after the occurrence of the catastrophe the dam was visited by Dr W. C. Unwin, F.R.S., and the writer, and a very careful examination of the work was made by them. Some of the blocks of rubble masonry carried down the stream weighed several hundred tons. The original section of the dam is shown by the continuous thick line in fig. 18, from which it appears that the work was subject to a pressure of only about 65 ft. of water. In the year 1884 a length V. 450-0 1 FIG. 19. — Elevation and Plan of Bouzey Dam. FIG. 1 8. — Section of Bouzey Dam. of 450 ft. of the dam, out of a total length of 1706 ft., slipped upon its foundation of soft sandstone, and became slightly curved in plan as shown at a, b, fig. 19, the maximum movement from the original straight line being about I ft. Further sliding on the base was pre- vented by the construction of the cross-lined portions in the section (fig. 18). These precautions were perfectly effective in securing the safety of the dam up to the height to which the counterfort was carried. As a consequence of this horizontal bending of the dam the vertical cracks shown in fig. 19 appeared and were repaired. Eleven 1 See Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxxvi. pp. 91-95. years after this, and about fifteen years after the dam was first brought into use, it overturned on its outer edge, at about the level indicated by the dotted line just above the counterfort; and there is no good reason to attribute to the movement of 1884, or to the vertical cracks it caused, any influence in the overturning of 1895. Some of the worst I cracks were, in- deed, entirely be- yond the portion overturned, which consisted of the mass 570 ft. long by 37 ft. in depth, and weighing about 20,000 tons, shown in eleva- tion in fig. 19. The line of pres- sures as generally given for this dam with the reservoir full, on the hypothesis that the density of the masonry was a little over 2, is shown by „, long and short Water Fate" dots in fig. 1 8. Materials actu- ally collected from the dam indicate that the mean density did not exceed 1-85 when dry and 2-07 when saturated, which would bring the line of pressures even closer to the outer face at the top of the counterfort. In any event it must have approached well within si ft. of the outer face, and was more nearly five-sixths than two-thirds of the width of the darn distant from the water face; there must, therefore, have been considerable vertical tension at the water face, variously com- puted according to the density assumed at from ij to 1} ton per square foot. This, if the dam had been thoroughly well constructed, either with hydraulic lime or Portland cement mortar, would have been easily borne. The materials, however, were poor, and it is probable that rupture by tension in a roughly horizontal plane took place. Directly this occurred, the front part of the wall was sub- ject to an additional overturning pressure of about 35 ft. of water acting upwards, equivalent to about a ton per square foot, which would certainly, if it occurred through- out any considerable length of the dam, have immediately overturned it. But, as a matter of fact, the dam actually stood for about fifteen years. Of this circumstance there are two possible explanations. It is known that more or less leakage took place through the dam, and to moderate this the water face was from time to time coated and repaired with cement. Any cracks were thus, no doubt, temporarily closed ; and as the structure of the rest of the dam was porous, no opportunity was given for the per- colating water to accumulate in the horizontal fissures to anything like the head in the reservoir. But in reservoir work such coatings are not to be trusted, and a single horizontal crack might admit sufficient water to cause an uplift. Then, again, it must be remembered that although the full consequences of the facts described might arise in a section of the dam I ft. thick (if that section were entirely isolated), they could not arise throughout the length unless the adjoining sections were subject to like conditions. Any horizontal fissure in a weak place would, in the nature of things, strike somewhere a stronger place, and the final failure would be deferred. Time would then become an element. By reason of the constantly changing temperatures and the frequent filling and emptying of the reservoir, expansion and contraction, which are always at work tending to produce relative movements wherever one portion of a structure is weaker than another, must have assisted the water-pressure in the extension of the horizontal cracks, which, growing slowly during the fifteen years, provided at last the area required to enable the intrusive water to overbalance the little remaining stability of the dam. RESERVOIRS From very ancient times in India, Ceylon and elsewhere, reservoirs of great area, but generally of small depth, have been built and used for the purposes of irrigation; and in modern times, especially in India and America, comparatively shallow reservoirs have been constructed of much greater area, and in some cases of greater capacity, than any in the United Kingdom. 4-04 WATER SUPPLY [PURIFICATION Yet the hilly parts of the last-named country are rich in magni- ficent sites at sufficient altitudes for the supply of any parts by gravitation, and capable, if properly laid out, of affording a volume of water, throughout the driest seasons, far in excess of the probable demand for a long future. Many of the great towns had already secured such sites within moderate distances, and had constructed reservoirs of considerable size, when, in 1879, 1880 and 1892 respectively, Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham obtained statutory powers to draw water from relatively great distances, viz. from Thirlmere in Cumberland, in the case of Manchester; from the river Vyrnwy, Montgomery- shire, a tributary of the Severn, in the case of Liverpool; and from the rivers Elan and Claerwen in Radnorshire, tributaries of the Wye, in the case of Birmingham. Lake Vyrnwy, com- pleted in 1889, includes a reservoir which is still by far the largest in Europe. This reservoir is situated in a true Glacial lake-basin, and having therefore all the appearance of a natural lake, is commonly known as Lake Vyrnwy. It is 825 ft. above the sea, has an area of 1121 acres, an available capacity exceeding 12,000 Vyrawy. mili;on gallons, and a length of nearly 5 m. Its position in North Wales is shown in black in fig. 20, and the two views on Plate I. show respectively the portion of the valley visible from the dam before impounding began, and the same portion as a lake on the completion of the work. Before the valves in the dam were closed, the village of Llanwddyn, the parish church, and many farmsteads were demolished. The church was rebuilt outside the watershed, and the remains from the old churchyard were removed to a new cemetery adjoining it. The fact that this valley is a post-Glacial lake-basin was attested by the borings and excavations made for the founda- tions of the dam. The trench in which the masonry was founded covered an area 120 ft. wide at the bottom, and extending for 1172 ft. across the valley. Its site had been determined by about 190 borings, probings and shafts, which, following upon the indications afforded by the rocks above ground, proved that the rock bed crossing the valley was higher at this point than elsewhere. Here then, buried in alluvium at a depth of 50 to 60 ft. from the surface, was found the rock bar of the post-Glacial lake; at points farther up the valley, borings nearly 100 ft. deep had failed to reach the rock. The Glacial striae, and the dislocated rocks — moved a few inches or feet from their places, and others, at greater distances, turned over, and beginning to assume the sub-angular form of Glacial boulders — were found precisely as the glacier, receding from the bar, and giving place to the ancient lake, had left them, covered and preserved by sand and gravel washed from the terminal morain. Later came the alluvial silting-up. Slowly, but surely, the deltas of the tributary streams advanced into the lake, floods deposited their burdens of detritus in the deeper places, the lake shallowed and shrank and in its turn yielded to the winding river of an alluvial strath, covered with peat, reeds and alders, and still liable to floods. It is interesting to record that during the construction of the works the implements of Neolithic man were found, near the margin of the modern lake, below the peat, and above the alluvial clay on which it rested. Several of the reser- voir sites in Wales, shown by shaded lines in fig. 20, are in all prob- ability similar post-Glacial lake-basins, and in the course of time some of them may contain still greater reservoirs. They are pro- vided with well-proportioned watersheds and rainfall, and being nearly all more than 500 ft. above the sea, may be made available for the supply of pure water by gravitation to any part of England. In 1892 the Corporation of Birmingham obtained powers for the construction of six reservoirs on the rivers Elan and Claerwen, also shown in fig. 20, but the sites of these reservoirs are long narrow valleys, not lake-basins. The three reservoirs on the Elan were completed in 1904. Their joint capacity is 11,320 million gallons and this will be increased to about 18,000 millions when the remain- ing three are built. Of natural lakes in Great Britain raised above their ordinary levels that the upper portions may be utilized as reservoirs, Loch Katrine supplying Glasgow is well known. Whitehaven is similarly suppliec from Ennerdale, and in the year 1894 Thirlmere in Cumberland was brought into.use, as already mentioned, for the supply of Manchester The corporation have statutory power to raise the lake 50 ft., at which level it will have an available capacity of about 8000 million gallons; to secure this a masonry dam has been constructed, though the lake is at present worked at a lower level. It is obvious that the water of a reservoir must never be allowec to rise above a certain prescribed height at which the works will b< perfectly safe. In all reservoirs impounding the natura Overflow. gow { a stream| th;s involves the use of an overflow Where the dam is of masonry it may be used as a weir; but where earthwork is employed, the overflow, commonly known in such a case as the " bye-wash," should be an entirely independent work consisting of a low weir of sufficient length to prevent an unsafe rise of the water level, and of a narrow channel capable of easily carryin; away any water that passes over the weir. The absence of one or botl of these conditions has led to the failure of many dams. Reservoirs unsafe from this cause still exist in the United Kingdom. iVhere the contributory drainage area exceeds 5000 acres, the dis- harge, even allowing for so-called " cloud-bursts," rarely or never xceeds the rate of about 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, or 500 times the minimum dry weather flow, taken as one-fifth of a :ubic foot ; and if we provide against such an occasional discharge, with a possible maximum of 400 cub. ft. at much more distant ntervals, a proper factor of safety will be allowed. But when a eservoir is placed upon a smaller area the conditions are materially :hanged. The rainfall which produces, as the average of all the ributaries in the larger area, 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, s made up of groups of rainfall of very varying intensity, falling upon different portions of that area, so that upon any section of it the ntensity of discharge may be much greater. The height to which the water is permitted to rise above the sill of the overflow depends upon the height of the embankment above hat level (in the United Kingdom commonly 6 or 7 ft.), and this again should be governed by the height of possible waves. In open >laces that height is seldom more than about one and a half times the iquare root of the " fetch " or greatest distance in nautical miles rom which the wave has travelled to the point in question ; but in narrow reaches or lakes it is relatively higher. In lengths not ex- ceeding about 2 m., twice this height may be reached, giving for a 2-mile " fetch " about 3J ft., or if ft. above the mean level. Above this again, the height of the wave should be allowed for " wash," naking the embankment in such a case not less than sJ ft. above the lighest water-level. If, then, we determine that the depth of over- low shall not exceed I j ft., we arrive at 6f ft. as sufficient for the icight of the embankment above the sill of the overflow. Obviously we may shorten the sill at the cost of extra height of embankment, but it is rarely wise to do so. The overflow sill or weir should be a masonry structure of rounded vertical section raised a foot or more above the waste-water course, in which case for a depth of ij ft. it will discharge, over every foot of length, about 6 cub. ft. per second. Thus, if the drainage area exceeds 5000 acres, and we provide for the passage of 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, such a weir will be 50 ft. long for every lopoacres. But, as smaller areas are approached, the excessive local rainfalls of short duration must be provided for, and beyond these there are extraordinarily heavy discharges generally over and gone before any exact records can be made; hence we know very little of them beyond the bare fact that from 1000 acres the discharge may rise to two or three times 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres. In the writer's experience at least one case has occurred where, from a mountain area of 1300 acres, the rate per 1000 was for a short time certainly not less than 1000 cub. ft. per second. Nothing but long observation and experience can help the hydraulic engineer to judge of the configuration of the ground favourable to such phenomena. It is only necessary, however, to provide for these exceptional dis- charges during very short periods, so that the rise in the water-level of the reservoir may be taken into consideration ; but subject to this, provision must be made at the bye- wash for preventing such a flood, however rare, from filling the reservoir to a dangerous height. From the overflow sill the bye-wash channel may be gradually narrowed as the crest of the embankment is passed, the water being prevented from attaining undue velocity by steps of heavy masonry, or, where the gradient is not very steep, by irregularly set masonry. PURIFICATION When surface waters began to be used for potable purposes, some mode of arresting suspended matter, whether living or dead, became necessary. In many cases gauze strainers were at first employed, and, as an improve- ment upon or addition to these, the water was caused to pass through a bed of gravel or sand, which, like the gauze, was regarded merely as a strainer. As such strainers were further improved, by sorting the sand and gravel, and using the fine sand only at the surface, better clarification of the water was obtained; but chemical analysis indicated, or was at the time thought to indicate, that that improvement was practically confined to clarification, as the dissolved impurities in the water were certainly very little changed. Hence such filter beds, as they were even then called, were regarded as a luxury rather than as a necessity, and it was never suspected that, notwith- standing the absence of chemical improvement in the water, changes did take place of a most important kind. Following upon Dr Koch's discovery of a method of isolating bacteria, and of making approximate determinations of their number in any volume of water, a most remarkable diminution in the number of microbes contained in sand-filtered water was observed; and it is now well known that when a properly constructed sand-filter bed is in its best condition, and is worked in the best-known manner, nearly the whole of the microbes PURIFICATION] WATER SUPPLY 405 existing in the crude water will be arrested. The sand, which is nominally the filter, has interstices about thirty times as wide as the largest dimensions of the larger microbes; and the reason why these, and, still more, why organisms which were individually invisible under any magnifying power, and could only be detected as colonies, were arrested, was not understood. In process of time it became clear, however, that the worse the condition of a filter bed, in the then general acceptation of the term, the better it was as a microbe filter; that is to say, it was not until a fine film of mud and microbes had formed upon the surface of the sand that the best results were obtained. Even yet medical science has not determined the effect upon the human system of water highly charged with bacteria which are not known to be individually pathogenic. In the case of the bacilli of typhoid and cholera, we know the direct effect; but apart altogether from the presence of such specific poisons, polluted water is undoubtedly injurious. Where, therefore, there is animal pollution of any kind, more especially where there is human pollution, generally indicated by the presence of bacillus coli communis, purification is of supreme importance, and no process has yet been devised which, except at extravagant cost, supersedes for public supplies that of properly -conducted sand filtration. Yet it cannot be too constantly urged that such filtration depends for its comparative perfection upon the surface film; that this surface film is not present when the filter is new, or when its materials have been recently washed; that it may be, and very often is, punctured by the actual working of the filters, or for the purpose of increasing their discharge; and that at the best it must be regarded as an exceedingly thin line of defence, not to be depended upon as a safeguard against highly polluted waters, if a purer source of supply can possibly be found. Such filters are not, and in the nature of things cannot be, worked with the precision and continuity of a laboratory experiment. In fig. 21 a section is shown of an efficient sand-filter bed. The thick- ness of sand is 3 ft. 6 in. In the older filters it was usual to support this sand upon small gravel resting upon larger gravel, and so on until the material was sufficiently open to pass the water laterally to under- drains. But a much shal- lower and certainly not less efficient filter can be con- structed by making the under-drains cover the whole bottom. In fig. 21 the sand rests on small gravel of such degree of coarseness that the whole of the grains would be retained on a sieve of J-in. mesh and rejected by a sieve of J-in. mesh in the clear, supported upon a 3-in. thickness of bricks laid close together, and consti- tuting the roof of the under- drains, which are formed by ! CONCRETE, other bricks laid on thin asphalt, upon a concrete FIG. 21. — Section of Sand-Filter Bed. floor. In this arrangement the whole of the materials may be readily removed for cleansing. In the best filters an automatic arrangement for the measurement of the supply to each separate filter, and for the regulation of the quantity within certain limits, is adopted, and the resistance at outflow is so arranged that not more than a certain head of pressure, about 2\ ft., can under any circumstances come upon the surface film, while a depth of several feet of water is maintained over the sand. It is essential that during the working of the filter the water should be so supplied that it will not disturb the surface of the sand. When a filter has been emptied, and is being re-charged, the water should be introduced from a neighbouring filter, and should pass upwards in the filter to be charged, until the surface of the sand has been covered. The unfiltered water may then be allowed to flow quietly and to fill the space above the sand to a depth of 2 or 3 ft. It would appear to be impossible with any water that requires filtra- tion to secure that the first filtrate shall be satisfactory if filtration begins immediately after a filter is charged; and if the highest results are to be obtained, either the unfiltered water must be per- mitted to pass extremely slowly over the surface of the sand without 5teT ~* E -*-£ i — i i — <6 _ _L i •^ WATER. T -i :•••' ' .'•'..*. •* «* r' • *. * ' * *t i •• *»* '.*."."« . ** * .**'* .;-''Y,° r . • • •* * * **"•!* "** * « '•'%•'**? * < : 1 * V" % »•* *j "•"r '. • i-;.;;i FINE <0 . '*>•: • "••'-'.'-.'•••:- * • i •<.\'\ SAND. i ;. ••'."• *• '.* .* ..' • « "* •". '" * i i * » .*•* ' * • \ " j'-'r' *:"•• "'/ passing through it, or to stand upon the sand until the surface film has formed. With waters giving little or no sediment, which are often the most dangerous, some change, as by the first method, is necessary. It has been proposed, on the other hand, to allow the filter to act slowly until the surface film is formed, and to discard the first effluent. This course can scarcely fail to introduce into the sand many bacteria, which may be washed through when the full working of the filters is begun ; and it should not, therefore, be adopted when the source of the supply is known to be subject to human pollution. The time for the formation of anefficient surface films varies, according to the quality of the raw water, from a few hours to a few days. Judg- ing from the best observations that have been made on a large scale, the highest rate of efficient filtration when the surface film is in good condition is about 4 in. downwards per hour of the water contained above the sand, equivalent to about 50 gallons per day from each square foot of sand. When the surface film has once been formed, and the filter has begun its work, it should continue without interrup- tion until the resistance of that film becomes too great to permit of the necessary quantity of water being passed. That period will vary, according to the condition of the water, from eight or ten days to four weeks. The surface film, together with half an inch to an inch of sand, is then carefully scraped off and stored for subsequent washing and use. This process may be repeated many times until the thick- ness of the fine sand is reduced to about 18 in., when the filter bed should be restored to its full thickness. A lately discovered effect of sand filtration is a matter of great importance in connexion with the subject of aqueducts. A brown slimy sediment, having the appearance of coffee grounds when placed in clear water, nas been long observed in pipes conveying surface waters from mountain moorlands. The deposit grows on the sides of the pipes and accumulates at the bottom, and causes most serious obstruction to the flow of water. The chemists and bacteriologists do not appear to have finally determined the true nature and origin of this growth, but it is found in the impounded waters, and passes into the pipes, where it rapidly increases. It is checked even by fine copper wire-gauze strainers, and where the water passes through sand-filter beds in the course of an aqueduct, the growth, though very great between the reservoir and the filter beds, is almost absent between the filter beds and the town. Even the growth of the well-known nodular incrustations in iron pipes is much reduced by sand filtration. From these facts it is clear that, other things being the same, the best position for the strainers and filter beds is as close as possible to the reservoir. Some surface waters dissolve lead when bright, but cease to do so when the lead becomes tarnished. More rarely 'the action is con- tinuous, and the water after being passed through lead cisterns and pipes produces lead poisoning — so called " plumbism." The lia- bility to this appears to be entirely removed by efficient sand filtration. Sand filtration, even when working in the best possible manner, falls short of the perfection necessary to preve_nt the passage of bacteria which may multiply after the filter is passed. Small, however, as the micro-organisms are, they are larger than the capillary passages in some materials through which water under pressure may be caused to percolate. It is therefore natural that attempts should have been made to construct filters which, while permitting the slow percolation of water, should preclude the passage of bacteria or their spores. In the laboratory of Pasteur probaoly the first filter which successfully accomplished this object, was produced. In this apparatus, known as the Pasteur-Chamber land filter, the filtering medium is biscuit porcelain. It was followed by the Berkefield filter, constructed of baked infusorial earth. Both these filters arrest the organisms by purely mechanical action, and if the joints are water-tight and they receive proper attention and frequent sterilization, they both give satisfactory results on a small scale for domestic purposes. The cost, however — to say nothing of the uncertainty — where large volumes of water are concerned, much exceeds the cost of obtaining initially safe water. Moreover, if a natural water is so liable to pathogenic pollution as to demand filtra- tion of this kind, it ought at once to be discarded for an initially pure supply; not necessarily pure in an apparent or even in a chemical sense, for water may be visibly coloured, or may contain considerable proportions both of organic and inorganic impurity, and yet be taste- less and free from pathogenic pollution. There are several materials now in use possessing remarkable power to decolourize clarify, chemically punfy and oxidize water; but they are too costly for use in connexion with public water supplies unless a rate of filtration is adopted quite inconsistent with the formation of a surface film capable of arresting micro-organisms. This fact does not render them less useful when applied to the arts in which they are successfully employed. Attempts have been made, by adding certain coagulants to the water to be filtered, to increase the power of sand and other granu- lar materials to arrest bacteria when passing through them at much higher velocities than are possible for successful filtration by means of the surface film upon sand. The effect is to produce between the sand or other grains a glutinous substance which does the work per- formed by the mud and microbes upon the surface of the sand filter. Elsewhere centrifugal force, acting somewhat after its manner in the cream separator, has been called in aid. 406 WATER SUPPLY [PURIFICATION The sedimentation tank forms a. very important Srdimea- help to filtration. In the case of river waters liable to turbidity the water should always be passed through such tanks before being placed in the filters. They form, moreover, additional safeguards against organic impurity. Sedimentation tanks on a sufficient scale may effect the purification of the water to almost any desired extent. This -is shown to be the case by the purity of some lake PURIFICATION] WATER SUPPLY 407 waters; but the first cost of the works and the subsequent removal of the sediment are in some cases a serious matter, and any approach to the comparatively perfect action of lakes is out of the question. By the use of such tanks, however, when the condition of the water demands it, and by passing the effluent water through sand filters when in good condition, the number of microbes is found to be reduced by as much as 97 or even 99%. This, when attained, is undoubtedly a most 408 WATER SUPPLY [DISTRIBUTION important reduction in the chance of pathogenic bacteria passing into the filtered water; but much more must be done than has hitherto in most places been done to ensure the constancy of such a condition before it can be assumed to represent the degree of safety attained. No public supply should be open to any such doubt as ought to, or may, deter people from drinking the water without previous domestic filtration or boiling. DISTRIBUTION The earliest water supplies in Great Britain were generally distributed at low pressure by wooden pipes or stone or brick conduits. For special purposes the Romans introduced cast-lead pipes, but they were regarded as luxuries, not as necessaries, and gave way to cheaper conduits made, as pump barrels had long been made, by boring out tree trunks, which are occasionally dug up in a good state of preservation. This use of tree-trunks as pipes is still common in the wooded mountain districts of Europe. Within the igth century, however, cast iron became general in the case of large towns; but following the precedent inseparable from the use of weaker conduits, the water was still delivered under very low pressure, rarely more than sufficient to supply taps or tanks near the level of the ground, and generally for only a short period out of each twenty-four hours. On the introduction of the Waterworks Clauses Act 1847, an impetus was given to high-pressure supplies, and the same systems of distributing mains were frequently employed for the purpose; but with few exceptions the water continued to be supplied intermittently, and cisterns or tanks were necessary to store it for use during the periods of intermission. Thus it happened that pipes and joints intended for a low-pressure supply were subjected, not only to high pressure, but to the trying ordeal of suddenly varying pressures. As a rule such pipes were not renewed: the leakage was enormous, and the difficulty was met by the very inefficient method of reducing the period of supply still farther. But even in entirely new distributing systems the network is so extensive, and the number of joints so great, that the aggregate leakage is always considerable; the greatest loss being at the so-called " ferrules " connecting the mains with the house " communication " or " service " pipes, in the lead pipes, and in the household fittings. But a far greater evil than mere loss of water and inconvenience soon proved to be inseparable from intermittent supply. Imagine a hilly town with a high-pressure water supply, the water issuing at numerous points, sometimes only in exceedingly small veins, from the pipes into the sub-soil. In the ordinary course of intermittent supply or for the purpose of repairs, the water is cut off at some point in the main above the leakages; but this does not prevent the continuance of the discharge in the lower part of the town. In the upper part there is consequently a tendency to the formation of a vacuum, and some of the impure sub-soil water near the higher leakages is sucked into the mains, to be mixed with the supply when next turned on. We are indebted to the Local Government Board for having traced to such causes certain epidemics of typhoid, and there can be no manner of doubt that the evil has been very general. It is therefore of supreme importance that the pressure should be constantly maintained, and to that end, in the best-managed waterworks the supply is not now cut off even for the purpose of connecting house-service pipes, an apparatus being employed by which this is done under pressure. Constant pressure being granted, constant leakage is inevitable, and being constant it is not surprising that its total amount often exceeds the aggregate of the much greater, but shorter, draughts of water taken for various household purposes. There is therefore, even in the best cases, a wide field for the conservation and utilization of water hitherto entirely wasted. Following upon the passing of the Waterworks Clauses Act 1847, a constant supply was attempted in many towns, with the result in some cases that, owing to the enormous loss arising from the prolongation of the period of leakage from a fraction of an hour to twenty-four hours, it was impossible to maintain the supply. Accordingly, in some places large sections of the mains and service pipes were entirely renewed, and the water consumers were put to great expense in changing their fittings to new and no doubt better types, though the old fittings were only in a fraction of the cases actually causing leakage. But whether or not such stringent methods were adopted, it was found necessary to organize a system of house-to-house visitation and constantly recurring inspection. In Manchester this was combined with a most careful examination, at a depot of the Corporation, of all fittings intended to be used. Searching tests were applied to these fittings, and only those which complied in every respect with the prescribed regulations were stamped and permitted to be fixed within the limits of the water supply. But this did not obviate the necessity for house- to-house inspection, and although the number of different points at which leakage occurred was still great, it was always small in relation to the number of houses which were necessarily entered by the inspector; moreover, when the best had been done that possibly could be done to suppress leakage due to domestic fittings, the leakage below ground in the mains, ferrules and service pipes still remained, and was often very great. It was clear, therefore, that in its very nature, house-to-house visitation was both wasteful and insufficient, and it remained for Liverpool to correct the difficulty by the application, hi 1873, of the " Differentiating waste water meter," which has since been extensively used for the same purpose in various countries. One such instrument was placed below the roadway upon each main supplying a population of generally between 1000 and 2000 persons. Its action is based upon the following considerations: When water is passing through a main and supplying nothing but leakage the flow of that water is necessarily uniform, and any instrument which graphically represents that flow as a horizontal line conveys to the mind a full conception of the nature of the flow, and if by the position of that line between the bottom and the top of a diagram the quantity of water (in gallons per hour, for example) is recorded, we have a full statement, not only of the rate of flow, but of its nature. We know, in short, that the water is not being usefully employed. In the actual instrument, the paper diagram is mounted upon a drum caused by clockwork to revolve uniformly, and is ruled with vertical hour lines, and horizontal quantity lines representing gallons per hour. Thus, while nothing but leakage occurs the uniform horizontal line is continued. If now a tap is opened in any house connected with the main, the change of flow in the main will be represented by a vertical change of position of the horizontal line, and when the tap is turned off the pencil will resume its original vertical position, but the paper will have moved like the hands of a clock over the interval during which the tap was left open. If, on the other hand, water is suddenly drawn off from a cistern supplied through a ball-cock, the flow through the ball-cock will be recorded, and will be represented by a sudden rise to a maximum, followed by a gradual decrease as the ball rises and the cistern fills; the result being a curve having its asymptote in the original horizontal line. Now, all the uses of water, of whatever kind they may be, produce some such irregular diagrams as these, which can never be confused with the uniform horizontal line of leakage, but are always super- imposed upon it. It is this leakage line that the waterworks engineer uses to ascertain the truth as to the leakage and to assist him in its suppression. In well-equipped waterworks each house service pipe is controlled by a stop-cock accessible from the footpath to the officials of the water authority, and the process of waste detection by this method depends upon the manipulation of such stop-cocks in conjunction with the differentiating meter. As an example of one mode of applying the system, suppose that a night inspector begins work at 1 1.30 p.m. in a certain district of 2000 persons, the meter of which records at the time a uniform flow of 2000 gallons an hour, showing the not uncommon rate of leakage of 24 gallons per head per day. The inspector proceeds along the footpath from house to house, and outside each house he closes the stop-cock, recording opposite the number of each house the exact time of each such operation. Having arrived at the end of the district he retraces his steps, reopens the whole of the stop-cocks, removes the meter diagram, takes it to the night complaint office, and enters in the " night inspection book " the records he has made. The next morning the diagram and the " night inspection book " are in the hands of the day inspector, who compares them. He finds, for example, from the diagram that the initial leakage of 2000 gallons an hour has in the course of a 4J hours' night inspection fallen to 400 gallons an hour, and that the 1600 gallons an hour is accounted for by WATERS, TERRITORIAL 409 fifteen distinct drops of different amounts and at different times. Each of these drops is located by the time and place records in the book and the time records on the diagram as belonging to a particular service pipe; so that out of possibly 300 premises the bulk of the Ir.ikage has been localized in or just outside fifteen. To each of thi-se premises he goes with the knowledge that a portion of the total leakage of 2000 gallons an hour is almost certainly there, and that it must be found, which is a very different thing from visiting three or four hundred houses, in not one of which he has any particular reason to expect to find leakage. Even when he enters a house with previous knowledge that there is leakage, its discovery may be difficult. It is often hidden, sometimes underground, and may only be brought to light by excavation. In these cases, without some such system of localization, the leakage might go on for years or for ever. There are many and obvious variations of the system. That described requires a diagram revolving once in a few hours, otherwise the time scale will be too close ; but the ordinary diagram revolving once in 24 hours is often used quite effectively in night inspections by only closing those stop-cocks which are actually passing water. This method was also first introduced in Liverpool. The night inspector carries with him a stethoscope, often consisting merely of his steel turning-rod, with which he sounds the whole of the outside stop-cocks, but only closes those through which the sound of water is heard. An experienced man, or even a boy, if selected as possessing the necessary faculty (which is sometimes very strongly marked), can detect the smallest dribble when the stop- •cock is so far closed as to restrict the orifice. Similar examinations by means of the stop- valves on the mains are also made, and it often happens that the residual leakage (400 gallons an hour in the last case) recorded on the diagram, but not shut off by the house stop- cocks, is mentioned by the inspector as an " outside waste," and localized as having been heard at a stop-cock and traced by sounding the pavement to a particular position under a particular street. All leakages found on private property are duly notified to the water tenant in the usual way, and subsequent examinations are made to ascertain if such notices have been attended to. If this work is properly organized, nearly the whole of the leakage so detected is suppressed within a month. A record of the constantly fluctuating so-called " night readings " in a large town is most interesting and instructive. If, for example, in the case of a hundred such districts we watch the result of leaving them alone, a gradual growth of leakage common to most of the districts, but not to all, is observed, while here and there a sudden increase occurs, often doubling or trebling the total supply to the district. Upon the original installa- tion of the system in any town, the rate of leakage and consequent total supply to the different districts is found [to vary greatly, and in some districts it is usually many times as great per head as in others. An obvious and fruitful extension of the method is to employ the inspectors only in those districts which, for the time being, promise the most useful results. In many European cities the supply of water, even for domestic purposes, is given through ordinary water meters, and paid for, according to the meter record, much in the same manner as a supply of gas or electricity. By the adoption of this method great reductions in the quantity of water used and wasted are in some cases effected, and the water tenant pays for the leakage or waste he permits to take place, as well as for the water he uses. The system, however, does not assist in the detection of the leakage which inevitably occurs between the reservoir and the consumer's meter; thus the whole of the mains, joints and ferrules connecting the service pipes with the mains, and the greater parts of the service pipes, are still exposed to leakage without any compensating return to the water authority. But the worst evil of the system, and one which must always prevent its introduction into the United Kingdom, is the circumstance that it treats water as an article of commerce, to be paid for according to the quantity taken. In the organization of the best municipal water undertakings in the United Kingdom the free use of water is encouraged, and it is only the leakage or occasional improper employment of the water that the water authority seeks, and that successfully, to suppress. The objection to the insanitary effect of the meter-payment system has, in some places, been sought to be removed by providing a fixed quantity of water, assumed to be sufficient, as the supply for a fixed minimum payment, and by using the meter records simply for the purpose of determining what additional payment, if any, becomes due from the water tenant. Clearly, if the excesses are frequent, the limit must be too low; if infrequent, all the physical and administrative complication involved in the system is employed to very little purpose. The question of the distribution of water, rightly considered, resolves itself into a question of delivering water to the water tenant, without leakage on the way, and of securing that the fittings employed by the water tenant shall be such as to afford an ample and ready supply at all times of the day and night without leakage and without any unnecessary facilities for waste. If these conditions are complied with, it is probable that the total rate of supply will not exceed, even if it reaches, the rate s necessary in any system, not being an oppressive and insanitary system, by which the water is paid for according to the quantity used. (G. F. D.) WATERS, TERRITORIAL. In international law " territorial waters " are the belt of sea adjacent to their shores which states respect as being under their immediate territorial jurisdic- tion, subject only to a right of " inoffensive " passage through them by vessels of all nations. As to the breadth of the belt and the exact nature of this inoffensive right of passage, however, there is still much controversy. The 3-miles' limit recognized and practised by Great Britain, France and the United States seems to have been derived from the cannon range of the period, when it was adopted as between Great Britain and the United States, i.e. towards the close of the i8th century. Bynkershoek, a famous Dutch jurist, whose authority at one time was almost as great in England as in his own country, in a dissertation on the Dominion of the Sea (1702), had devised a plausible juridical theory to support a homogeneous jurisdiction over environing waters in the place of the quite arbitrary claims made at that time, to any distance seawards, from whole seas to range of vision. Starting from the fact that fortresses can give effective protection within range of their cannon, and that in practice this effective protection was respected, he argued that the respect was not due to the reality of the presence of cannon, but to the fact that the state was in a position to enforce respect. This it could do from any point along its shore. Hence his well-known doctrine: terrae dominium finitur, ubi finitur armorum vis. The doctrine satisfied a requirement of the age and became a maxim of inter- national law throughout northern Europe, both for the protection of shore fisheries and for the assertion of the immunity of adjacent waters of neutral states from acts of war between belligerent states. Germany still holds in principle to this varying limit of cannon range. Norway has never agreed to the 3 m., maintaining that the special configuration of her coast necessitates the exercise of jurisdiction over a belt of 4 m. Spain lays claim to jurisdiction over 6 m. from her shores. The writers and specialists on the subject are quite as much divided. A British Fishery Commission in 1893 reported that " the present territorial limit of 3 m. is insufficient, and that, for fishery purposes alone, this limit should be extended, provided such extension can be effected upon an international basis and with due regard to the rights and interests of all nations." The committee recommended that " a proposition on these lines should be submitted to an international conference of the powers who border on the North Sea." There is already an international convention, dated 6th May 1882, between Great Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany and Denmark, relating to the regulation of the fisheries in the North Sea, which has fixed the limit of territorial waters as between the contracting parties at 3 m. measured from low- water mark and from a straight line drawn from headland to headland at the points where they are 10 m. across. In the British Act of 29th June 1893, giving effect to a subsequent convention (:6th November 1881) between the same parties for the regulation of the liquor traffic in the North Sea, " territorial waters " are declared to be as defined in the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878. In this Act the definition is as follows: — The territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions in reference to the sea means such part of the sea adjacent to the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other part of Her Majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international law to be within the territorial sovereignty of Her Majesty; and for the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea within one marine league of the coast measured from low-water mark shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions. This definition only restricts the operation of the 3 m. limit to offences dealt with in the act, and does not deal with bays. The act of 1893 declares that the articles of the convention " shall be of the same force as if they were enacted in the body of the act," but this convention gives no definition of territorial waters. The jurisdiction exercised in British territorial waters under WATER-THYME— WATERTON the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act of 1878 1 is asserted without distinction between them and inland waters. " All offences " committed by any person, whether a British subject or not, and whether or not committed " on board or by means of a foreign ship," " within the territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions," are made punishable under it. No exception is made for offences committed on merely passing foreign vessels, except that there is this attenuation in their case, that no prosecution can take place without a special authorization given by certain high officers of state.2 It is doubtful whether any Continental state would recognize so complete a jurisdiction. The subject has been exhaustively dealt with by both the Institute of International Law and the International Law Association, 'which, at the suggestion of the rapporteur of the two committees, decided that the subjects of fisheries and neutrality should be dealt with separately. The following considerations and rules were adopted in 1894 by the institute and afterwards by the association: — Whereas there is no reason to confound in a single zone the distance necessary for the exercise of sovereignty and protection of coast fisheries and the distance necessary to guarantee the neutrality of non-belligerents in time of war; And whereas the distance most commonly adopted of 3 m. from low-water mark has been recognized as insufficient for the protection of coast fisheries ; And whereas, moreover, this distance does not correspond to the real range of cannon placed on the coast ; The following dispositions are adopted : — Art. I. The state has the right of sovereignty over a belt of sea along its coast subject to the right of inoffensive passage reserved in article 5. This belt is called territorial waters (mer territoriale). Art. II. Territorial waters extend for 6 sea m. (60 to I degree of latitude) from low-water mark along the whole extent of its coasts. Art. III. For bays, territorial waters follow the trend of the coast except that it is measured from a straight line drawn across the bay from the two points nearest the sea where the opening of the bay is of 12 marine m. in width, unless a greater width shall have become recognized by an immemorial usage. Art. IV. In case of war the adjacent neutral state shall have the right to extend by its declaration of neutrality or by special notification its neutral zone from 6 m. to cannon range from the coast. Art. V. All ships, without distinction, have the right of inoffen- sive passage through territorial waters, subject to the belligerent right to regulate, and for purposes of defence to bar, the passage through the said waters for every ship, and subject to the right of neutrals to regulate the passage through the said waters for ships of war of all nationalities. Art. VI. Crimes and offences committed on board foreign ships passing through territorial waters by persons on board such ships, upon persons or things on board the same ships, are, as such, beyond the jurisdiction of the adjacent state, unless they involve a violation of the rights or interests of the adjacent state, or of its subjects or citizens not forming part of its crew or its passengers. Art. VII. Ships passing through territorial waters must conform to the special rules laid down by the adjacent state, in the interest and for the security of navigation and for the police of the sea. Art. VIII. Ships of all nationalities, by the simple fact of being in territorial waters, unless merely passing through them, are sub- ject to the jurisdiction of the adjacent state. The adjacent state has the right to continue upon the high seas the pursuit of a ship coirfmenced within territorial waters, and to arrest and try it for an offence committed within the limits of its waters. In case of capture on the high seas the fact shall, however, be notified without delay to the state to which the ship belongs. The pursuit is interrupted from the moment the ship enters the territorial waters of its own state or of a third power. The right of pursuit ceases from the moment the ship enters a port either of its own country or of a third power. 1 This act was passed to meet what was thought to be a defect in British law, the decision in the well-known " Franconia " case having been that territorial waters were " out of the realm," and that criminal jurisdiction within them over a foreign ship could be exer- cised only in virtue of an act of parliament. 1 Proceedings, says § 3 of the act, for the trial and punishment of a person who is not a British subject, and who is charged with any offence as is declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, shall not be instituted in any Court of the United Kingdom, except with the consent of one of the principal Secretaries of State, and on his certificate that the institution of such proceedings is in his opinion expedient, and shall not be instituted in any British dominions outside of the United Kingdom except with the leave of the governor of the part of the dominions in which such proceedings are proposed to be instituted, and on his certificate that it is expedient that such proceedings should be instituted. Art. IX. The special position of ships of war and of ships assimilated to them is reserved Art. X. The provisions of the preceding articles are applicable to straits not exceeding 12 m. in width, with the following modifica- tions and exceptions : — (1) Straits, the coast of which belong to different powers, form part of the territorial waters of the adjacent states, their jurisdiction respectively extending to the middle line of the straits ; (2) Straits whose coasts belong to the same state, and which are indispensable for maritime communication between two or more states other than the state in question, form part of the territorial waters of the said state whatever the proximity of the two coasts may be; (3) Straits serving as a passage between one open sea and another can never be closed. Art. XI. The position of straits already regulated by conventions or special usage is reserved. The Dutch government in 1896 brought these rules to the notice cf the leading European governments, and suggested the desirability of concluding an international convention on the subject. The only government which was unfavourable to the proposal was that of Great Britain. (See as to the Moray Firth Fisheries controversy, NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION.) In the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers in naval war, the existing practice in regard to territorial waters is confirmed (see arts. 2, 3, 9, 10, 12, 13 and 18), but no definition of what constitutes the distance of these waters seawards is given. This question is among those which the next Hague Conference may deal with, inasmuch as for purposes of neutrality the difficulties connected with fishery questions do not arise.3 AUTHORITIES. — Sir Thomas Barclay, Question de la mer territoriale (published by the Association Internationale de la Marine, Paris, 1902); Idem, as rapporteur on the subject in the Annuaires de I'institut de droit international for 1893 and 1894; Idem, Special Re- port of the International Law Association (replies to Questionnaire, 1893), and Report and Discussion (1895); Idem, Problems of Inter- national Practice and Diplomacy (London, 1907), pp. 109 et seq. See also Coulson and Forbes, Law relating to Waters (London, 1910), 3rd ed., pp. 5 et seq. (T. BA.) WATER-THYME, known botanically as Elodea canadensis, a small submerged water-weed, native of North America. It was introduced into Co. Down, Ireland, about 1836, and appeared in England in 1841, spreading through the country in ponds, ditches and streams, which were often choked with its rank growth. Elodea is a member of the monocotyledonous natural order Hydrocharideae (q.v.). WATERTON, CHARLES (1782-1865), English naturalist and traveller, was born at Walton Hall, near Pontefract, Yorkshire, on the 3rd of June 1782. After being educated at the Roman Catholic college of Stonyhurst, and travelling a short time in Spain, he went to Demerara to manage some estates belonging to his family. He continued in this occupation for about eight years, when he began those wanderings upon the results of which his fame as a naturalist principally rests. In his first journey, which began in 1812, and the principal object of which was to collect the poison known as curare, he travelled through British Guiana by the Demerara and Essequibo rivers to the frontiers of Brazil, making many natural history collections and observa- tions by the way. After spending some time in England he returned to South America in 1816, going by Pernambuco and Cayenne to British Guiana, where again he devoted his time to the most varied observations in natural history. For the third time, in 1820, he sailed from England for Demerara, and again he spent his time in similar pursuits. Another sojourn in England of about three years was followed by'a visit to the United States in 1824; and, having touched at several of the West India islands, he again went on to Demerara, returning to England at the end of the year. In 1828 he published the results of his four journeys, under the title of Wanderings in South America — consisting largely of a collection of observations on the 3 The question of revising the limits fixed for Territorial Waters in the Convention of 1882 (see above) was the subject of an animated discussion at the conference at Hull of the National Sea Fisheries Protection Association in 1906, when a resolution was adopted in favour of maintaining the present 3-miles limit on grounds of expediency, which deserve serious consideration. WATERTOWN— WATERVILLE 411 appearance, character and habits of many of the animals to be found in British Guiana. Waterton was a keen and accurate observer, and his descriptions are of a graphic and humorous character, rarely to be found in works on natural history. He married in 1829, and from that time lived mostly at Walton Hall, devoting himself to the improvement of his estate, to country pursuits, and to natural history observations. He also pub- lished three series of Essays in Natural History (1838, 1844. 1857). He died at Walton Hall on the 27th of May 1865, from the result of an accident. His only son, Edmund Waterton (1830-1887), was an antiquary, who paid special attention to rings; some of those he collected are in the Victoria and Albert Museum. WATERTOWN, a township of Middlesex county, Massachu- setts, U.S.A., on the Charles river, about 6 m. W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 7073; (igoo) 9706, of whom 2885 were foreign- born and 53 were negroes; (1910 census) 12,875. Area, 4-1 sq. m. Watertown is served by the Fitchburg division of the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected with Boston, Cambridge, Newton (immediately adjacent and served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway) and neighbouring towns by electric railways. It is a residential and manufacturing suburb of Boston. The township is at the head of navigation on the Charles, and occupies the fertile undulating plains along the river running back to a range of hills, the highest of which are Whitney Hill (200 ft.) and Meeting House Hill (250 ft.). Within the township are several noteworthy examples of colonial architecture. There are several small parks and squares, including Central Square, Beacon Square, about which the business portion of the township is centred, and Saltonstall Park, in which is a monument to the memory of Watertown 's soldiers who died in the Civil War, and near which are the Town House and the Free Public Library, containing a valuable collection of 60,000 books and pamphlets and historical memorials. There are two interesting old burying-grounds: one on Grove Street, near the Cambridge line, first used in 1642, contains a monument to John Coolidge, killed during the British retreat from Concord and Lexington on the igth of April 1775; the other is near the centre of the village about the former site of the First Parish Church. In Coolidge's Tavern (still standing) Washington was entertained on his New England tour in 1789; and in a house recently moved from Mt Auburn Street to Marshall Street the Committee of Safety met in 1775. Within the town- ship are mounds and earthworks which Professor E. N. Hereford thought were the remains of a Norse settlement in the nth century, and which include a semicircular amphitheatre of six tiers or terraces which he thought was an assembly place, and a portion of a stone wall or dam. The Federal government maintains at Watertown one of its principal arsenals, occupying grounds of about 100 acres along the river. Several of the original low brick buildings, built between 1816 and 1820, still stand. In 1905 the value of Watertown's factory products was $15,524,675. Watertown was one of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay settlements, having been begun early in 1630 by a group of settlers led by Sir Richard Saltonstall and the Rev. George Phillips. The first buildings were upon land now included within the limits of Cambridge. For the first quarter century Watertown ranked next to Boston in population and area. Since then its limits have been greatly reduced. Thrice portions have been added to Cambridge, and it has contributed territory to form the new townships of Weston (1712), Waltham (1738), and Belmont (1859). In 1632 the residents of Watertown protested against being compelled to pay a tax for the erection of a stockade fort at Cambridge; this was the first protest in America against taxation without representation and led to the establishment of representative government in the colony. As early as the close of the I7th century Watertown was the chief horse and cattle market in New England and was known for its fertile gardens and fine estates. Here about 1632 was erected the first grist mill in the colony, and in 1662 one of the first woollen mills in America was built here. In the First Parish Church, the site of which is marked by a monument, the Provincial Congre&s after adjournment from Concord, met from April to July 1775; the Massachusetts General Court held its sessions here from 1775 to 1778, and the Boston town meetings were held here during the siege of Boston, when many of the well-known Boston families made their homes in the neighbourhood. For several months early in the War of Inde- pendence the Committees of Safety and Correspondence made Watertown their headquarters and it was from here that General Joseph Warren set out for Bunker Hill. In 1832-1834 Theodore Parker conducted a private school here and his name is still preserved in the Parker School. See S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston, 1880) ; Convers Francis, A Historical Sketch of Watertown to the close of its Second Century (Cambridge, 1830); S. F. Whitney, Historical Sketch of Watertown (Boston, 1906); and " Watertown," by S. F. Whitney, in vol. iii. of D. Hamilton Kurd's History of Middlesex County (Philadelphia, 1890). The Watertown Records (4 vols., Watertown and Boston, 1894-1906) have been published by the Historical Society of Watertown (organized in 1888 and incor- porated in 1891). WATERTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, New York, U.S.A., 73 m. (by rail) N. of Syracuse, on the Black river. Pop. (1890) 14,725; (1900) 21,696, of whom 5119 were foreign-born and 75 were negroes; (1910 census) 26,730. Water- town is served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway. The city has several squares and public parks, one of them, City Park, having an area of about 300 acres. Among the public buildings and institutions are the city hall, the Federal building, the county court house, a state armoury, the Flower Memorial Library (erected as a memorial to Roswell P. Flower, governor of New York in 1892-1895, by his daughter, Mrs J. B. Taylor) with 25,514 vols. in 1910, the Immaculate Heart Academy (Roman Catholic), the Jefferson County Orphan Asylum (1859), the St Patrick's Orphanage (1897; under the Sisters of St Joseph), the Henry Keep Home (1879), for aged men and women, St Joachim's Hospital (1896; under the Sisters of Mercy), and the House of the Good Samaritan (1882). Watertown is situated in a fertile agricultural and dairying region, of which it is a distributing centre, and it ships large quantities of farm produce and dairy products (especially cheese). The Black river furnishes water-power which is utilized by manufacturing establishments of diversified character. In 1905 the city's factory product was valued at $8,371,618. Watertown was settled during the late years of the i8th century. It became the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated as a village in 1816 and was first chartered as a city in 1869. WATERTOWN, a city of Dodge and Jefferson counties, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Rock river, about 45 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1800) 8755; (1900) 8437, including 2447 foreign-born; (1905, state census) 8623; (1910) 8829. Water- town is served by the Chicago & North- Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an interurban electric line, connecting with Milwaukee. It is the seat of North-western University (1865; Lutheran), which includes collegiate, pre- paratory and academic departments, and had in 1908-1909 ii instructors and 283 students, and of the Sacred Heart College (Roman Catholic, opened in 1872 and chartered in 1874), under the Congregation of the Holy Cross. There are also a Canegie library, a Lutheran Home for the Feeble-Minded, and a City Hospital. The Rock river furnishes water-power which is utilized for manufacturing. The value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,065,487. The city is situated in a dairying and farming region. The municipality owns and operates its water- works. Watertown was founded about 1836 by settlers who gave it the name of their former home, Watertown, New York. Afterwards there was a great influx of Germans, particularly after the Revolution of 1848, among them being Carl Schurz, who began the practice of law here. Germans by birth or descent still constitute a majority of the population. Watertown was incorporated as a village in 1849, and was chartered as a city in 1853. WATERVILLE, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Kennebec river, 19 m. above Augusta. Pop. (1000) 412 WATERVLIET— WATSON, R. 9477, of whom 2087 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,458. It is served by the Wiscasset, Waterville & Farmington railway, and two lines of the Maine Central railroad. The Ticonic Falls in the river afford excellent water-power, which is used in the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, &c. In Winslow (pop. in 1910, 2709), on the opposite side of the river and connected by bridges with Waterville, are large paper and pulp mills. Waterville has a Carnegie library and is the seat of Colby College (Baptist), which was incorporated as the Maine Literary and Theological Institution in 1813, was renamed Waterville College in 1821, was named Colby University in 1867, in honour of Gardner Colby (1810-1879), a liberal benefactor, and received its present name in 1899. Since 1871 women have been admitted on the same terms as men. In 1910 the college library contained 51,000 volumes. Waterville was settled about the middle of the i8th century. It was a part of the township of Winslow from 1771 to 1802, when it was incorporated as a separate town- ship. It was first chartered as a city in 1883. WATERVLIET, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river opposite Troy and about 5 m. N. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 12,967; (1900) 14,321, of whom 2754 were foreign-born and 59 were negroes; (1910 census) 1 5,074. Watervliet is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway and by steamboat lines on the Hudson river, and is connected with Troy by bridges and ferries, and with Albany, Troy, Cohoes and Schenectady by electric lines. The Erie and Champlain canals have their terminals a short distance above the city. The city has a city hall and a public library. Watervliet is situated in a good farming country, but is chiefly a manufacturing place; in 1905 its factory products were valued at $1,884,802 (25% more than in 1900), not including the product of the United States Arsenal (1807), on the river, an important manu- factory of heavy ordnance. The place was originally called West Troy and was incorporated as a village in 1836; in 1897 it was chartered as a city under its present name; at the same time the township of Watervliet in which it was situated was divided into the townships cf Colonie and Green Island. In 1776 the first settlement of Shakers (q.v.) in America was made in the township by " Mother Ann " Lee and her followers, who named it Niskayuna. Here " Mother Ann " died and is buried. WATFORD, a market town in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 17 J m. N.W. of London by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1891) 17,063; (1901) 29,327. It lies on the small river Colne in a pleasant undulating and well wooded district. The church of St Mary, with embattled tower and spire, is of various dates, and contains good examples of monumental work of the early i7th century; and in the churchyard is buried Robert Clutterbuck (d. 1831), author of the History and Antiquities of the County of Hertford. There are several modern churches and chapels. The chief building within the town is the Watford Public Library and School of Art. There are large breweries, also corn-mills, malt-kilns and an iron foundry. Bushey, on the south side of the Colne, lying for the most part high above it, is a suburb, chiefly residential, with a station on the North- Western line. The church of St James, extensively restored by Sir Gilbert Scott, is Early English in its oldest part, the chancel. Here a school of art was founded by Sir Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., but it was closed in 1904, and subsequently revived in other hands. Other institutions are the Royal Caledonian Asylum and the London Orphan Asylum. At Aldenham, 2 m. N.E., the grammar school founded in 1599 now ranks as one of the minor English public schools. WATKIN, SIR EDWARD WILLIAM, ist Bart. (1810-1901), English railway manager, was born in Manchester on the 26th of September 1819. He was the son of Absalom Watkin, a merchant in Manchester, and was employed in his father's counting-house, ultimately becoming a partner; but in 1845 he was appointed secretary of the Trent Valley railway, which was soon afterwards absorbed by the London & North-Western Company. He next joined the Manchester & Sheffield Com- pany, of which he became general manager and then chairman, subsequently combining with the duties thus entailed the chairmanship of the South-Eastern (1867) and of the Metropolitan (1872). His connexion with these three railways was maintained to within a short time of bis death, and they formed the material of one of his most ambitious schemes — the establishment of a through route under one management frorri Dover to Man- chester and the north. This was the end he had in view in his successful fight for the extension of the Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central) to London; and his persistent advocacy of the Channel tunnel (q.v.) between Dover and Calais was really a further development of the same idea, for its construction would have enabled through trains to be run from Paris to Lancashire and Scotland, via the East London (of which also he was for a time chairman) and the Metropolitan. The latter scheme, however, failed to obtain the necessary public and political support. Other projects had even less success. His plans for a tunnel between Scotland and Ireland under the North Channel, and for a ship canal across Ireland from Galway to Dublin, did not come to anything; while the great tower at Wembley Park (near Harrow), intended to surpass the Eiffel Tower at Paris, stopped at an early stage. It was in the realms of railway politics that Watkin showed to best advantage; for the routine work of administration pure and simple he had no aptitude. He entered parliament as a Liberal, and after representing Stockport from 1864 to 1868, sat as member for Hythe for twenty-one years from 1874, becoming a Liberal-Unionist at the time of the Home Rule split, and subsequently acting as a " free lance." In 1868 he received a knighthood, and in 1880 he was created a baronet. His death occurred at Northenden, Cheshire, on the I3th of April 1901. WATKINS, a village and the county-seat of Schuyler county, New York, U.S.A., at the head (south end) of Seneca Lake, about 22 m. N.N.W. of Elmira. Pop. (1890) 2604; (1900) 2943; (1905) 2957; (1910) 2817. Watkins is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Northern Central (Pennsylvania) and the Lehigh Valley railways, by an electric line to' Elmira and by a steamer line on the lake. There are mineral springs, whose waters, notably those of an iodo-bromated brine spring, are used in bath treatment for rheumatism, gout, heart, kidney and liver diseases, &c. Partly within the village limits is Watkins Glen, a narrow winding gorge about 2 m. long, with walls and precipices from 100 to 300 ft. high, through which flows a small stream, forming many falls, cascades and pools. The Glen property, about 103 acres, was opened as an excursion resort in 1863, and in 1906 was made a free state reservation or park and was placed in the custody of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society. About 3 m. S.E. is Havana Glen, about ij m. long. The first settlement here was made in 1788, and Watkins was incorporated as a village in 1842. WATLING STREET, the Early English name for the great road made by the Romans from London past St Albans (Roman Verulamium) to Wroxeter (Roman Viroconium) near Shrewsbury and used by the Anglo-Saxons, just as a great part of it is used to-day. According to early documents the name was at first Waeclinga (or Wsetlinga) straet; its derivation is unknown, but an English personal name may lie behind it. After the Conquest the road was included in the list of four Royal Roads which the Norman lawyers recorded or invented (see ERMINE STREET). Later still, in the Elizabethan period and after it, the name Watling Street seems to have been applied by anti- quaries to many Roman or reputed Roman roads in various parts of Britain, and English map-makers and inferior writers on Roman roads still perpetuate the fictions. In particular, the Roman " North Road " which ran from York through Corbridge and over Cheviot to Newstead near Melrose, and thence to the Wall of Pius, and which has largely been in use ever since Roman times, is now not unfrequently called Watling Street, though there is no old authority for it and throughout the middle ages the section of the road between the Tyne and the Forth was called Dere Street. (F. J. H.) WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816), English divine, was born in August 1737 at Heversham in Westmorland. His father, a WATSON, T. schoolmaster, sent him to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected a fellow in 1760. About the same time he had the offer of the post of chaplain to the factory at Bencoolen, in the Straits Settlements. " You are too good," said the master of Trinity, " to die of drinking punch in the torrid zone "; and Watson, instead of becoming, as he had flattered himself, a great orientalist, remained at home to be elected professor of chemistry, a science of which he did not at the time possess the simplest rudiments. " I buried myself," he says, " in my laboratory, and in fourteen months read a course of chemical lectures to a very full audience." One of his discoveries led to the black-bulb thermometer. Not the least of his services was to procure an endowment for the chair, which served as a precedent in similar instances. In 1771 he was appointed regius professor of divinity, but did not entirely renounce the study of chemistry. In 1768 he had published Inslitutiones metallurgicae, intended to give a scientific form to chemistry by digesting facts established by experiment into a connected series of propositions. In 1781 he followed this up with an introductory manual of Chemical Essays. In 1776 he answered Gibbon's chapters on Christianity, and had the honour of being one of the only two opponents whom Gibbon treated with respect. The same year he offended the court by a Whig sermon, but in 1779 became archdeacon of Ely. He had always opposed the American War, and on the accession of Lord Shelburne to power in 1782 was made bishop of Llandaff, being permitted to retain his other preferments on account of the poverty of the see. Shelburne expected great service from him as a pamphleteer, but Watson proved from the ministerial point of view a most impracticable prelate. He immediately brought forward a scheme for improving the condi- tion of the poorer clergy by equalizing the incomes of the bishops, the reception of which at the time may be imagined, though it was substantially the same as that carried into effect by Lord Melbourne's government fifty years later. Watson now found that he possessed no influence with the minister, and that he had destroyed his chance of the great object of his ambition, promo- tion to a better diocese. Neglecting both his see and his professor- ship, to which latter he appointed a deputy described as highly incompetent, he withdrew to Calgarth Park, in his native county, where he occupied himself in forming plantations and in the improvement of agriculture. He also frequently came forward as a preacher and as a speaker in the House of Lords. His advice to the government in 1787 is said to have saved the country £100,000 a year in gunpowder. In 1796 he published, in answer to Thomas Paine, an Apology for the Bible, perhaps the best known of his numerous writings. Watson continued to exert his pen with vigour, and in general to good purpose, denouncing the slave trade, advocating the union with Ireland, and offering financial suggestions to Pitt, who seems to have frequently consulted him. In 1798 his Address to the People of Great Britain, enforcing resistance to French arms and French principles, ran through fourteen editions, but estranged him from many old friends, who accused him, probably with injustice, of aiming to make his peace with the government. Though querulous because of his non-preferment, De Quincey tells us that " his lordship was a joyous, jovial, and cordial host." He died on the 2nd of July 1816, having occupied his latter years in the composition and revision of an autobiography (published in 1817), which, with all its egotism and partiality, is a valuable work, and the chief authority for his life. WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1357-1592). English lyrical poet, was born in London, probably in 1357. He proceeded to Oxford, and while quite a young man enjoyed a certain reputation, even abroad, as a Latin poet. His De remedio amoris, which was perhaps his earliest important composition, is lost, and so is his " piece of work written in the commendation of women-kind," which was also in Latin verse. He came back to London and became a law-student. The earliest publication by Watson which has survived is a Latin version of the A ntigone of Sophocles, issued in 1581. It is dedicated to Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, who was perhaps the patron of the poet, who seems to have spent some part of this year in Paris. Next year Watson appears for the first time as an English poet in some verses prefixed to Whet- stone's Heptameron, and also in a far more important guise, as the author of the 'EKaroniraBla. or Passionate Centurie of Love. This is a collection or cycle of 100 pieces, in the manner of Petrarch, celebrating the sufferings of a lover and his long farewell to love. The technical peculiarity of these interesting poems is that, although they appear and profess to be sonnets, they are really written in triple sets of common six-line stanza, and therefore have eighteen lines each. It seems likely that Watson, who courted comparison with Petrarch, seriously desired to recommend this form to future sonneteers; but in this he had no imitators.1 Among those who were at this time the friends of Watson we note Matthew Royden and George Peele. In 1585 he published a Latin translation ofTasso's pastoral play of Aminta, and his version was afterwards trans- lated into English by Abraham Fraunce (1587). Watson was now, as the testimony of Nashe and others prove, regarded as the best Latin poet of England. In 1590 he published, in English and Latin verse, his Meliboeus, an elegy on the death of Sir Francis Walsingham, and a collection of Italian Madrigals, put into English by Watson and set to music by Byrd. Of the remainder of Watson's career nothing is known, save that on the 26th of September 1592 he was buried in the church of St Bartholomew the Less, and that in the following year his latest and best book, The Tears of Fancie, or Love Disdained (1593), was posthumously published. This is a collection of sixty sonnets, regular in form, so far at least as to have fourteen lines each. Spenser is supposed to have alluded to the untimely death of Watson in Colin Clout's Come Home Again, when he says: — " Amyntas quite is gone and lies full low, Having his Amaryllis left to moan." He is mentioned by Meres in company with Shakespeare, Peele and Marlowe among " the best for tragedie," but no dramatic work of his except the translations above mentioned has come down to us. It is certain that this poet enjoyed a great reputa- tion in his lifetime, and that he was not without a direct influence upon the youth of Shakespeare. He was the first, after the original experiment made by Wyat and Surrey, to introduce the pure imitation of Petrarch into English poetry. He was well read in Italian, French and Greek literature. Watson died young, and he had not escaped from a certain languor and insipidity which prevent his graceful verses from producing their full effect. This demerit is less obvious in his later than in his earlier pieces, and with the development of the age, Watson, whose con- temporaries regarded him as a poet of true excellence, would prob- ably have gained power and music. As it is, he has the honour of being one of the direct forerunners of Shakespeare (in Venus and Adonis and in the Sonnets), and of being the leader in the long procession of Elizabethan sonnet-cycle writers. (E. G.) The English works of Watson, excepting the madrigals, were first collected by Edward Arber in 1870. Thomas Watson's " Italian Madrigals Englished" (1590) were reprinted (ed. F. J. Carpenter) from the Journal of Germanic Philology (voj. ii., No. 3, p. 337) with the original Italian, in 1899. See also Mr Sidney Lee's Introduction (pp. xxxii.-xli.) to Elizabethan Sonnets in the new edition (1904) of An English Garner. 1 Speaking of the Hecatompathia, Mr Sidney Lee says: " Watson deprecates all claim to originality. To each poem he prefixes a prose introduction in which he frankly indicates, usually with ample quotations, the French, Italian or classical poem which was the source of his inspiration " (Elizabethan Sonnets, p. xxviii.). In a footnote (p. xxxix.) he adds: " Eight of Watsons sonnets aie, according to his own account, renderings from Petrarch; twelve are from Serafino dell' Aquila (1466-1500); four each come from Strozza, the Ferrarese poet, and from Ronsard; three from the Italian poet, Agnolo Firenzuola (1493-1548); two each from the French poet, £tienne Forcadel, known as Forcatulus (i5i4?-i.573), the Italian Girolamo Parabosco (fl. 1548), and Aeneas Sylvius; while many are based on passages from such authors as (among the Greeks) Sophocles.Theocntus, Apollonius of Rhodes (author of the epic Argonaulica); or (among the Latins), Virgil, Tibullus, Ovid, Horace, Propertius, Seneca, Pliny, Lucan, Martial and Valerius Flaccus; or (among the modern Italians) Angelo Poliziano (1454- 1494) and Baptista Mantuanus (1448-1516); or (among other modern Frenchmen) Geryasius Sepinus of Saumur, writer of eclogues after the manner of Virgil and Mantuanus." 414 WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603), English conspirator, was a native of the north of England, and was born probably on the 23rd of April 1559. In 1586 he became a Roman Catholic priest in France, and during the concluding years of Elizabeth's reign he paid several visits to England; he was imprisoned and tortured more than once. He became prominent as a champion of the secular priests in their dispute with the Jesuits, and in 1601 some writings by him on this question appeared which were answered by Robert Parsons. When Elizabeth died, Watson hastened to Scotland to assure James I. of the loyalty of his party, and to forestall the Jesuits, who were suspected of intrigu- ing with Spain. The new king did not, however, as was hoped, cease to exact the necessary fines; and the general dissatisfaction felt by the Roman Catholics gave rise to the " Bye plot," or " Watson's plot," in which connexion this priest's name is best known, and to its sequel the Main or Cobham's, plot. Watson discussed the grievances of his cc-religionists with another priest, William Clark, with Sir Griffin Markham and Anthony Copley, and with a disappointed Protestant courtier, George Brooke; they took another Protestant, Thomas, i sth Lord Grey de Wilton, into their confidence, and following many Scottish precedents it was arranged that James should be surprised and seized, while they talked loudly about capturing the Tower of London, con- verting the king to Romanism, and making Watson lord keeper. One or two of the conspirators drew back; but Watson and his remaining colleagues arranged to assemble at Greenwich on the 24th of June 1603, and under the pretence of presenting a petition to carry out their object. The plot was a complete failure; Henry Garnet and other Jesuits betrayed it to the authorities, and its principal authors were seized, Watson being captured in August at Hay on the Welsh border. They were tried at Winchester and found guilty; Watson and Clark were executed on the gth of December 1603, and Brooke suffered the same fate a week later. Grey and Markham were reprieved. Before the executions took place, however, the failure of the Bye plot had led to the discovery of the Main plot. Brooke's share in the earlier scheme caused suspicion to fall upon his brother Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham, the ally and brother-in-law of Sir Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. Cobham appears to have been in communication with Spain about the possibility of killing " the king and his cubs " and of placing Lady Arabella Stuart on the throne. He was seized, tried and condemned to death, but although led out to the scaffold he was not executed. It was on suspicion of being associated with Cobham in this matter that Sir Walter Raleigh was arrested and tried. See the documents printed by T. G. Law in The Archpriest contro- versy (1896-1898); the same writer's Jesuits and Seculars (1889), and S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol. i. (1905). WATSON, WILLIAM (1858- ), English poet, was born on the 2nd of August 1858 at Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire, and was brought up at Liverpool, whither his father moved for business. In 1880 he published his first book The Prince's Quest, a poem showing the influence of Keats and Tennyson, but giving little indication of the author's mature style. It attracted no attention until it was republished in 1893 after Mr Watson had made a name by other work. In 1884 appeared Epigrams of Art, Life and Nature, a remarkable little volume, which already showed the change to Mr Watson's characteristic restraint and concision of manner. But it passed unnoted. Recognition came with the publication of Wordsworth's Grave in 1890; and fame with the publication of the second edition in 1891, and the appearance in the Fortnightly Review, August 1891, of an article by Grant Allen entitled " A New Poet." Wordsworth's Grave, which marked a reversion from the current Tennysonian and Swinburnian fashion to the meditative note of Matthew Arnold, exhibited in full maturity Mr Watson's poetical qualities; his stately diction, his fastidious taste, his epigrammatic turn, his restrained yet eloquent utterance, his remarkable gift of literary criticism in poetic form. Besides Wordsworth's Grave the volume contained Ver tenebrosum (originally published in the National Review for June 1885), a series of political sonnets WATSON, W.— WATT indicating a fervour of political conviction which was later to find still more impassioned expression; also a selection with additions from the Epigrams of 1884, and among other miscellane- ous pieces his tribute to Arnold, " In Laleham Churchyard." During the years 1890-1892 he contributed articles to the National Review, Spectator, Illustrated London News, Academy, Bookman and Atalanta, which were collected and republished in 1893 as Excursions in Criticism. In 1893 he also published Lacrymae Musaram, the poem which gave the title to the volume being a fine elegy on the death of Tennyson; and it included the poem on " Shelley's Centenary " (both of these printed privately in 1892), and " The Dream of Man," the earliest of his philo- sophical poems. The same year, too, saw the publication of The Eloping Angels, a serio-comic trifle of small merit, dedicated to Grant Allen. During this year Mr Gladstone bestowed on him the Civil List pension of £200 available on the death of Tennyson. In 1894 followed Odes and Other Poems, and in 1895 The Father of the Forest, which contained also the fine " Hymn to the Sea " in English elegiacs (originally contributed to the Yellow Book), " The Tomb of Burns," and " Apologia," a piece of candid and just self-criticism. The volume contained also a sonnet " To the Turk in Armenia," a prelude to the series of sonnets about Armenia contributed to the Westminster Gazette and republished in a brochure called -The Purple East in 1896. These sonnets were republished with revision and con- siderable additions, and a preface by the bishop of Hereford, in The Year of Shame in 1897. Whatever view was taken of the poet's incursion into politics, no one doubted his passionate sincerity, or the excellence of the poetical rhetoric it inspired. In 1898 were published his Collected Poems and a volume of new- poetry The Hope of the World, which opened with his three chief philosophical poems, the title piece, " The Unknown God," and " Ode in May." In 1902 he printed privately 50 copies of New Poems, and published his " Ode on the Coronation of King Edward VII.," a favourable specimen of its class; and in 1903 besides a volume of Selected Poems a collection of poems contri- buted to various periodicals and called For England: Poems Written During Estrangement, a poetical defence of his impugned patriotism during the Boer War. In 1909 appeared an important volume of New Poems. Mr Watson's poetry falls chiefly into the classes above in- dicated— critical, philosophical and political — to which may be added a further class of Horatian epistles to his friends. This classification indicates the high character and also the limitations of his poetry. It is contemplative, not dramatic, and only occasionally lyrical in impulse. In spite of the poet's plea in his " Apologia " that there is an ardour and a fire other than that of Eros or Aphrodite, ardour and fire are not conspicuous qualities of his verse. Except in his political verse there is more thought than passion. Bearing trace enough of the influence of the romantic epoch, his poetry recalls the earlier classical period in its epigrammatic phrasing and Latinized diction. By the distinction and clarity of his style and the dignity of his move- ment William Watson stands in the true classical tradition of great English verse, in a generation rather given over to lawlessness and experiment. See also section on William Watson in Poets of the Younger Genera- tion, by William Archer (1902) ; and for bibliography up to Aug. 1903, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (N.S.), pp. 542 and 548. (W.P.J.) WATT, JAMES (1736-1819), Scottish engineer, the inventor of the modern condensing steam-engine, was born at Greenock on the igth of January 1736. His father was a small merchant there, who lost his trade and fortune by unsuccessful speculation, and James was early thrown on his own resources. Having a taste for mechanics he made his way to London, at the age of nineteen, to learn the business of a philosophical-instrument maker, and became apprenticed to one John Morgan, in whose service he remained for twelve months. From a child he had been extremely delicate, and the hard work and frugal living of his London pupilage taxed his strength so severely that he was forced at the end of a year to seek rest at home, not, however, WATT until he had gained a fair knowledge of the trade and' become handy in the use of tools. Before going to London he had made the acquaintance of some of the professors in Glasgow college, and on his return to Scotland in 1756 he sought them out and obtained work in repairing astronomical instruments. He next tried to establish himself as an instrument maker in Glasgow, but the city gilds would not recognize a craftsman who had not served the full term of common apprenticeship, and Watt was forbidden to open shop in the burgh. The college, however, took hira under its protection, and in 1757 he was established in its precincts with the title of mathematical-instrument maker to the university. Before many months Joseph Black, the discoverer of latent heat, then lecturer on chemistry, and John Robison, then a student, afterwards professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, became his intimate friends, and with them he often discussed the possibility of improving the steam-engine, of which at that time Thomas Newcomen's was the most advanced type. The engine was then applied only to pumping water — chiefly in the drainage of mines; and it was so clumsy and wasteful of fuel as to be but little used. Some early experiments of Watt in 1761 or 1762 led to no positive result, but in 1764 his attention was seriously drawn to the matter by having a model of Newcomen's engine, which formed part of the college collection of scientific apparatus, given him to repair. Having put the model in order, he was at once struck with its enormous consumption of steam, and set himself to examine the cause of this and to find a remedy. In Newcomen's engine the cylinder stood vertically under one end of the main lever or " beam " and was open at the top. Steam, at a pressure scarcely greater than that of the atmosphere, was admitted to the under side; this allowed the piston to be pulled up by a counterpoise at the other end of the beam. Communication with the boiler was then shut off, and the steam in the cylinder was condensed by injecting a jet of cold water from a cistern above. The pressure of the air on the top of the piston then drove it down, raising the counterpoise and doing work. The injection water and condensed steam which had gathered in the cylinder were drained out by a pipe leading down into a well. Watt at once noticed that the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder in Newcomen's engine made it work with tedious slowness and excessive consumption of steam. When steam was admitted at the beginning of each stroke, it found the metal of the cylinder and piston chilled by contact with the condensed steam and cold injection water of the previous stroke, and it was not until much steam had been condensed in heating the chilled surfaces that the cylinder was able to fill and the piston to rise. His first attempt at a remedy was to use for the material of the cylinder a substance that would take in and give out heat slowly. Wood was tried, but it made matters only a little better, and did not promise to be durable. Watt observed that the evil was intensified whenever, for the sake of making a good vacuum under the piston, a specially large quantity of injection water was supplied. He then entered on a scientific examination of the properties of steam, studying by experiment the relation of its density and pressure to the temperature, and concluded that two conditions were essential to the economic use of steam in a condensing steam-engine. One was that the temperature of the condensed steam should be as low as possible, 100° F. or lower, otherwise the vacuum would not be good; the other was, to quote his own words, " that the cylinder should be always as hot as the steam which entered it." In Newcomen's engine these two conditions were incompatible, and it was not for some months that Watt saw a means of reconciling them. Early in 1765, while walking on a Sunday afternoon in Glasgow Green, the idea flashed upon him that, if the steam were condensed in a vessel distinct from the cylinder, it would be practicable to make the temperature of condensation low, and still keep the cylinder hot. Let this separate vessel be kept cold, either by injecting cold water or by letting it stream over the outside, and let a vacuum be maintained in the vessel. Then, whenever communication was made between it and the cylinder, steam would pass over from the cylinder and be condensed; the pressure in the cylinder would be as low as the pressure in the condenser, but the temperature of the metal of the cylinder would remain high, since no injection water need touch it. Without delay Watt put this idea to the test, and found that the separate con- denser did act as he had anticipated. To maintain the vacuum in it he added another new organ, namely, the air-pump, the function of which is to remove the condensed steam and water of injection along with any air that gathers in the condenser. To further his object of keeping the cylinder as hot as the steam that entered it, Watt supplemented his great invention of the separate condenser by several less notable but still import- ant improvements. In Newcomen's engine a layer of water over the piston had been used to keep it steam-tight; Watt substituted a tighter packing lubricated by oil. In Newcomen's engine the upper end of the cylinder was open to the air; Watt covered it in, leading the piston-rod through a steam-tight stuffing box in the cover, and allowed steam instead of air to press on the top of the piston. In Newcomen's engine the cylinder had no clothing to reduce loss of heat by radiation and conduction from its outer surface; Watt not only cased it in non-conducting material, such as wood, but introduced a steam- jacket, or layer of steam, between the cylinder proper and an outer shell. All these features were specified in his first patent (see STEAM- ENGINE), which, however, was not obtained till January 1769, nearly four years after the inventions it covers had been made. In the interval Watt had been striving to demonstrate the merits of his engine by trial on a large scale. His earliest experiments left him in debt, and, finding that his own means were quite insufficient to allow him to continue them, he agreed that Dr John Roebuck, founder of the Carron ironworks, should take two-thirds of the profits of the invention in consideration of his bearing the cost. An engine was then erected at Kinneil, near Linlithgow, where Roebuck lived, and this gave Watt the opportunity of facing many difficulties in details of construction. But the experiments made slow progress, for Roebuck's affairs became embarrassed, and Watt's attention was engaged by other work. He had taken to surveying, and was fast gaining reputa- tion as a civil engineer. In 1767 he was employed to make a survey for a Forth and Clyde canal — a scheme which failed to secure parliamentary sanction. This was followed during the next six years by surveys for a canal at Monkland, for another through the vaUey of Strathmore from Perth to Forfar, and for others along the lines afterwards followed by the Crinan and Caledonian canals. He prepared plans for the harbours of Ayr, Port-Glasgow and Greenock, for deepening the Clyde, and for building a bridge over it at -Hamilton. In the course of this work he invented a simple micrometer for measuring distances, consisting of a pair of horizontal hairs placed in the focus of a telescope, through which sights were taken to a fixed and movable target on a rod held upright at the place whose distance from the observer was to be determined. The micrometer was varied in a number of ways; and another fruit of his ingenuity about the same time was a machine to facilitate drawing in perspective. Meanwhile the engine had not been wholly neglected. Watt had secured his patent; the Kinneil trials had given him a store of valuable experience; Roebuck had failed, but another partner was ready to take his place. In 1768 Watt had made the acquaintance of Matthew Boulton, a man of energy and capital, who owned the Soho engineering works at Birmingham. Boulton agreed to take Roebuck's share in the invention, and to join Watt in applying to parliament for an act to prolong the term of the patent. The application was successful. In 1775 an act was passed continuing the patent for twenty-five years. By this time the inventor had abandoned his civil engineering work and had settled in Birmingham, where the manufacture of steam-engines was begun by the firm of Boulton & Watt. The partnership was a singularly happy one. Boulton had the good sense to leave the work of inventing to Watt, in whose 416 WATT genius he had the fullest faith; on the other hand, his substantial means, his enterprise, resolution and business capacity supplied what was wanting to bring the invention to commercial success. During the next ten years we find Watt assiduously engaged in developing and introducing the engine. Its first and for a time its only application was in pumping; it was at once put to this use in the mines of Cornwall, where Watt was now frequently engaged in superintending the erection of engines. Further inventions were required to fit it for other uses, and these followed in quick succession. Watt's second steam-engine patent is dated 1781. It describes five different methods of converting the reciprocating motion of the piston into motion of rotation, so as to adapt the engine for driving ordinary machinery. The simplest way of doing this, and the means now universally followed, is by a crank and fly-wheel; this had occurred to Watt, but had meanwhile been patented by another, and hence he devised the " sun and planet wheels " and other equivalent contrivances. A third patent, in 1782, contained two new inventions of the first importance. Up to this time the engine had been single-acting; Watt now made it double-acting; that is to say, both ends of the cylinder, instead of only one, were alternately put in communication with the boiler and the condenser. Up to this time also the steam had been admitted from the boiler throughout the whole stroke of the piston; Watt now introduced the system of expansive working, in which the admission valve is closed after a portion only of the stroke is performed, and the steam enclosed in the cylinder is then allowed to expand during the remainder of the stroke, doing additional work upon the piston without making any further demand upon the boiler until the next stroke requires a fresh admission of steam. He calculated that, as the piston advanced after admission had ceased, the pressure of the steam in the cylinder would fall in the same proportion as its volume increased — a law which, although not strictly true, does accord very closely with the actual behaviour of steam expanding in the cylinder of an engine. Recognizing that this would cause a gradual reduction of the force with which the piston pulled or pushed against the beam, Watt devised a number of contrivances for equalizing the effort throughout the stroke. He found, however, that the inertia of the pump-rods in his mine engines, and the fly-wheel in his rotative engines, served to compensate for the inequality of thrust sufficiently to make these con- trivances unnecessary. His fourth patent, taken out in 1784, describes the well-known " parallel motion," an arrangement of links by which the top of the piston-rod is connected to the beam so that it may either pull or push, and is at the same time guided to move in a sensibly straight line. " I have started a new hare," he writes to Boulton in June of that year; " I have got a glimpse of a method of causing a piston-rod to move up and down perpendicularly by only fixing it to a piece of iron upon the beam, without chains or perpendicular guides or untowardly frictions, arch-heads, or other pieces of clumsiness. I think it a very probable thing to succeed, and one of the most ingenious simple pieces of mechanism I have contrived." A still later invention was the throttle-valve and centrifugal governor, by which the speed of rotative engines was automatic- ally controlled. One more item in the list of Watt's contributions to the development of the steam-engine is too important to be passed without mention: the indicator, which draws a diagram of the relation of the steam's pressure to its volume as the stroke proceeds, was first used by Boulton & Watt to measure the work done by their engines, and so to give a basis on which the charges levied from their customers were adjusted. It would be difficult to exaggerate the part which this simple little instru- ment has played in the evolution of the steam-engine. The eminently philosophic notion of an indicator diagram is funda- mental in the theory of thermodynamics; the instrument itself is to the steam engineer what the stethoscope is to the physician, and more, for with it he not only diagnoses the ailments of a faulty machine, whether in one or another of its organs, but gauges its power in health. The commercial success of the engine was not long in being established. By 1783 all but one of the Newcomen pumping engines in Cornwall had been displaced by Watt's. The mine were then far from thriving; many were even on the point being abandoned through the difficulty of dealing with volumes of water; and Watt's invention, which allowed to be done at a moderate cost, meant for many of them a ne lease of life. His engine used no more than a fourth of the fu that had formerly been needed to do the same work, and Soho firm usually claimed by way of royalty a sum equivaler to one-third of the saving — a sum which must have been nearly equal to the cost of the fuel actually consumed. Rival manu facturers came forward, amongst whom Edward Bull Jonathan Carter Hornblower are the most conspicuous name They varied the form of the engine, but they could not avoic infringing Watt's patent by the use of a separate condens When action was taken against them on that ground, the retaliated by disputing the validity of the fundamental pater of 1769. In the case of Boulton &• Watt v. Bull the cour was divided on this point, but in an action against Hornblower the patent was definitely affirmed to be valid by a unanimous finding of the Court of King's Bench. This was in 1799, only a year before the monopoly expired, but the decision enabled the firm to claim a large sum as arrears of patent dues. In connexion with these trials Watt himself, as well as his early friends Black and Robison, drew up narratives of the invention of the steam-engine, which are of much interest to the student of its history.1 Before Watt's time the steam-engine was exclusively a steam- pump, slow-working, cumbrous and excessively wasteful of fuel. His first patent made it quick in working, powerful and efficient, but still only as a steam-pump. His later inventions adapted it to drive machinery of all kinds, and left it virtually what it is to-day, save in three respects. In respect of mechanical arrangement the modern engine differs from Watt's chiefly in this, that the beam, an indispensable feature in the early pumping-engines, and one which held its place long after the need for it had vanished, has gradually given way to more direct modes of connecting the piston with the crank. Another difference is in the modern use of nigh-pressure steam. It is remarkable that Watt, notwithstanding the fact that his own invention of expansive working must have opened his eyes to the advantage of high-pressure steam, declined to admit it into his practice. He persisted in the use of pressures that were little if at all above that of the atmosphere. His rivals in Cornwall were not so squeamish. Richard Trevithick ventured as far as 120 Ib on the square inch, and a curious episode in the history of the steam-engine is an attempt which Boulton & Watt made to have an act of parliament passed forbidding the use of high pressure on the ground that the lives of the public were endangered. The third and only other respect in which a great improvement has been effected is in the introduction of compound expansion. Here, too, one cannot but regret to find the Soho firm hostile, though the necessity of defending their monopoly makes their action natural enough. Hornblower had in fact stumbled on the invention of the compound engine, but as his machine employed Watt's condenser it was suppressed, to be revived after some years by Arthur Woolf (1766-1837). In one of his patents (1784) Watt describes a steam locomotive, but he never prosecuted this, and when William Mur- doch, his chief assistant (famous as the inventor of gas-lighting), made experiments on the same lines, Watt gave him little encourage- ment. The notion then was to use a steam carriage on ordinary roads; its use on railways had not yet been thought of. When that idea took form later in the last years of Watt's life, the old man refused to smile upon his offspring; it is even said that he put a clause in the lease of his house that no steam carriage should on any pretext be allowed to approach it. On the expiry in 1800 of the act by which the patent of 1769 had been extended, Watt gave up his share in the business of engine-building to his sons, James, who carried it on along with a son of Boulton for many years, and Gregory, who died in 1804. The remainder of his life was quietly spent at Heathfield Hall, his house near Birmingham, where he devoted his time, with scarcely an interruption, to mechanical pursuits. His last work was the invention of machines for copying sculpture 1 Another narrative of the utmost interest was written by Watt in 1814 in the form of a footnote to Robison's article " Steam-Engine," from the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which Watt revised before it was reprinted in the collected edition of Robison's works. See Robison's Mechanical Philosophy, vol. 5i. WATTEAU — one for making reduced copies, another for taking facsimiles by means of a light stiff frame, which carried a pointer over the surface of the work while a revolving tool fixed to the frame alongside of the pointer cut a corresponding surface on a suit- able block. We find him in correspondence with Sir Francis Chantrey about this machine not many months before his death, and presenting copies of busts to his friends as the work " of a young artist just entering on his eighty-third year." His life drew to a tranquil close, and the end came at Heathfield on the i pth of August 1819. His remains were interred in the neighbouring parish church of Handsworth. Watt was twice married — first in 1763 to his cousin Margaret Miller, who died ten years later. Of four children born of the marriage, two died in infancy; another was James (1769-1848), who succeeded his father in business; the fourth was a daughter who lived to maturity, but died early, leaving two children. His second wife, Anne Macgregor, whom he married before settling in Birmingham in 1775, survived him; but her two children, Gregory and a daughter, died young. Some of Watt's minor inventions have been already noticed. Another, which has proved of great practical value, was the letter- copying press, for copying manuscript by using a glutinous ink and pressing the written page against a moistened sheet of thin paper. He patented this in 1780, describing both a roller press, the use of which he seems to have preferred in copying his own correspond- ence, and also the form of screw press now found in every merchant's office. In the domain of pure science Watt claims recognition not only as having had ideas greatly in advance of his age regarding what is now called energy, but as a discoverer of the composition of water. Writing to Joseph Priestley in April 1783, with reference to some of Priestley s experiments, he suggests the theory that " water is composed of dephlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of their latent or elementary heat." It is difficult to determine the exact meaning attached to these antiquated terms, and to say how far Watt's suggestion anticipated the fuller discovery of Cavendish. Watt's views were communicated to the Royal Society in 1783, Cavendish's experiments in 1784, and both are printed in the same volume of the Philosophical Transactions. The early and middle part of Watt's life was a long struggle with poor health: severe headache prostrated him for days at a time; but as he grew old his constitution seems to have become more robust. His disposition was despondent and shrinking; he speaks of himself, but evidently with unfair severity, as " indolent to excess." " I am not enterprising," he writes; " I would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain ; in short, I find myself out of my sphere when I have anything to do with mankind." He was a man of warm friendships, and has left a personal memorial of the greatest interest in his numerous letters. They are full of sagacity and insight : his own achievements are told with a shrewd but extremely modest estimate of their value, and in a style of remarkable terseness and lucidity, lightened here and there by a touch of dry humour. In his old age Watt is described by his contemporaries as a man richly stored with the most various knowledge, full of anecdote, familiar with most modern languages and their literature, a great talker. Scott speaks of " the alert, kind, benevolent old man, his talents and fancy overflowing on every subject, with his attention alive to every one's question, his informa- tion at every one's command." , See J. P. Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical In- dentions of James Watt (3 vols., 1854; v°ls- >• and ii. contain a memoir and Watt's letters; vol. iii. gives a reprint of his patent specifications and other papers); Muirhead, Life of Watt (1858); Smiles, Lives of Boulton and Watt; Williamson, Memorials of the Lineage, &c., of James Watt, published by the Watt Club (Greenock, 1856) ; Correspondence of the late James Wait on his Discovery of the Theory of the Composition of Water, edited by Muirhead (1846) ; 1823), by James Watt, junior; Robison, Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ii. (1822) (letters and notes by Watt on the History of the Steam- Engine). (J. A. E.) WATTEAU, ANTOINE (1684-1721), French painter, was born in Valenciennes, of humble Flemish origin. Comte de Caylus, his staunch friend of later years, and his first biographer, refers to Watteau's father as a hard man, strongly disinclined to accede to his son's wish to become a painter; but other accounts show him in a kinder light — as a poor, struggling man, a tiler by trade, who secured for his son the best possible education. Certain it is that at the age of fourteen Watteau was placed with G6rin, a mediocre Valenciennes painter, with xxvm. 14 whom he remained until 1702. It is to be assumed that he learnt far more from the study of Ostade's and Teniers's paintings in his native town than from his first master's teaching. Not only in subject-matter, but in their general tonality, his earliest works, like " La Vraie Gaiet6," which was in the collection of Sir Charles Tennant, suggest this influence. G6rin died in 1702, and Watteau, almost penniless, went to Paris, where he found employment with the scene-painter Metayer. Things, however, went badly with his new master, and Watteau, broken down in health and on the verge of starvation, was forced to work in a kind of factory where devotional pictures were turned out in wholesale fashion. Three francs a week and meagre food were his reward; but his talent soon enabled him to paint the St Nicolas, the copying of which was allotted to him, without hav- ing to refer to the original. Meanwhile he spent his rare leisure hours and the evenings in serious study, sketching and drawing his impressions of types and scenes. His drawings attracted the attention of Claude Gillot, an artist imbued with the spirit of the Renaissance, who after having successfully tried himself in the mythological and historical genre, was just at that time devoting himself to the characters and incidents of the Italian comedy. Gillot took Watteau as pupil and assistant, but the young man made such rapid progress that he soon equalled and excelled his master, whose jealousy led to a quarrel, as a result of which Watteau, and with him his fellow-student and later pupil, Lancret, severed his connexion with Gillot and entered about 1708 the studio of Claude Audran, a famous decorative painter who was at that time keeper of the collections at the Luxembourg Palace. From him Watteau acquired his knowledge of decorative art and ornamental design, the garland-like composition which he applied to the designing of screens, fans and wall panels. At the same time he became deeply imbued with the spirit of Rubens and Paolo Veronese, whose works he had daily before him at the palace; and he continued to work from nature and to collect material for his formal garden backgrounds among the fountains and statues and stately avenues of the Luxembourg gardens. His chinoiseries and singeries date probably from the years during which he worked with Audran. Perhaps as a recreation from the routine of ornamental design , Watteau painted at this time " The Departing Regiment," the first picture in his second and more personal manner, in which the touch reveals the influence of Rubens's technique, and the first of a long series of camp pictures. He showed the painting to Audran, who, probably afraid of losing so talented and useful an assistant, made light of it, and advised him not to waste his time and gifts on such subjects. Watteau, suspicious of his master's motives, determined to leave him, advancing as excuse his desire to return to Valenciennes. He found a purchaser, at the modest price of 60 livres, in Sirois, the father- in-law of his later friend and patron Gersaint, and was thus enabled to return to the home of his childhood. In Valenciennes he painted a number of the small camp-pieces, notably the " Camp-Fire," which was again bought by Sirois, the price this time being raised to 200 livres; this is now in the collection of Mr W. A. Coats in Glasgow. Two small pictures of the same type are at the Hermitage in St Petersburg. Returning to Paris after a comparatively short sojourn at Valenciennes, he took up his abode with Sirois, and competed in 1709 for the Prix de Rome. He only obtained the second prize, and, determined to go to Rome, he applied for a crown pension and exhibited the two military pictures which he had sold to Sirois, in a place where they were bound to be seen by the academicians. There they attracted the attention of de la Fosse, who, struck by the rare gifts displayed in these works, sent for Watteau and dissuaded him from going to Italy, where he had nothing to learn. It was to a great extent due to de la Fosse and to Rigaud that Watteau was made an associate of the Academy in 1712, and a full member in 1717, on the completion of his diploma picture, " The Embarkment for Cythera," now at the Louvre. A later, and even more perfect, version of the same subject is in the possession of the German emperor. It is quite possible that the superb portrait of Rigaud by Watteau. 4i 8 WATTENBACH— WATTERSON belonging to Mr Hodgkins, was painted in acknowledgment of Rigaud's friendly action. Watteau now went to live with Crozat, the greatest private art collector of his time, for whom he painted a set of four decorative panels of " The Seasons," one of which, " Summer," is now in the collection of Mr Lionel Phillips. Crozat left at his death some 400 paintings and 19,000 drawings by the masters. It is easy to imagine how Watteau roamed among these treasures, and became more and more familiar with Rubens and the great Venetians. In 1719 or 1720 the state of his health had become so alarming that he went to London to consult the famous doctor Richard Mead. But far from benefiting by the journey, he became worse, the London fog and smoke proving particularly pernicious to a sufferer from consumption. On his return to Paris he lived for six months with his friend Gersaint, for whom he painted in eight mornings the wonderful signboard depicting the interior of an art dealer's shop, which is now — cut into two parts — in the collection of the German emperor. His health made it imperative for him to live in the country, and in 1721 he took up his abode with M. le Fevre at Nogent. During all this time, as though he knew the near approach of the end and wished to make the best of his time, he worked with feverish haste. Among his last paintings were a " Crucifixion " for the cure of- Nogent, and a portrait of the famous Venetian pastellist Rosalba Camera, who at the same time painted her portrait of Watteau. His restlessness increased with the progress of his disease; he wished to return to Valenciennes, but the long journey was too danger- ous; he sent for his pupil Pater, whom he had dismissed in a fit of ill-temper, and whom he now kept by his side for a month to give him the benefit of his experience; and on the i8th of July 1721 he died in Gersaint's arms. Watteau's position in French art is one of unique importance, for, though Flemish by descent, he was more French in his art than *ny of his French contemporaries. He became the founder — and at the same time the culmination — of a new school which marked a revolt against the pompous decaying classicism of the Louis XIV. period. The vitality of his art was due to the rare combination of a poet's imagination with a power of seizing reality. In his treatment of the landscape background and of the atmospheric surroundings of the figures can be found the germs of impressionism. All the later theories of light and its effect upon the objects in nature are foreshadowed by Watteau's files champetres, which give at the same time a characteristic, though highly idealized, picture of the artificiality of the life of his time. He is the initiator of the Louis XV. period, but, except in a few rare cases, his paintings are entirely free from the licentiousness of his followers Lancret and Pater, and even more of Boucher and Fragonard. During the last years of his life Watteau's art was highly esteemed by such fine judges as Sirois, Gersaint, the comte de Caylus, and M. de Julienne, the last of whom had a whole collection of the master's paintings and sketches, and published in 1735 the Abregi de la vie de Watteau, an introduction to the four volumes of engravings after Watteau by Cochin, Thomassin, Le Bas, Liotard and others. From the middle of the i8th century to about 1875, when Edmond de Goncourt published his Catalogue raisonne of Watteau's works and Caylus's discourse on Watteau delivered at the Academy in 1748, the discovery of which is also due to the brothers de Goncourt, Watteau was held in such slight esteem that the prices realized by his paintings at public auction rarely exceeded £100. Then the reaction set in, and in 1891 the " Occupation according to Age " realized 5200 guineas at Christie's, and " Perfect Harmony " 3500 guineas. At the Bourgeois sale at Cologne in 1904 " The Village Bride " fetched £5000. The finest collection of Watteau's works is in the possession of the German emperor, who owns as many as thirteen, all of the best period, and mostly from M. de Julienne's collection. At the Kaiser Friedrich museum in Berlin are two scenes from the Italian and French comedy and a fete champUre. In the Wallace Collection are nine of his paintings, among them " Rustic Amusements," " The Return from the Chase," " Gilles and his Family," " The Music Party," " A Lady at her Toilet " and " Harlequin and Columbine." The Louvre owns, besides th diploma picture, the " Antiope," " The Assemblage in the Park,' " Autumn," " Indifference," " La Finette," " Gilles," " A Re union " and " The False Step," as well as thirty-one origina drawings. Other paintings of importance are at the Dresden Glasgow, Edinburgh, St Petersburg and Vienna galleries; and a number of drawings are to be found at the British Museu and the Albertina in Vienna. Of the few portraits known to have been painted by Watteau, one is in the collection of the late Groult in Paris. AUTHORITIES. — Since the resuscitation of Watteau's fame by th. de Goncourts, an extensive literature has grown around his life and work. The basis for all later research is furnished by Caylus'r somewhat academic Life, Gersaint's Catalogue raisonne (Paris 1744), and Julienne's Abrege. For Watteau's childhood, the most trustworthy information will be found in Cellier's Watteau, son enfance, ses comtemporains (Valenciennes, 1867). Of the greatest importance is the Catalogue raisonne de I'&uvre de Watteau, by E. de Goncourt (1875), and the essay on Watteau by the brothers de Goncourt in L'Art du XVIII' siecle. See also Watteau by Paul Mantz (Paris, 1892); '• Antoine Watteau," by G. Dargenty (Les Artistes celebres, Paris, 1891); Watteau, by Gabriel Seailles (Paris 1892); Antoine Watteau by Claude Phillips (London, 1895; reprintec without alterations or corrections by the author, 1905) ; and Camille Mauclair's brilliant monograph Antoine Watteau (London, 1905), which is of exceptional interest as a physiological study, since the author establishes the connexion between Watteau's art and character and the illness to which he succumbed in the prime his life. . (P.G.K.) WATTENBACH, WILHELM (1810-1897), German historian, was born at Ranzau in Holstein on the 22nd of September i8ic He studied philology at the universities of Bonn, Gottingen and Berb'n, and in 1843 he began to work upon the Monument, Germaniae historica. In 1855 he was appointed archivist at Breslau; in 1862 he became professor of history at Heidelberg and ten years later professor at Berlin, where he was a memb of the directing body of the Monumenta and a member of the Academy. He died at Frankfort on the 2ist of September 1897. Wattenbach was distinguished by his thorough knowledge of the chronicles and other original documents of the middle ages, and his most valuable work was done in this field. His principal book, Deutschlands Geschichtsquetten im MitU bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts, is unrivalled as a guide to th sources of the history of Germany in the middle ages; this was first published in 1858, and has passed through several editions. Cognate works are his Anleitungzur lateinischen Paldographie (Leipzig, 1869, and again 1886); and Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1871, and again 1896). Wattenbach also wrote Beitrdge zur Geschichte der christlichen Kirche in Bohmen und Mahren (Vienna, 1849); Geschichte des romischen Papsltums (Berlin, 1876); and Anleitung zur griechischen Paldographie (Leipzig, 1867, and again 1895). WATTERSON, HENRY (1840- ), American journalist, was born in Washington, D.C., on the i6th of February 1840. His father, Harvey McGee Watterson (1811-1891), was a jour- nalist and lawyer, and was a Democratic representative in Con- gress in 1830-1843. The son was educated by private tutors, and between 1858 and 1861 was editor of the Washington States and of the Democratic Review. During the Civil War he served in the Confederate army as aide-de-camp to General Nathan B. Forrest and to General Leonidas Polk in 1861-1862; he was editor of the Chattanooga Rebel in 1862-1863, and was chief of scouts in General Joseph E. Johnston's army in 1864. In 1865-1867 he was an editor of the Republican Banner, at Nash- ville, Tennessee, and in 1867-1868 was editor of the Journa at Louisville, Kentucky. In 1868, with W. N. Haldeman, founded and became editor of the Louisville Courier- Journal, a consolidation of the Courier (1843), the Democrat (1844), and the Journal (1830); and it soon became one of the most influential of Southern newspapers. He was a Democratic representative in Congress from August 1876 to March 1877, and was delegate at large to the National Democratic Conventions of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1802, serving as temporary chairman in 1876, and as chairman of the platform committee in 1880 and 1888. He became widely known as a lecturer and orator. His publications include History of the Spanish- American War (1899) and The Compromises of Life (1902). WATTIGNIES— WATTMETER 419 WATTIGNIES, a village of France si m. S.S.E. of Maubeuge, the scene of a battle in the French Revolutionary Wars (?.».), (ought on the isth-i6th October 1793. The Allied army, chiefly \ustrians, under Coburg, was besieging Maubeuge, and the Revolutionary army, preparing to relieve it, gathered behind Avesnes. Coburg disposed a covering force of 2 1 ,000 astride the Avesnes-Maubeuge road, 5000 on the right with their flank on the Sambre, 9000 in the centre, on a ridge in an amphitheatre of woods, and 6000 on the left, chiefly on the plateau of Wattignies. A long line of woods enabled the Republican commander, Jourdan, to deploy unseen; 14,000 men were io attack the right, 16,000 were sent towards Wattignies, and 13,000 were to demonstrate in the centre till the others had succeeded and then to attack. Meantime (though this part of the programme miscarried) the Maubeuge garrison, which was almost as strong as its besiegers, was to sally out. Even without the Maubeuge garrison Jourdan had a two-to-one superiority. But the French were still the undisciplined enthusiasts of Hondschoote. Their left attack progressed so long as it could use " dead ground " in the valleys, but when the Republicans reached the gentler slopes above, the volleys of the Austrian regulars crushed their swarms, and the Austrian cavalry, striking them in flank, rode over them. The centre attack, ordered by Camot on the assumption that all was well on the flanks, was premature; like the left, it pro- gressed while the slopes were sharp, but when the Republicans arrived on the crest they found a gentle reverse slope before them, at the foot of which were Coburg's best troops. Again the dis- ciplined volleys and a well-timed cavalry charge swept back the assailants. The French right reached, but could not hold, Wattignies. But these reverses were, in the eyes of Carnot and Jourdan, mere mishaps. Jourdan wished to renew the left attack, but Carnot, the engineer, considered the Wattignies plateau the key of the position and his opinion prevailed. In the night the nearly equal partition of force, which was largely responsible for the failure, was modified, and the strength of the attack massed opposite Wattignies. Coburg meanwhile strengthened his wings. He heard that Jourdan had been re- inforced up to 100,000. But he called up few fresh battalions, and put into line only 23,000 men. In reality Jourdan had not received reinforcements, and the effects of the first failure almost neutralized the superiority of numbers and enthusiasm over discipline and confidence. But at last, after a long fight had eliminated the faint-hearted, enough brave men remained in the excited crowds held together by Carnot and Jourdan to win the plateau. Coburg then drew off. His losses were 2500 out of 23,000, Jourdan's 3000 out of 43,000. WATTLE AND DAB, a term in architecture (Lat. cratitius) applied to a wall made with upright stakes with withes twisted between them and then plastered over. It is probably one of the oldest systems of construction; the Egyptians employed the stems of maize for the upright stakes; these were secured together with withes and covered over with mud, the upper portions of the maize stems being left uncut at the top, to in- crease the height of the enclosure; and these are thought by Professor Petrie to have given the origin for the cavetto cornice of the temples, the torus moulding representing the heavier coil of withes at the top of the fence wall. Vitruvius (ii. 8) refers to it as being employed in Rome. In the middle ages in England it was employed as a framework for clay chimneys. WATTMETER, an instrument for the measurement of electric power, or the rate of supply of electric energy to any circuit. The term is generally applied to describe a particular form of electrodynamometer, consisting of a fixed coil of wire and an embracing or neighbouring coil of wire suspended so as to be movable. In general construction the instrument resembles a Siemens electrodynamometer (see AMPEREMETER). The fixed coil is called the current coil, and the movable coil is called the potential coil, and each of these coils has its ends brought to separate terminals on the base of the instrument. The principle on which the instrument works is as follows: Suppose any circuit, such as an electric motor, lamp or transformer, is receiving electric current; then the power given to that circuit reckoned in watts is measured by the product of the current flowing through the circuit in amperes and the potential difference of the ends of that circuit hi volts, multiplied by a certain factor called the power factor in those cases in which the circuit is inductive and the current alternating. Take first the simplest case of a non-inductive power-absorbing circuit. If an electro-dynamometer, made as above described, has its fixed circuit connected in series with the power-absorbing circuit and its movable coil (wound with fine wire) connected across the terminals of the power-absorbing circuit, then a current will flow through the fixed coil which is the same or nearly the same as that through the power-absorbing circuit, and a current will flow through the high resistance coil of the wattmeter proportional to the potential difference at the terminals of the power-absorbing circuit. The movable coil of the wattmeter is normally suspended so that its axis is at right angles to that of the fixed coil and is constrained by the torsion of a spiral spring. When the currents flow through the two coils, forces are brought into action compelling the coils to set their axes in the same direction, and these forces can be opposed by another torque due to the control of a spiral spring regulated by moving a torsion head on the instrument. The torque required to hold the coils in their normal position is proportional to the mean value of the product of the currents flowing through two coils respectively, or to the mean value of the product of'tne current in the power-absorbing circuit and the potential difference at its ends, that is, to the power taken up by the circuit. Hence this power can bo measured by the torsion which must be applied to the movable coil of the wattmeter to hold it in the normal position against the action of the forces tending to displace it. The wattmeter can therefore be calibrated so as to give direct readings of the power reckoned in watts, taken up in the circuit; hence its name, wattmeter. In those cases in which the power- absorbing circuit is inductive, the coil of the wattmeter connected across the terminals of the power-absorbing circuit must have an exceedingly small inductance, else a considerable correction may become necessary. This correcting factor has the follow- ing value: If Ts stands for the time-constant of the movable circuit of the wattmeter, commonly called the potential coil, the time constant being defined as the ratio of the inductance to the resistance of that circuit, and if TR is the time-constant similarly defined of the power-absorbing circuit, and if F is the correcting factor, and p = 2v times the frequency », then,1 F__L±£Is! ~i+/>TyiY Hence an electrody namic wattmeter, applied to measure the electrical power taken up in a circuit when employing alternating currents, gives absolutely correct readings only in two cases — (i.) when the potential circuit of the wattmeter and the power-absorbing circuit nave negligible inductances, and (ii.) when the same two circuits have equal time-constants. If these conditions are not fulfilled, the wattmeter readings, assuming the wattmeter to have been calibrated with continuous currents, may be either too high or too low when alternating currents are being used. In order that a wattmeter shall be suitable for the measurement of power taken up in an inductive circuit certain conditions of construction must be fulfilled. The framework and case of the instrument must be completely non-metallic, else eddy currents induced in the supports will cause disturbing forces to act upon the movable coil. Again the shunt circuit must have practically zero inductance and the series or current coil must be wound or constructed with stranded copper wire,- each strand being silk covered, to prevent the production of eddy currents in the mass of the conductor. Wattmeters of this land have been devised by J. A. Fleming, Lord Kelvin and W. Duddell and Mather. W. E. Sumpner, however, has devised forms of wattmeter of the dyna- mometer type in which iron cores are employed, and has defined the conditions under which these instruments are available for accurate measurements. See " New Alternate Current Instruments," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 41, 227 (1908). There are methods of measuring electrical power by means of electrostatic voltmeters, or of quadrant electrometers adapted for the purpose, which when so employed may be called electrostatic wattmeters. If the quadrants of an electrometer (q.v.) are con- nected to the ends of a non-inductive circuit in series with the power-absorbing circuit, and if the needle is connected to the end of this last circuit opposite to that at which the inductionless re- sistance is connected, then the deflexion of the electrometer will be proportional to the power taken up in the circuit, since it is pro- portional to the mean value of (A-B) )C- J (A+ B)(, where A and B are the potentials of the quadrants and C is that of the needle. This expression, however, measures the power taken up in the power-absorbing circuit. In the case of tie voltmeter method of measuring power devised by W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner in 1891, an electrostatic voltmeter is employed to measure the fall of potential Vi down any inductive circuit in which it is desired to 1 For the proof of this formula see J. A. Fleming, The Alternate Current Transformer in Theory and Practice, i. 1 68. WATTS, A. A.— WATTS, G. F. 420 measure the power absorption, and also the volt-drop Vj down an inductionless resistance R in series with it, and also the volt-drop Vs down the two together. The power absorption is then given by the expression (V8J— Vi2— W)/2R. For methods of employing the heating power of a current to construct a wattmeter see a paper by J. T. Irwin on " Hot-wire Wattmeters," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. For 'the details of these and many other methods of employing wattmeters to measure the power absorption in single and polyphase circuits the reader is referred to the following works : J. A. Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (1903); Id., The Alternate Current Transformer in Theory and Practice (1905); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineering Measuring Instru- ments (1903); A. Gray, Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism (1900); E. Wilson, " The Kelvin Quadrant Electrometer as a Wattmeter," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1898), 62, 356; J. Swinburne, "The Electrometer as a Wattmeter," Phil. Mag. (June 1891); W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner, " The Measurement of the Power given by an Electric Current to any Circuit," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1891), 49, 424; Id., " Alternate Current and Potential Difference Analogies in the Method of Measuring Power," Phil. Mag. (August 1891); W. E. Ayrton, " Electrometer Methods of Measuring Alternating Current Power," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1888), 17, 164; T. H. Blakesley, " Further Contributions to Dynamometry or the Measure- ment of Power," Phil. Mag. (April 1891); G. L. Addenbrooke, "The Electrostatic Wattmeter and its Calibration and Adaptation for Polyphase Measurements," Electrician (1903), 51, 811; W. E. Sumpner, " New Iron-cored Instruments for Alternate Current Working," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 36, 421 (1906). (J. A. F.) WATTS, ALARIC ALEXANDER (1797-1864), English journalist and poet, was the son of John Mosley Watts and grandson of William Watts, a Leicester pkysician of repute. After leaving school he made his living for a short time by teach- ing, and in 1818 joined the staff of the New Monthly Magazine in London, becoming about the same time a contributor to the Literary Gazette. In 1822 he was made editor of the Leeds Intelligencer, in the columns of which he was one of the first to advocate measures for protecting workers in factories against accidents from machinery. In 1823 he published his first volume of verse, Poetical Sketches, and in 1824 he became the editor of the Literary Souvenir, of which he also became the proprietor two years later, and in the conduct of which he secured the co-operation of some of the most famous men of letters of the period. In' 1825 he went to Manchester as editor of the Man- chester Courier, a position which he resigned a year later; in 1827 he assisted in founding the Standard, of which the first editor was Stanley Lees Giffard; and in 1833 he started the United Service Gazette, which he edited for several years. Watts was also interested in a number of provincial Conservative newspapers which were not financially successful, and he became bankrupt' in 1850, but was awarded a civil service pension by Lord Aberdeen in 1854. In 1856 he edited the first edition of Men of the Time. Watts died in London on the $th of April 1864. In 1867 a collection of his poems was published in a volume entitled The Laurel and the. Lyre. See A. A. Watts, AlarU Watts (2 vols., London, 1884). WATTS, GEORGE FREDERICK (1817-1904), English painter and sculptor, was born in London on the 23rd of February 1817. While hardly more than a boy he was permitted to enter the schools of the Royal Academy; but his attendance was short- lived, and his further art education was confined to persona: experiment and endeavour, guided and corrected by a constant appeal to the standard of ancient Greek sculpture. There are portraits of himself, painted in 1834; of Mr James Weale about 1835; of his father, " Little Miss Hopkins," and Mr Richard Jarvis, painted in 1836; and in 1837 he was already far enough advanced to be an exhibitor at the Academy with ; picture of " The Wounded Heron " and two portraits. Hi first exhibited figure-subject, " Cavaliers," appeared on the Academy walls in 1839, and was followed in 1840 by " Isabella e Lorenzo," in 1841 by " How should I your true love know? " anc in 1842 by a scene from Cymbeline and a portrait of Mrs lonides The Royal Commission appointed for the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament offered prizes in 1842 to those artists whose cartoons for frescoes should be adjudged best adapted to its object, and at the exhibition in Westminster Hall next year Watts secured a prize of £300 for a design of " Caractacus lee n triumph through the streets of Rome." This enabled him visit Italy in 1844, and he remained there during the greater portion of the three following years, for the most part in Florence, where he enjoyed the patronage and personal friendship of Lord Holland, the British ambassador. For him he painted a portrait of Lady Holland, exhibited in 1848, and in his Villa Careggi, near the city, a fresco, after making some experimental studiei n that medium, fragments of which are now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. To Lord Holland's encouragement, also t was chiefly due that in 1846 the artist took part in another competition, the third organized by the Royal Commissioners, who on this occasion announced a further list of prizes for works n oil. Watts sent in a cartoon depicting " Alfred inciting his subjects to prevent the landing of the Danes, or the first naval victory of the English," which, after obtaining a first-class prize of £500 at the exhibition in Westminster Hall, was purchased ay the government, and hangs in one of the committee rooms of the House of Commons. It led, moreover, to a commission for the fresco of " St George overcomes the Dragon," which, begun in 1848 and finished in 1853, forms part of the decorations the Hall of the Poets in the Houses of Parliament. He next proposed to adorn gratuitously the interior of the Great Hall of Euston railway station with a series of frescoes illustrai ' The Progress of the Cosmos," but the offer was refused. A similar proposition made shortly afterwards to the Benchers of Lincoln's Inn was received in a less commercial spirit, and followed by the execution of the fresco, " Justice: a Hemicycl of Lawgivers," on the north side of their hall. While this large undertaking was still in progress, Watts working steadily at pictures and portraits. In 1849 the firs two of the great allegorical compositions which form the m< characteristic of the artist's productions were exhibited — " Life': Illusions," an elaborate presentment of the vanity of huma: desires, and " The people that sat in darkness," turning eager! towards the growing dawn. In 1850 he first gave public ex pression to his intense longing to improve the condition o: humanity in the picture of " The Good Samaritan " bending ovi the wounded traveller; this, as recorded in the catalogue of thi Royal Academy, was " painted as an expression of the artist' admiration and respect for the noble philanthropy of Thorn; Wright, of Manchester," and to that city he presented the wor In 1856 Watts paid a visit to Lord Holland at Paris, where he w; then ambassador, and through him made the acquaintance an painted the portraits of Thiers, Prince Jerome Bonaparte an other famous Frenchmen; while other celebrities who sat to hir during these years were Guizot (1848), Colonel Rawlinson, C.B. Sir Henry Taylor and Thomas Wright (1851), Lord Jol Russell (1852), Tennyson (1856, and again in 1850), Jol Lothrop Motley the historian (1859), the duke of Argyll (1860) Lord Lawrence and Lord Lyndhurst (1862), Lord Wensleyda: (1864), Mr Gladstone (1858 and 1865), Sir William Bowman an Swinburne (1865), Panizzi (1866) and Dean Stanley and Joachim in 1867. Notable pictures of the same period a: " Sir Galahad " (1862), " Ariadne in Naxos " (1863), " Time an Oblivion " (1864), originally designed for sculpture to be carrii out " in divers materials after the manner of Pheidias," an " Thetis " (1866). In spite of these and many other evidences of his importan it was not until 1867 that Watts was elected an Associate _ the Royal Academy, but the council then conferred upon hi: the rare distinction of promoting him, in the course of the sa: year, to full Academicianship. Thenceforward he continued exhibit each year, with a few exceptions, at the Academy, evi after his retirement in 1896, and he was also a frequent coi tributor to the Grosvenor Gallery, and subsequently to the Ne Gallery, at which last a special exhibition of his works was hi ' in the winter of 1896-1897. Though he travelled abroad to sol extent, going to Asia Minor in 1857 with the expedition sent investigate the ruins of Halicarnassus, and visiting in later y< Italy, Greece and Egypt, the greater part of his life was passed i the laborious seclusion of his studio either at Little Holland Hoi Melbury Road, Kensington, where he settled in 1859, or in t I * WATTS, G. F. 421 country at Limnerslease, Compton, Surrey. Apart from his art, his life was happily uneventful, the sole facts necessary to record being his marriage in 1886 with Miss Mary Fraser-Tytler, an early union with Miss Ellen Terry having been dissolved many years before; his twice receiving (1885 and 1894), but respectfully declining, the offer of a baronetcy; and his inclusion in June 1902 in the newly founded Order of Merit. He died on the ist of July 1904. The world is exceptionally well provided with opportunities of judging of the qualities of G. F. Watts's art, for with a noble gene- rosity he presented to his country a representative selection of the best work of his long life. A prominent element in_ it, and one which must prove of the greatest value to posterity, is the inesti- mable series of portraits of his distinguished contemporaries, a series no less remarkable for its artistic than for its historical interest. A glance through the list of his subjects shows the breadth of his sym- pathies and his superiority to creed or party. Among politicians are the duke of Devonshire (1883), Lords Salisbury (1884), Sherbrooke (1882), Campbell (1882), Cowper (1877), Ripon (1896), Dufferin (1897) and Shaftesbury (1882), Mr Gerald Balfour (1809) and Mr John Burns (1897); poets — Tennyson, Swinburne (1884), Browning (1875), Matthew Arnold (1881), Rossetti (1865, and subsequent replica) and William Morris (1870); artists — himself (1864, 1880, and eleven others), Lord Leighton (1871 and 1881), Calderon (1872), Prinsep (1872), Burne-Jones (1870), Millais (1871), Walter Crane (i89i),'and Alfred Gilbert (1896); literature is represented by John Stuart Mill (exhibited 1874), Carlyle (1869), George Meredith (1893), Max Miiller (1895) and Mr Lecky (1878); music, by Sir Charles Halle; while among others who have won fame in diverse paths are Lords Napier (1886) and Roberts (1899), General Baden-Powell (1902), Garibaldi, Sir Richard Burton (1882), Cardinal Manning (1882), Dr Martineau (1874), Sir Andrew Clark (1894), George Pea- body, Mr Passmore Edwards, Claude Montefiore (1894). Even more significant from an artistic point of view is the great collection of symbolical pictures in the Tate Gallery which forms the artist's message to mankind. Believing devoutly in the high mission of didactic art, he strove ever to carry put his part of it faithfully. To quote his own words: " My intention has not been so much to paint pictures that charm the eye, as to suggest great thoughts that will appeal to the imagination and the heart, and kindle all that is best and noblest in humanity "; and his tenet is that the main ob- ject of the painter should be " demanding noble aspirations, con- demning in the most trenchant manner prevalent vices, and warning in deep tones against lapses from morals and duties." There are not wanting critics who radically dissent from this view of the proper functions of art. It must be admitted that there is force in their objection when the inner meaning of a picture is found to be exceedingly obscure, if not incomprehensible, without a verbal explanation. In the female figure, for instance, bending blindfolded on the globe suspended in space and sounding the sole remaining string upon her lyre, while a single star shines in the blue heavens, it is not obvious to every one that the idea of " Hope " (1885) is suggested. There can be few, nevertheless, who will maintain that his aim is not a lofty one; and the strongest evidence of the artist's greatness, to those who accept his doctrine, is the fact that he has not only striven untiringly for his own ideals, but has very often gloriously attained them. Moreover, in so doing he has not failed on occasion to impart to his work much of that very charm which is to him a secondary consideration, or to exhibit an assured and accomplished mastery of the technical achievement which is to some the primary object and essential triumph of painting. It was, in short, the rare combination of supreme handicraft with a great imaginative intellect which secured to Watts his undisputed place in the public estimation of his day. The grandeur and dignity of his style, the ease and purposefulness of his brushwork, the richness and harmoniousness of his colouring — qualities partly his own, partly derived from his study of Italian masters at an early and impression- able age — are acknowledged even by those to whom his elevated educational intentions are a matter of indifference, if not of absolute disapprobation; while many, to whom his exceptional artistic attainment is a sealed book, have gathered courage or consolation from the grave moral purpose and deep human sympathy of his teaching. He expresses his ideas for the most part in terms of beauty, an idealized, classical beauty of form, a glowing, Venetian beauty of colour, though his conviction of the deadly danger of heaped-up riches, which he vindicated in his life as well as in his work, has, in such cases as " The Minotaur " (exhibited in 1896), " Mammon " (1885) and " Jonah " (1895), where the unveiled vileness of Cruelty and Greed is fearlessly depicted, driven him to the presentment of sheer ugliness or brutality. Far oftener a vast, all-embracing tenderness inspires his work; it is the sorrow, not the sin, that stirs him. When he would rebuke the thoughtless inhumanity which sacrifices its annual hecatombs of innocent birds to fashionable vanity and grasping commerce, it is not upon the blood and cruelty that he dwells, but the pity of it that he typifies in " Dedication " or " The Shuddering Angel " (1892) weeping over the altar spread with Woman's spoils. Yet it is as a teacher that the artist is seen at his highest: he would sooner point out the true way to those who seek it than admonish those who have wandered. He never wearies of em- phasizing the reality of the power of Love, the fallacy underlying the fear of Death. To the early masters Death was a bare and ghastly skeleton, above all things to be shunned; to Watts it is a grand, impressive figure, awful indeed but not horrible, irre- sistible but not ruthless, a bringer of rest and peace, not to be rashly sought but to be welcomed when the inevitable hour shall strike. "Sictransit" (1892) conveys most completely, perhaps.Watts's lesson on the theme of death. Stretched on a bier and reverently sheeted lies a corpse; strewn neglected on the ground lie the ermine robe of worldly rank, the weapons of the warrior, the lute of the musician, the book of human learning, the palmer's robe of late repentance and the roses of fleeting pleasures; the laurel crown remains as the one thing worth the winning, and the inscription " What I spent I had; what I saved I lost; what I gave I have," points the moral. Such is the significance of the still more masterly Court of Death " (finally completed 1902 and now in the Tate Gallery). To the same early masters Love was usually a mere distributor of sensual pleasures, a tricksy spirit instinct with malice and bringing more harm than happiness to humanity, though neither was of much moment. Watts has not altogether ignored this view, and in " Mischief " (1878) has portrayed Man, love-led, entangled among the thorns of the world; but, in the main, Love to him is the chief guide and helper of mankind along the barren, rock- strewn path of life, through whom alone he can attain the higher levels, and who triumphs in the end over Death itself. To these views on the all-importance of love a trilogy of pictures in the Tate Gallery gives full expression. In the first, " Love and Life," ex- hibited in 1885, a replica of an earlier picture in the Metro- politan Museum, New York, and of another version presented by him to the Luxembourg, Paris, Love, a figure in the prime of manhood, leads and supports the slender, clinging girl who symbolizes Life up to the craggy mountain-top, while he partly shields her from the blast under a broad wing. Of this he himself said, " Probably ' Love and Life ' best portrays my message to the age. Life, re- presented by the female figure, never could have reached such heights unless protected and guided by Love " ; * and in theprefatory note to the exhibition of his works in 1896 he wrote, " The slight female figure is an emblem of the fragile quality in humanity, at once its weakness and its strength; sensibility, aided by Love, sympathy, tenderness, self-sacrifice, and all that the range of the term implies, humanity ascends the rugged path from brutality to spirituality." The limitations of earthly love are shown in the second " Love and Death," one version of which was exhibited in 1877 and others in 1896, &c. In this, Love, a beautiful boy, striving vainly to bar the door to the mighty figure of Death, is thrust back with crushed wings powerless to stay the advance; but that the defeat is merely apparent and temporary is suggested rather than asserted by the third " Love Triumphant " (1898), where Time, with broken scythe, and Death lie prostrate, while the same youth, with widespread wings and face and arms upraised to heaven, stands between them on tiptoe as if preparing to soar aloft. Though the purely symbolical is the most distinctive side of Watts's art, it is by no means the only one. He has drawn inspiration largely from both the Old and New Testaments, more rarely from the poets and classical myths; still more rarely he has treated subjects of modern life, though even in these he has not abandoned his moral purpose, but has sought out such incidents, whether fictitious or historical, as will serve him in conveying some lesson or monition. The three pictures of the story of Eve in the Tate Gallery, " She shall be called woman " (1892), " Eve Tempted " and " Eve Repentant " (both exhibited in 1896), and " The Curse of Cain " (1872) in the Diploma Gallery, may be cited as examples of the first; " For he had great possessions" (1894) of the second; "Sir Galahad" (1862), " Orpheus and Eurydice " and " Psyche " (1880), of the third; and " The Irish Famine " (about 1847) and " A Patient Life of Unrewarded Toil " (1890), of the last of these. Never has he treated religion from a sectarian point of view. Watts is before all things a painter with a grave and earnest purpose, painting because that form of expression was easier to him than writing, though he has published some few articles and pam- phlets, chiefly on art matters; but he, top, has his lighter side, and has daintily treated the humorously fanciful in " Good luck to your fishing " (1889); " The habit does not make the monk " (1889), in which Cupid, half-hidden under the frock, taps maliciously at a closed door; and " Trifles Light as Air " (exhibited 1901), a swarm of little amorini drifting in the summer air like a cloud of gnats; while in " Experientia docet B.C." (1890), a primeval woman watching with admiration, not unmixed with anxiety, the man who has first swallowed an oyster, he condescends, not very successfully, to the frankly comic. These must be regarded, however, as merely the relaxations of the serious mind that has left its impress even on the relatively few, but very admirable, landscapes he produced, in which, as for instance " The Carrara Mountains from Pisa " (1881), a sober dignity of treatment is conspicuous. Watts's technique is as individual as his point of view. It is chiefly remarkable for its straightforwardness and simplicity, and 1G. F. Watts, R~A., by Charles T. Bateman. 422 its lack of any straining after purely technical effects. The idea to be expressed is of far higher importance to him than the manner of expressing it. The statement of it should be a matter of good, sound workmanship, not of artistic agility or manual dexterity. To say what he has to say as clearly and briefly as may be is his aim, and when he has achieved the effect he desires, the method of his doing so is of no further moment. In the use of paint as paint, in the intrinsic beauties of surface and handling, he would seem in his later years to take no delight. Thus in parts of the picture the rough, coarse canvas he prefers may be so thinly covered that every fibre of the material can be seen, while in others a richly modelled impasto loads the surface. He employs, as far as possible, pure colours laid on in direct juxtaposition or broken into and across each other, not blended and commingled on the palette. He eschews all elaboration of detail and, except in portraiture, works rarely from the living model, neglecting minor delicacies of form or passages of local colour, conventionalizing to a standard of his own rather than idealizing — a process not always unproductive of faults of drawing and proportion, as in the figure of " Faith " (1896), or of singularities of tint, as in the curious leaden face and prismatic background in " The Dweller in the Innermost " (1886). He avoids, as a rule, the use of definite outline, leaving the limits of his forms to melt imperceptibly into the background; nor does texture interest him greatly, and a uniform fresco-like surface is apt to represent flesh and foliage, distance and foreground alike. He intends deliberately that the things he depicts, be they what they may, shall be symbols, useful for their meaning alone, and he makes no attempt at conferring on them an accurate actuality, which might distract the attention from the paramount idea. That this reticence is intentional may be learned from an examination of his earliest works, in which the accessories are rendered with a precise, if some- times a dry, truthfulness of observation; that it is not due to carelessness or indifference is shown by the inexhaustible patience with which each picture has been executed. His earlier pictures are unsurpassed in the art of England for fine technical qualities of colour and delicacy of handling. Though working unceasingly, Watts never hurried the completion of any canvas. Of two slightly differing versions of " Fata Morgana," both begun in 1847, the first was not finished before 1870, the second not until ten years later. Even after finishing a picture sufficiently for exhibition, he often subse- quently worked further upon it. The portrait of Lord Leighton, exhibited in 1881, was repainted in 1888; the version of " Love and Death," exhibited in 1877, and 1883, and all the pictures presented to the Tate Gallery in 1897, were more or less retouched when hung there. Furthermore, he painted more than one version of several of his favourite subjects, a circumstance which, combined with the fact that he rarely added the year to his signature and kept no record of his annual production, makes the task of precisely dating his pictures for the most part impossible, while it renders any attempt to dispose his works in periods untrustworthy and artificial, since even the growth and inevitable decay of artistic power are to a considerable extent obscured. Founded admittedly on the Grecian monuments, there is a sculp- turesque rather than pictorial quality in most of his compositions, a regulated disposition which, though imparting often a certain air of unreality and detachment, inspires them nevertheless with that noble impressiveness which forms their most conspicuous character- istic. It is natural, therefore, that in sculpture itself he should also take a high place. A taste for this he acquired as a boy ; he was a constant visitor to the studio of Behnes, where he not infrequently made drawings from the casts, though he was never in any sense his pupil. Among his works in this branch of art are a bust of " Clytie " (1868), monuments to the marquis of Lothian, Bishop Lonsdale and Lord Tennyson, a large bronze equestrian statue of " Hugo Lupus " at Eaton Hall (1884), and a colossal one of a man on horseback, emblematical of " Physical Energy," originally in- tended for a place on the Embankment, but destined to stand among the Matoppo Hills as an enduring evidence of the artist's admiration for Cecil Rhodes; a replica has been placed in Kensington Gardens. It was the practical idealism of Rhodes that appealed to him, and in this quality Watts himself was by no means lacking. Much of his time and attention was given to the promotion of the Home Arts and Industries Association; he assisted Mrs Watts with both money and advice in the founding of an art pottery at Compton, and in the building at the same place of a highly decorated mortuary chapel, carried out almost entirely by local labour; and it was entirely due to his initiative that the erection in Postmen's Park, Aldersgate Street, London, of memorial tablets to the unsung heroes of everyday life was begun. AUTHORITIES. — M. H. Spielmann, "The Works of Mr G. F. Watts, R.A., with a Catalogue of his Pictures," Pall Mall Gazette "Extra" (1886); Julia Cartwright (MrsAdy), " G. F. Watts, Royal Academician, His Life and Work," Art Journal, Extra Number (1896) ; W. E. T. Britten, "The Work of George Frederick Watts, R.A., LL.D.," Architectural Review (1888 and 1889) ; Cosmo Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (1889); Charles T. Bate- man, G. F. Watts, R.A., Bell's Miniature Series of Painters (1901); " Mr G. F. Watts, R.A., Character Sketch," The Review of Reviews (June 1902). (M. BE.) WATTS, I.— WATTS-DUNTON WATTS, ISAAC (1674-1748), English theologian and hymn writer, son of a clothier, was born at Southampton on th I7th of July 1674. The father, who afterwards had a boarding- school at Southampton, also wrote poetry, and a number of his pieces were included by mistake in vol. i. of the son's Posthumous Works. Isaac Watts is stated to have begun to learn Latin when only in his fifth year, and at the age of seven cr eight to have composed some devotional pieces to please his mother. His nonconformity precluded him from entering either of the universities, but in his sixteenth year he went to study at the nonconformist academy at Stoke Newington, of which the Rev. Thomas Rowe, minister of the Independent meeting at Girdlers' Hall, was then president. On leaving the academy he spent more than two years at home, and began to write his hymns, but in the autumn of 1696 he became tutor in the family of Sir John Hartopp at Stoke Newington, where he probably prepared the materials of his two educational works — Logick, or the Right Use of Reason in the Enquiry after Truth (1725), and The Know- ledge of the Heavens and the Earth made easy, or the First Principles of Geography and Astronomy Explained (1726). In his twenty- fourth year Watts was chosen assistant to Dr Isaac Chauncy (1632-1712), pastor of the Independent congregation in. Mark Lane, London, and two years later he succeeded as sole pastor. The state of his health, which he had injured by overwork, led to the appointment of an assistant in 1703. In 1704 the con- gregation removed to Pinner's Hall, and in 1708 they built a new meeting-house in Bury Street. In 1712 Watts was attacked by fever, which incapacitated him for four years from the per- formance of his duties. In 1712 he went to live with Sir Thomas Abney of Abney Park, where he spent the remainder of his life, the arrangement being continued by Lady Abney after her husband's death. Watts preached only occasionally, devoting his leisure chiefly to the writing of hymns (see HYMNS), the preparation of his sermons for publication, and the composition of theological work. In 1 706 appeared his Horae Lyricae, of which an edition with memoir by Robert Southey forms vol. ix. of Sacred Classics (1834); in 1707 a volume of Hymns', in 1719 The Psalms of David; and in 1720 Divine and Moral Songs for Children. His Psalms are free paraphrases, rather than metrical versions, and some of them (" O God, our help in ages past," for instance) are amongst the most famous hymns in the language. His religious opinions were more liberal in tone than was at that time common in the community to which he belonged; his views regarding Sunday recreation and labour were scarcely of puritanical strictness; and his Calvinism was modified by his rejection of the doctrine of reprobation. He did not hold the doctrine of the Trinity as necessary to salvation, and he wrote several works on the subject in which he developed views not far removed from Arianism. He died on the 2Sth of November 1 748, and was buried at Bunhill Fields, where a tombstone was erected to his memory by Sir John Hartopp and Lady Abney. A memorial was also erected to him in Westminster Abbey, and a memorial hall, erected in his honour at Southampton, was opened in 1875. Among the theological treatises of Watts, in addition to volumes of sermons, are Doctrine of the Trinity (1722); Discourses on the Love of God and its Influence on all the Passions (1729); Catechisms for Children and Youth (1730) ; Essays towards a Proof of a Separate State for Souls (1732); Essay on the Freedom of the Will (1732): Essay on the Strength and Weakness of Human Reason (1737); Essay on the Ruin and Recovery of Mankind (1740); Glory of Christ as God-Man Unveiled (1746); and Useful and Important Questions concerning Jesus, the Son of God (1746). He was also the author of a variety of miscellaneous treatises. H is Posthumous Works appeared in 1773, and a further instalment of them in 1779. The Works of. . . Issac Watts (6 vols.), edited by Dr Jennings and Dr Doddridge, with a memoir compiled by G. Burder, appeared in 1810-1811. His poetical works were included in Johnson's English Poets, where they were accompanied by a Life, and they appear in subsequent similar collections. See also The Life, Times and Correspondence of Isaac Watts (1834) by Thomas Milner. WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE (1832- English man of letters, was born at St Ives. Huntingdon, on the 1 2th of October 1832, his family surname being Watts, to which he added in 1897 his mother's name of Dunton. He was WAUGH, B.— WAURIN 423 originally educated as a naturalist, and saw much of the East Anglian gypsies, of whose superstitions and folk-lore he made careful study. Abandoning natural history for the law, he qualified as a solicitor and went to London, where he practised for some years, giving his spare time to his chosen pursuit of literature. He contributed regularly to the Examiner from 1874 and to the Athenaeum from 1875 until 1898, being for more than twenty years the principal critic of poetry in the latter journal. His article on " Poetry " in the ninth edition of the Ency. Brit. (vol. xix., 1885) was the principal expression of his views on the first principles of the subject, and did much to increase his reputation, which was maintained by other articles he wrote for the Encyclopaedia Britannica and for the chief periodicals and reviews. Mr Watts-Dunton had considerable influence as the friend of many of the leading men of letters of his time; he enjoyed the confidence of Tennyson, and contributed an appre- ciation of him to the authorized biography. He was in later years Rossetti's most intimate friend. He was the bosom friend of Swinburne (?.».), who shared his home for nearly thirty years before he died in 1909. The obituary notices and apprecia- tions of the poets of the time, which he contributed to the Athenaeum and other periodicals, bore testimony to his sympathy, insight and critical acumen. It was not, however, until 1897 that he published a volume under his own name, this being his collection of poems called The Coming of Love, portions of which he had printed in periodicals from time to time. In the following year his prose romance Aylwin attained immediate success, and ran through many editions in the course of a few months. Both The Coming of Love and Aylwin set forth, the one in poetry, the other in prose, the romantic and passionate associations of Romany life, and maintain the traditions of Borrow, whom Mr Watts-Dunton had known well in his own early days. Imagina- tive glamour and mysticism are their prominent characteristics, and the novel in particular has had its share in restoring the charms of pure romance to the favour of the general public. He edited George Borrow's Lavengro (1893) and Romany Rye (1900); in 1903 he published The Renascence of Wonder, a treatise on the romantic movement; and his Studies of Shake- speare appeared in 1910. But it was not only in his published work that Mr Watts-Dunton's influence on the literary life of his time was potent. His long and intimate association with Rossetti and Swinburne made him, no doubt, a unique figure in the world of letters; but his own grasp of metrical principle and of the historic -perspective of the glories of English poetry made him, among the younger generation, the embodiment of a great tradition of literary criticism which could never cease to command respect. In 1905 he married. His life has been essentially one of devotion to letters, faithfully and disinter- estedly followed. WAUGH, BENJAMIN (1830-1008), English social reformer, was born at Settle, Yorkshire, on the 2oth of February 1839. He passed the early years of his life in business, but in 1865 entered the congregational ministry. Settling at Greenwich he threw himself with ardour into the work of social reform, devoting himself especially to the cause of the children. He served on the London School Board from 187010 1876. In 1884 he was responsible for the establishment of the London society for the prevention of cruelty to children, which four years later was established on a national basis. He was elected its honorary secretary, and it was largely owing to information obtained by him that the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 was passed, while by his personal effort he secured the insertion of a clause giving magistrates power to take the evidence of children too young to understand the nature of an oath. In 1889 he saw the work accomplished by his society (of which he had been made director the same year) recognized by the passing of an act for the pre- vention of cruelty to children, the first stepping-stone to the act of 1908 (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO). In 1895 a charter of incorporation was conferred on the society, but in 1897 it was the object of a serious attack on its administration. An inquiry was demanded by Waugh, and the commission of inquiry, which included Lord Herschell and others, completely vindicated the society and its director. Waugh had given up pastoral work in 1887 to devote his whole time to the society, and he retained his post as director until 1005, when the state of his health com- pelled his retirement. He remained consulting director until his death at< Westcliff, near Southend, Essex, on the nth of March 1008. Waugh edited the Sunday Magazine from 1874 to 1896, but he had otherwise little leisure for literary work. His The Gaol Cradle, who rocks it? (1873) was a plea for the abolition of juvenile imprisonment. WAUGH, EDWIN (1817-1890), known as "The Lancashire Poet," was born at Rochdale, on the zgth of January 1817, the son of a shoemaker. For several years he earned his living as a journeyman printer in various parts of the country. In 1855 he published his first book, Sketches of Lancashire Life and Localities, following this up with reprinted Poems and Songs (1859). His rendering of the Lancashire dialect was most happy, and his rude lyrics, full of humour and pathos, were great favourites with his countrymen. He died on the 3oth of April 1890. See Milner's Memoir in an edition of Waugh's selected works (1892-1893). WAUKEGAN, a city and the county-seat of Lake county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 36 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1800) 4915; (1900) 9426, of whom 2506 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,069. It is served by the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern (of which it is a terminus) and the Chicago & North Western railways, by an interurban electric line, and by lake steamers. In 1880 the United States government under- took the formation of an artificial harbour with a channel 13 ft. deep, and in 1002-1904 the depth was increased to 20 ft. The main portion of the city is situated about 100 ft. above the level of the lake. There are a number of parks and mineral springs, and along the lake front a fine driveway, Sheridan Road. The city is a residential suburb of Chicago. The principal buildings are the Federal building, the Court House, a Carnegie library, the Masonic Temple and McAlister Hospital. At the village of North Chicago (pop. in 1910, 3306), about 3 m. S. of Waukegan, there is a United States Naval Training Station. Waukegan is the commercial centre of an agricultural and dairying region, and has various manufactures. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $3,961,513. Waukegan was settled about 1835, and until 1849 was known as Little Fort, which is supposed to be the English equivalent of the Indian name Waukegan. It became the county-seat of Lake county in 1841, was in- corporated as a town in 1849, and first chartered as a city in 1859. WAUKESHA, a city and the county-seat of Waukesha county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 19 m. W. of Milwaukee on the Little Fox river. Pop. (1890) 6321; (1900) 7419, including 1408 foreign-born; (1905 state census) 6049; (1910) 8740. Waukesha is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by interurban electric railways connecting it with Milwaukee, Oconomowoc and Madison. The medicinal mineral springs (Bethesda, White Rock, &c.) are widely known. Among the public buildings are the county court house and the public library. Waukesha is the seat of the State Industrial School for Boys (established as a house of refuge in 1860) and of Carroll College (Presbyterian, co-educational, 1846). Waukesha was first settled in 1834, was named Prairieville in 1839, was incorporated as a village under its present name (said to be a Pottawatomi word meaning " fox ") in 1852, and chartered as a city in 1896. In 1851 the first railway in the state was com- pleted between Milwaukee and Waukesha, but the village re- mained only a farming community until the exploitation of the mineral springs was begun about 1868. About 15 m. S. of Waukesha, near Mukwonago (pop. in 1910.615), in 1844-1845, there was an unsuccessful communistic agricultural settle- ment, the Utilitarian Association, composed largely of London mechanics led by Campbell Smith, a London bookbinder. WAURIN (or WAVRIN), JEHAN (or JEAN DE) (d. c. 1474), French chronicler, belonged to a noble family of Artois, and was present at the battle of Agincourt. Afterwards he fought for 424 WAUSAU— WAVE the Burgundians at Verneuil and elsewhere, and then occupying a high position at the court of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1463. Jehan wrote, or rather compiled, the Recuett des croniques et anchiennes istories de la Grant Brelaigne, a collection of the sources of English history from the earliest times to 1471. For this work he borrowed from Froissart, Monstrelet and others; but for the period between 1444 and 1471 the Recueil is original and valuable, although somewhat untrustworthy with regard to affairs in England itself. From the beginning to 688 and again from 1399 to 1471 the text has been edited for the Rolls Series (5 vols., London, 1864-1891), by W. and E. L. C. P. Hardy, who have also translated the greater part of it into English. The section from 1325 to 1471 has been edited by L. M. E. Dupont (Paris, 1858-1863). WAUSAU, a city and the county-seat of Marathon county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Wisconsin river, about 185 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 9253; (1900) 12,354, of whom 3747 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,560. There is a large German element in the population, and two German semi-weekly newspapers are published here. Wausau is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago & North-Western railways. The city is built for the most part on a level plateau above the river and extends to the top of high bluffs on either side. It has a fine city hall, a Carnegie library, the Marathon County Court House, a hospital, built by the Sisters of the Divine Saviour, and a Federal Building. In Wausau are a U.S. land office, the Marathon County Training School for Teachers, the Marathon County School of Agriculture and Domestic Science, and a County Asylum for the Chronic Insane. Valuable water-power furnished by the Big Bull Falls of the Wisconsin (in the city) is utilized for manufacturing, and in 1910 water-power sites were being developed on the Wisconsin river immediately above and below the city. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $4,644,457. Wausau had its origin in a logging-camp, established about 1838. In 1840 a saw-mill was built here, and in 1858 the village was incorporated under its present name. After 1880, when Wausau was chartered as a city, its growth was rapid. WAUTERS, EHILE (1848- ), Belgian painter, was born in Brussels, 1848. Successively the pupil of Portaels and Gerome; he produced in 1868 " The Battle of Hastings: the Finding of the body of Harold by Edith," a work of striking, precocious talent. A journey was made to Italy, but that the study of the old masters in no wise affected his individuality was proved by " The Great Nave of St Mark's " (purchased by the king of the Belgians). As his youth disqualified him for the medal of the Brussels Salon, which otherwise would have been his, he was sent, by way of compensation, by the minister of fine arts, as artist-delegate to Suez for the opening of the canal — a visit that was fruitful later on. In 1870, when he was yet only twenty-two years of age, Wauters exhibited his great historical picture of " Mary of Burgundy entreating the Sheriffs of Ghent to pardon the Councillors Hugonet and Humbercourt " (Liege Museum) which created a veritable furore, an impression which was confirmed the following year at the London International Exhibition. It was eclipsed by the celebrated " Madness of Hugo van der Goes " (1872, Brussels Museum), a picture which led to the commission for the two large works decorating the Lions' staircase of the H6tel de Vilie — " Mary of Burgundy swearing to respect the Communal Rights of Brussels, 1477 " and " The Armed Citizens of Brussels demanding the Charta from Duke John IV. of Brabant." His other large compositions comprise " Sobieski and his Staff before Besieged Vienna " (Brussels Museum) and the harvest of a journey to Spain and Tangiers, " The Great Mosque," and " Serpent Charmers of Sokko," and a souvenir of his Egyptian travel, " Cairo, from the Bridge of Kasr-el-Nil " (Antwerp Museum). His vast panorama — probably the noblest and most artistic work of this class ever produced—" Cairo and the Banks of the Nile " (1881), 380 ft. by 49 ft., executed in six months, was exhibited with extra- ordinary success in Brussels, Munich, and the Hague. Wauters is equally eminent as a portraitist, in his earliest period exhibiting, as in his pictures, sober qualities and subtle grip, but later on developing into the whole range of a brilliant, forceful palette, and then into brighter and more delicate colours, encouraged thereto, in his more recent work, by his adoption of pastel as a medium even for life-size portraits, mainly of ladies. His portraits, numbering over two hundred, include many of the greatest names in Belgium, France, and America (Wauters having for some years made Paris his chief home). Among these may be named the Baron Goffinet, the Baroness Goffinet, Madame Somzee (standing at a piano), Master Somzee (on horseback by the sea-shore), the Princess Clementine of Belgium (Brussels Museum), Lady Edward Sassoon, Baron de Bleichroder, Princess de Ligne, Miss Lorillard, a likeness of the artist in the Dresden Museum, and M. Schollaert (president of the Chamber of Deputies) — the last named an amazing example of portraiture, instinct with character and vitality. The vigour of his male, and the grace and elegance of his female, portraits are unsurpassable, the resemblance perfect and the technical execution such as to place the artist in the front rank. Between 1889 and 1900 the painter contributed to the Royal Academy of London. Few artists have received such a succession of noteworthy distinctions and recognitions. His " Hugo van der Goes," the work of a youth of twenty-four, secured the grand medal of the Salon. He has been awarded no fewer than six " medals of honour " — at Paris in 1878 and 1889; Munich, 1879; Antwerp, 1885; Vienna, 1888; and Berlin, 1883. He is a member of the academy of Belgium, and honorary member of the Vienna, Berlin, and Munich academies, and corresponding member of the Institut de France and of that of Madrid. He has received the order of merit of Prussia, and is Commander of the order of Leopold, and of that of St Michael of Bavaria, officer of the Legion of Honour, &c. See M. H. Spielmann, Magazine of Art (1887); A. J. Wauters, Magazine of Art (1894); Joseph Anderson, Pall Mall Magazine (1896); G. Serae (" Wauters as a Painter of Architecture ") Archi- tectural Record (1901). (M. H. S.) WAVE.1 It is not altogether easy to frame a definition which shall be precise and at the same time cover the various physical phenomena to which the term " wave " is common!}' applied. Speaking generally, we may say that it denotes a process in which a particular state is continually handed on without change, or with only gradual change, from one part of a medium to another. The most familiar instance is that of the waves which are observed to travel over the surface of water in consequence of a local disturbance; but, although this has suggested the name 1 since applied to all analogous phenomena, it so happens that water-waves are far from affording the simplest instance of the process in question. In the present article the principal types of wave-motion which present themselves in physics are reviewed in the order of their complexity. Only the leading features are as a rule touched upon, the reader being referred to other articles for such developments as are of interest mainly from the point of view of special subjects. The theory of water- waves, on the other hand, will be treated in some detail. § I. Wave-Propagation in One Dimension. The simplest and most easily apprehended case of wave-motion is that of the transverse vibrations of a uniform tense string. The axis of x being taken along the length of the string in its undisturbed position, we denote by y the transverse displacement at any point. This is assumed to be infinitely small; the resultant lateral force on any portion of the string is then equal to the tension (P, say) multiplied by the total curvature of that portion, and therefore in the case of an element 5* to Py'Sx, where the accents denote dif- ferentiations with respect to x. Equating this to pSx.y, where p is the line-density, we have y=c*y' (i) where c = V(P/p) (2) 1 The word " wave," as a substantive, is late in English, not occurring till the Bible of 1551 (Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1910). The proper O. Eng. word was w&%, which became wawe in M. Eng. ; it is cognate with Ger. Wage, and is allied to " wag," to move from side to side, and is to be referred to the root wegh, to carry, Lat. where, Eng. " weigh, "&c. TheO. Eng. wafian,M. Eng. waven,to fluctuate, to waver in mind, cf. waefre, restless, is cognate with M.H.G. wabelen, to move to and fro, cf. Eng. " wabble " of which the ultimate root is seen in " whip," and in " quaver." WAVE 425 The general solution of (i) was given by J. le R. d'Alembert in 1747; jr=/(c<-x)+F(c/+x) (3) where the functions /, F are arbitrary. The first term is unaltered in value when x and ct are increased by equal amounts; hence this term, taken by itself, represents a wave-form which is propagated without change in the direction of x-positive with the constant velocity c. The second term represents in like manner a wave-form travelling with the same velocity in the direction of x-negative; and the most general free motion of the string consists of two such wave-forms superposed. In the case of an initial disturbance con- fined to a finite portion of an unlimited string, the motion finally resolves itself into two waves travelling unchanged in opposite directions. In these separate waves we have y=*rcy' (4) as appears from (3), or from simple geometrical considerations. It is to be noticed, in this as in all analogous cases, that the wave- velocity appears as the square root of the ratio of two quantities, one of which represents (in a generalized sense) the elasticity of the medium, and the other its inertia. The expressions for the kinetic and potential energies of any portion of the string are where the integrations extend over the portion considered. The relation (4) shows that in a single progressive wave the total energy is half kinetic and half potential. When a point of the string (say the origin O) is fixed, the solution takes the form y=f(ct-x)-J(ct+x) (6) As applied (for instance) to the portion of the string to the left of O, this indicates the superposition of a reflected wave represented by the second term on the direct wave represented by the first. The reflected wave has the same amplitudes at corresponding points as the incident wave, as is indeed required by the principle of energy, but its sign is reversed. The reflection of a wave at the junction of two strings of unequal densities p, p' is of interest on account of the optical analogy. If A, B be the ratios of the amplitudes in the reflected and transmitted waves, respectively, to the corresponding amplitudes in the incident wave, it is found that where M, = V(P'/P). is the ratio of the wave- velocities. This is on the hypothesis of an abrupt change of density; if the transition be gradual there may be little or no reflection. The theory of waves of longitudinal vibration in a uniform straight rod follows exactly the same lines. If £ denote the displacement of a particle whose undisturbed position is x, the length of an element of the central line is altered from Sx to 8x+6£, and the elongation is therefore measured by {'. The tension across any section is accordingly Ew{', where ta is the sectional area, and E denotes Young's modulus for the material of the rod (see ELASTICITY). The rate of change of momentum of the portion included between two consecutive cross-sections is po>4x.{, where p now stands for the volume-density. Equating this to the difference of the tensions on these sections we obtain { = *«" (8) where e = V(E/p). . .... (9) The solution and the interpretation are the same as in the case of (i). It may be noted that in an iron or steel rod the wave-velocity given by (9) amounts roughly to about five kilometres per second. The theory of plane elastic waves in an unlimited medium, whether fluid or solid, leads to differential equations of exactly the same type. Thus in the case of a fluid medium, if the displacement £ normal to the wave-fronts be a function of / and x, only, the equation of motion of a thin stratum initially bounded by the planes x and x+«x is •3-fc ;•••.• <"» where p is the pressure, and po the undisturbed density. If p de- pends only on the density, we may write, for small disturbances, P=po+ks (II) where s, = (p-po)po, is the " condensation," and k is the coefficient of cubic elasticity. Since s=>-d£/dx, this leads to <*sa (12) with (13) The latter formula gives for the velocity of sound in water a value (about 1490 metres per second at 15° C.) which is in good agreement with direct observation. In the case of a gas, if we neglect variations of temperature, we have k = po by Boyle's Law, and therefore f = VWPO). This result, which is due substantially to Sir I. Newton, gives, however, a value considerably below the true velocity of sound. The discrepancy was explained by P. S. Laplace (about 1806?). The temperature is not really constant, but rises and falls as the gas is alternately compressed and rarefied. When this is allowed for we have k=ypo, where y is the ratio of the two specific heats of the gas, and therefore c = Vd^o/po). For air, 7=1-41, and the consequent value of c agrees well with the best direct de- terminations (332 metres per second at o° C.). The potential energy of a system of sound waves is Jfcj2 per unit volume. As in all cases of propagation in one dimension, the energy of a single progressive system is half kinetic and half potential. In the case of an unlimited isotropic elastic solid medium two types of plane waves are possible, viz. the displacement may be normal or tangential to the wave-fronts. The axis of x being taken in the direction of propagation, then in the case of a normal displacement £ the traction normal to the wave-front is (\+2n)d£/dx, where \, M are the elastic constants of the medium, viz. M is the " rigidity," and X = A-j/i, where k is the cubic elasticity. This leads to the equation «-*«" ....... (H) where a=V|(X+2M)/p|=VIO+iM)/p). • • (15) The wave-velocity is greater than in the case of the longitudinal vibrations of a rod, owing to the lateral yielding which takes place in the latter case. In the case of a displacement ij parallel to the axis of y, and therefore tangential to the wave-fronts, we have a shearing strain dyjdx, and a corresponding shearing stress This leads to with (16) (17) In the case of steel (* = 1-841 . 10", ^ = 8-19. 10", 0 = 7-849 C.G.S.) the wave- velocities a, b come out to be 6-1 and 3-2 kilometres per second, respectively. If the medium be crystalline the velocity of propagation of plane waves will depend also on the aspect of the wave-front. For any given direction of the wave-normal there are in the most general case three distinct velocities of wave-propagation, each with its own direction of particle-vibration. These latter directions are perpendicular to each other, but in general oblique to the wave- front. For certain types of crystalline structure the results simplify, but it is unnecessary to enter into further details, as the matter is chiefly of interest in relation to the now abandoned elastic-solid theories of double-refraction. For the modern electric theory of light see LIGHT, and ELECTRIC WAVES. Finally, it may be noticed that the conditions of wave-propagation without change of type may be investigated in another manner. If we impress on the whole medium a velocity equal and opposite to that of the wave we obtain a " steady " or " stationary " state in which the circumstances at any particular point of space are constant. Thus in the case of the vibrations of an inextensible string we may, in the first instance, imagine the string to run through a fixed smooth tube having the form of the wave. The velocity c being constant there is no tangential acceleration, and the tension P is accordingly uniform. The resultant of the tensions on the two ends of an element Ss is PSs/R, in the direction of the normal, where R denotes the radius of curvature. This will be exactly sufficient to produce the normal acceleration cl/R in the mass p&, provided c* = P/p. Under this condition the tube, which now exerts no pressure on the string, may be abolished, and we have a free stationary wave on a moving string. This argument is due to P. G. Tait. The method was applied to the case of air-waves by W. J. M. Rankine in 1870. When a gas flows steadily through a straight tube of unit section, the mass m which crosses any section in unit time must be the same ; hence if u be the velocity we have pu = m ....... (18) Again, the mass which at time t occupies the space between two fixed sections (which we will distinguish by suffixes) has its momen- tum increased in the time U by (mitr-mu,) 8/, whence pi-pt = m(ttt-ui) ..... (19) Combined with (18) this gives pi+m*/pi=pi+m*/(*. . . . (20) Hence for absolutely steady motion it is essential that the ex- pression p+m'/P should have the same value throughout the wave. This condition is not accurately fulfilled by any known substance, whether subject to the "isothermal" or " adiabatic " condition; but in the case of small variations of pressure and density the relation is equivalent to m> = itdpldp ...... (21) and therefore by (18), if c denote the general velocity of the current, k/p ..... (22) in agreement with (13). The fact that the condition (20) can only be satisfied approximately shows that some progressive change of type must inevitably take place in sound-waves of finite amplitude. This question has been examined by S. D. Poisson (1807), Sir G. G. Stokes (1848), B. Riemann (1858), S. Earnshaw (1858), W. J. M. Rankine (1870), Lord Rayleigh (1878) and others. It appears that 426 WAVE the more condensed portions of the wave gain continually on the less condensed, the tendency being apparently towards the pro- duction of a discontinuity, somewhat analogous to a " bore " in water-waves. Before this stage can be reached, however, dissipative forces (so far ignored), such as viscosity and thermal conduction, come into play. In practical acoustics the results are also modified by the diminution of amplitude due to spherical divergence. § 2. Wave-Propagation in General. We have next to consider the processes of wave-propagation in two or three dimensions. The simplest case is that of air-waves. When terms of the second order in the velocities are neglected, the dynamical equations are du dp dv dp dw dp , , ^- = - = - • • l and the " equation of continuity " (see HYDROMECHANICS) is dp . /du . dv , dw} If we write p=po(i +s), p = p<,-{-ks, these may be written aw d_u__ 2 dt C dx' where c is given by § i (13), and ,ds dw _ 2oi dt dy' dt dz' dt dv dw (2) (3) (4) the latter equation expressing that the condensation i is diminishing at a rate equal to the " divergence " of the vector (u, v, w) (see VECTOR ANALYSIS). Eliminating u, v, w, we obtain f?-«V* (5) where V2 stands for Laplace's operator d1/dx1+d*/dy1+dt/dz1. This, the general equation of sound-waves, appears to be due to L. Euler (1759). In the particular case where the disturbance is symmetrical with respect to a centre O, it takes the simpler form dP ' dr2 ....... where r denotes distance from O. It is easily deduced from (i) that in the case of a medium initially at rest the velocity (u, v, w) is now wholly radial. The solution of (6) is ... (7) This represents two spherical waves travelling outwards and in- wards, respectively, with the velocity c, but there is now a progressive change of amplitude. Thus in the case of the diverging wave re- presented by the first term, the condensation in any particular part of the wave continually diminishes as i/r as the wave spreads. The potential energy per unit volume [§ I (5)] varies as s*, and so diminishes in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from O. It may be shown that as in the case of plane waves the total energy of a diverging (or a converging) wave is half potential and half kinetic. The solution of the general equation (5), first given by S. D. Poisson in 1819, expresses the value of s at any given point P at time t, in terms of the mean values of i and S at the instant t=o over a spherical surface of radius ct described with P as centre, viz. where the integrations extend over the surface of the aforesaid sphere, dia is the solid angle subtended at P by an element of its surface, and f(ct), F(ct) respectively denote the original values of i and s at the position of the element. Hence, if the disturbance be originally confined to a limited region, the agitation at any point P external to this region will begin after a time n/c and will cease after a time ri/c, where fi, r» are the least and greatest distances of P from the boundary of the region in question. The region occupied by the disturbance at any instant / is therefore delimited by the envelope of a family of spheres of radius ct described with the points of the original boundary as centres. One remarkable point about waves diverging in three dimensions remains to be noticed. It easily appears from (3) that the value of the integral fsdt at any point P, taken over the whole time of transit of a wave, is independent of the position of P, and therefore equal to zero, as is seen by taking P at an infinite distance from the original seat of disturbance. This shows that a diverging wave necessarily contains both condensed and rarefied portions. If initially we have zero velocity everywhere, but a uniform condensation s0 throughout a spherical space of radius a, it is found that we have ultimately a diverging wave in the form of a spherical shell of thickness 20, and that the value of s within this shell varies from Js<>a/r at the anterior face to — Jxoa/r at the interior face, r denoting the mean radius of the shell. The process of wave-propagation in two djmensions offers some peculiarities which are exemplified in cylindrical waves of sound, in waves on a uniform tense plane membrane, and in annular waves on a horizontal sheet of water of (relatively) small depth. The equation of motion is in all these cases of the form (9) where yi' = dt/dx:>+d1/dy2. In the case of the membrane s denotes the displacement normal to its plane; in the application to water-waves it represents the elevation of the surface above the undisturbed level. The sol- ution of (9), even in the case of sym- metry about the origin, is analytically much less simple than that of (6). It appears that the wave due to a transient local disturbance, even of the simplest type, is now not sharply defined in the rear, as it is in the front, but has an B* indefinitely prolonged "tail." This is illus- trated by the annexed figures which represent graphically the time-variations in the condensation s at a particular point, as a wave originating in a local condensation passes over this point. The curve A represents (in a typical case) the effect of a plane wave, B that of a cylindrical wave, and C that of a spherical wave. The changes of type from A to B and from B to C are accounted for by the increasing degree of mobility of the medium. FIG. i.1 The equations governing the displacements u, v, w of a uniform isotropic elastic solid medium are where dtt ai> cta> From these we derive by differentiation where and to dv du dw dv du '' *~dy dz' dz dx' dx dy' . - do) . . (n) . . (12) . - (13) . . (14) . . (15) as in § i. It appears then that the " dilatation " A and the " rota- tions " £, 17, f are propagated with the velocities a, b, respectively. By formulae analogous to (8) we can calculate the values of A, £, i), f • at any instant in terms of the initial conditions. The subsequent determination of u, v, w is a merely analytical problem into which we do not enter ; it is clear, however, that if the original disturbance be confined to a limited region we have ultimately two concentric spherical diverging waves. In the outer one of these, which travels with the velocity a, the rotations £, i), f vanish, and the wave is accordingly described as " irrotational," or " condensational." In the inner wave, which travels with the smaller velocity b, the dilatation A vanishes, and the wave is therefore characterized as " equivoluminal " or " distortional." In the former wave the directions of vibration of the particles tend to become normal, and in the latter tangential, to the wave-front, as in the case of plane elastic waves (§ i). The problems of reflection and transmission which arise when a wave encounters the boundary of an elastic-solid medium, or the interface of two such media, are of interest chiefly in relation to the older theories of optics. It may, however, be worth while to remark that an irrotational or an equivoluminal wave does not in general give rise to a reflected (or transmitted) wave of single character; thus an equivoluminal wave gives rise to an irrotational as well as an equivoluminal reflected wave, and so on. Finally, in a limited elastic solid we may also have systems of waves of a different type. These travel over the surface with a definite velocity somewhat less than that of the equivoluminal waves above referred to; thus in an incompressible solid the velocity >s -95546; in a solid such that X=M it is -91946. The agitation due to these waves is confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the surface, diminishing exponentially with increasing depth, theory of these surface waves was given by Lord Rayleieh in 1885. In the modern theory of earthquakes three phases of the disturbance 'Figures i, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8 are from Professor Horace Lamb's Hydrodynamics, by permission of the Cambridge University Press. WAVE 427 at a station distant from the origin are recognized ; the first corre- >pi>iuls to the arrival of condensational waves, the second to that of rtional waves, and the third to that of the Rayleigh waves (see STICITY). The theory of waves diverging from a centre in an unlimited crystalline medium has been investigated with a view to optical theory by G. Green (1839), A. L. Cauchy (1830), E. B. Christoffel -') and others. The surface which represents the wave-front consists of three sheets, each of which is propagated with its own special velocity. It is hardly worth while to attempt an account In rr of the singularities of this surface, or of the simplifications which occur for various types of crystalline symmetry, as the subject has lost much of its physical interest now that the elastic-solid theory of light is practically abandoned. §3. Water-Waves. Theory of " Long " Waves. The simplest type of water-waves is that in which the motion of the particles is mainly horizontal, and therefore (as will appear) sensibly the same for all particles in a vertical line. The most conspicuous example is that of the forced oscillations produced by the action of the sun and moon on the waters of the ocean, and it has therefore been proposed to designate by the term " tidal " all cases of wave-motion, whatever their scale, which have the above characteristic property. Beginning with motion in two dimensions, let us suppose that the axis of x is drawn horizontally, and that of y vertically upwards. If we neglect the vertical acceleration, the pressure at any point will have the statical value due to the depth below the instantaneous position of the free surface, and the horizontal pressure-gradient dpldx will therefore be independent of y. It follows that all particles which at any instant lie in a plane perpendicular to Ox will retain this relative configuration throughout the motion. The equation of horizontal motion, on the hypothesis that the velocity («) is in- finitely small, will be where rj denotes the surface-elevatipn at the point x. Again, the equation of continuity, viz., ~&t* ' ;T7» ^' ...... \z) gives du if the origin be taken at the bottom, the depth being assumed to be uniform. At the surface we have y = h+ii, and v = dn/dt, subject to an error of the second order in the disturbance. To this degree of approximation we have then 'dl=~h'dx W If we eliminate u between (i) and (4) we obtain c2^- ,.) c ^A,-2' Vw' •h (6) The solution is as in § i, and represents two wave-systems travelling with the constant velocity V(eA), which is that which would be acquired by a particle falling freely through a space equal to half the depth. Two distinct assumptions have been made in the foregoing investigation. The meaning of these is most easily understood if we consider the case of a simple-harmonic train of waves in which with flcosk(ct — x), u k(ct-x), . (7) where k is a constant such that 2irjk is the wave-length X. The first assumption, viz. that the vertical acceleration may be neglected in comparison with the horizontal, is fulfilled if kh be small, i.e. if the wave-length be large compared with the depth. It is in this sense that the theory is regarded as applicable only to " long " waves. The second assumption, which neglects terms of the second order in forming the equation (i), implies that the ratio rj/A of the surface- elevation to the depth of the fluid must be small. The formulae (7) indicate also that in a progressive wave a particle moves forwards or backwards according as the water-surface above it is elevated or depressed relatively to the mean level. It may also be proved that the expressions T = JPA/.Ai*, V = \gpfjfdx, .... (8) for the kinetic and potential energies per unit breadth are equal in the case of a progressive wave. It will be noticed that there is a very close correspondence between the theory of " long " water-waves and that of plane waves of sound, e.g. the ratio ij/A "corresponds exactly to the " condensation " in the case of air-waves. The theory can be adapted, with very slight adjustment, to the case of waves propagated along a canal of any uniform section, provided the breadth, as well as the depth, be small compared with the wave-length. The principal change is that in (6) h must be understood to denote the mean depth. The theory was further extended by G. Green (1837) and by Lord Rayleigh to the case where the dimensions of the cross-section are variable. If the variation be sufficiently gradual there is no sensible reflection, a progressive wave travelling always with the velocity appropriate to the local mean depth. There is, however, a variation of amplitude; the constancy of the energy, combined with the equation of continuity, require that the elevation 17 in any particular part of the wave should vary as 6~iA~J, where b is the breadth of the water surface and h is the mean depth. Owing to its mathematical simplicity the theory of long waves in canals has been largely used to illustrate the dynamical theory of the tides. In the case of forced waves in a uniform canal, the equation (i) is replaced by where X represents the extraneous force. In the case of an equatorial canal surrounding the earth, the disturbing action of the moon, supposed (for simplicity) to revolve in a circular orbit in the plane of the equator, is represented by X= — ~- sin 2(/dy = o at the bottom, which is supposed to be plane and horizontal. The pressure-equation is, if we neglect the square of the velocity, P f> c- = -g[—gy+ const (2) Hence, if the origin be taken in the undisturbed surface, we may write, for the surface-elevation, 8],-. • • (3) with the same approximation. We have also the geometrical condition _ at- ayJ,_o. • • • - The general solution of these equations is somewhat complicated. 428 WAVE and it is therefore usual to fix attention in the first place on the case of an infinitely extended wave-system of simple-harmonic profile, say r,=psin k(x-ct) (5) The corresponding value of is gg cos h k(y+h) ],(x-cO (6) *" kc cos h kh where h denotes the depth; it is in fact easily verified that this satisfies (i), and makes d/dy=o, for y — —h, and that it fulfils the pressure-condition (3) at the free surface. The kinematic condition (4) will also be satisfied, provided C2 = | tan hfeA=|^tan h— , .... (7) X denoting the wave-length 2-r/k. It appears, on calculating the component velocities from (6), that the motion of each particle is elliptic-harmonic, the semi-axes of the orbit, horizontal and vertical, being acos h k(y+h) sin h k(y+h) , , p sinhkh ' p sin h kh ' ' ' where y refers to the mean level of the particle. The dimensions of the orbits diminish from the surface downwards. The direction of motion of a surface-particle is forwards when it coincides with a crest, and backwards when it coincides with a trough, of the waves. When the wave-length is anything less than double the depth we have tan h kh = i, practically, and the formula (6) reduces to -a (*-ct) (9) (10) with the same as if the depth were infinite. The orbits of the particles are now circles of radii /8e*». When, on the other hand, X is moderately large compared with h, we have tan h kh = kh, and c = V(gft), in agreement with the preceding theory of " long " waves. These results date from G. Green (1839) and Sir G. B. Airy (1845). The energy of our simple-harmonic wave-train is, as usual, half kinetic and half potential, the total amount per unit area of the free surface being igp/S2. This is equal to the work which would be required to raise a stratum of fluid, of thickness equal to the surface- amplitude ft, through a height 5/8. It has been assumed so far that the upper surface is free, the pressure there being uniform. We might also consider the case of waves on the common surface of two liquids of different densities. For wave-lengths which are less than double the depth of either liquid the formula (10) is replaced by |X p-V 2ir'p+p" where p, p' are the densities of the lower and upper fluids respec- tively. The diminution in the wave-velocity c has, as the formula indicates, a twofold cause ; the potential energy of a given deforma- tion of the common surface is diminished by the presence of the upper fluid in the ratio (P — P')/P, whilst the inertia is increased in the ratio (p+p')/p. When the two densities are very nearly equal the waves have little energy, and the oscillations of the common surface are very slow. This is easily observed in the case of paraffin oil over water. To examine the progress, over the surface of deep water, of a disturbance whose initial character is given quite arbitrarily it would be necessary to resolve it by Fourier's theorem into systems of simple-harmonic trains. Since each of these is propagated with the velocity proper to its own wave-length, as given by (10), the resulting wave-profile will continually alter its shape. The case of an initial local impulse has been studied in detail by S. D. Poisson (1816), A. Cauchy (1815) and others. At any subsequent instant the surface is occupied on either side by a train of waves of varying height and length, the wave-length increasing, and the height diminishing, with increasing distance (x) from the origin of the disturbance. The longer waves travel faster than the shorter, so that each wave is continually being drawn out in length, and its velocity of propagation therefore continually increases as it ad- vances. If we fix our attention on a particular point of the surface, the level there will rise and fall with increasing rapidity and in- creasing amplitude. These statements are all involved in Poisson's approximate formula (cos£-._sinf-) (12) W which, however, is only valid under the condition that x is large compared with %gf. This shows moreover that the occurrence of a particular wave-length X is conditioned by the relation The foregoing description applies in the first instance only to the case of an initial impulse concentrated upon an infinitely narrow band of the surface. The corresponding results for the more practical case of a band of finite breadth are to be inferred by superposition. The initial stages of the disturbance at a distance x, which is large compared with the breadth b of the band, will have the same char- acter as before, but when, owing to the continual diminution of the length of the waves emitted, X becomes comparable with or smaller than b, the parts of the disturbance which are due to the various parts of the band will no longer be approximately in the same phase, and we have a case of ' interference " in the optical sense. The result is in general that in the final stages the surface will be marked by a series of groups of waves of diminishing amplitude separated by bands of comparatively smooth water. The fact that the wave-velocity of a simple-harmonic train varies with the wave-length has an analogy in optics, in the propagation of light in a dispersive medium. In both cases we have a contrast with the simpler phenomena of waves on a tense string or of light- waves in vacua, and the notion of " group-velocity," as distinguished from wave-velocity, comes to be important. If in the above analysis of the disturbance due to a local impulse we denote by U the velocity with which the locus of any particular wave-lengths X travels, we see from (13) that U = |c. The actual fact that when a limited group of waves of approximately equal wave-length travels over relatively deep water the velocity of advance of the group as a whole is less than that of the individual waves composing it seems to have been first explicitly remarked by J. Scott Russell (1844). If attention is concentrated on a particular wave, this is seen to progress through the group, gradually dying out as it approaches the front, whilst its former place in the group is occupied in suc- cession by other waves which have come forward from the rear. General explanations, not restricted to the case of water-waves, have been given by Stokes, Rayleigh, and others. If the wave- length X be regarded as a function of x and /, we have ax . T.ax (14) since X does not vary in the neighbourhood of a geometrical point travelling with velocity U, this being in fact the definition of U. Again, if we imagine a second geometrical point to move with the waves, we have ax £?x_a£ _ =-j2fsin&£, ••• • (18) where x is now measured from O, and Pt>(=fpdx) represents the integral of the disturbing surface pressure over the (infinitely small) breadth of the band on which it acts. The case of a diffused pressure can be in- ferred by integration. The annexed figure gives a representation of a particular case, obtained by a more exact process. The pressure is here sup- posed uniformly distributed over a band of breadth AB. A similar argument can be applied to the case of finite depth (h), but since the wave-velocity cannot exceed V (2gh) the results are modified if the velocity c of the travelling pressure exceeds this limit. There is then no train of waves generated, the disturbance of level being purely local. It hardly needs stating that the in- vestigation applies also to the case of a stationary surface disturbance on a running stream, and that similar results follow when the disturbance consists in an equality of the bottom. In both cases we have a train of standing waves on the down-stream side, of length corresponding to a wave-velocity equal to that of the stream. The effect of a disturbance confined to the neighbourhood of a point of the surface (of deep water) was also included in the in- vestigations of Cauchy and Poisson already referred to. The formula analogous to (12), in the case of a local impulse, is where r denotes distance from the source. The interpretation is similar to that of the two-dimensional case, except that the amplitude of the annular waves diminishes outwards, as was to be expected, in a higher ratio. The effect of a pressure-point travelling in a straight line over the surface of deep water is interesting, as helping us to account in some degree for the peculiar system of waves which is seen to accompany a ship. The configuration of the wave-system is shown by means of the lines of equal phase in the annexed diagram, due to V. W. Ekman (1906), which differs from the drawing origin- ally given by Lord Kelvin (1887) in that it indicates the differ- ence of phase between the transverse and diverging waves at the common boundary of the two ser'es' The two systems °f waves are due to the fact that at any given instant there are too previous positions of the moving pressure-point which have transmitted vibrations of Alter V. Walfrid Ekman, On Stationary stationary phase to any given Waw in Running Water. mt p ^thin the range of the FIG. 5- figure. When the depth is finite the configuration is modified, and if it be less than c'/§, where c is the velocity of the disturbance, the transversal waves disappear. The investigations referred to have a bearing on the wave-resistance of ships. This is accounted for by the energy of the new wave- groups which are continually being started and left behind. Some experiments on torpedo boats moving in shallow water have indi- cated a falling off in resistance due to the absence of transversal waves just referred to. For the effect of surface-tension and the theory of " ripples " see CAPILLARY ACTION. § 5. Surface-Waves of Finite Height. The foregoing results are based on the assumption that the amplitude may be treated as infinitely small. Various interesting investigations have been made in which this restriction is, more or less, abandoned, but we are far from possessing a complete theory. A system of exact equations giving a possible type of wave- motion on deep water was obtained by F. ]. v. Gerstner in 1802, and rediscovered by W. ]. M. Rankine in 1863. The orbits of the particles, in this type, are accurately circular, being defined by the •equations b-k-letl> cosk(a-ct), . (l) where (a, t) is the mean position of the particle, £=2r/X; and the wave-velocity is ..... (2) The lines of equal pressure, among which is included of course the surface-profile, are trochoidal curves. The extreme form of wave- profile is the cycloid, with the cusps turned upwards. The mathe- FIG. 6. matical elegance and simplicity of the formulae (i) are unfortunately counterbalanced by the fact that the consequent motion of the fluid elements proves to be " rotational " (see HYDROMECHANICS), and therefore not such as could be generated in a previously quiescent liquid by any system of forces applied to the surface. Sir G. Stokes, in a series of papers, applied himself to the deter- mination of the possible " irrotatipnal " wave-forms of finite height which satisfy the conditions of uniform propagation without change of type. The equation of the profile, in the case of infinite depth, is obtained in the form of a Fourier series, thus y=acoskx+$katcos2kx+lkia*cos3kx+ . . ., . (3) the corresponding wave-velocity being approximately where X = 2i/fe. The equation (3), so far as we have given the de- velopment, agrees with that of a trochoid (fig. 7). As in the case of Gerstner's waves the outline is sharper near the crests and flatter ~: in the troughs than in the case of the simple- FIG. 7. harmonic curve, and these features become accentuated as the ratio of the amplitude to the wave-length increases. It has been shown by Stokes that the extreme form of irrotational waves differs from that of the rotational Gerstner waves in that the crests form a blunt angle of 120°. Ac- cording to the calculations of J. H. Michell (1893), the height is then about one-seventh of the wave-length, and the wave-velocity exceeds that of very low waves of the same length in the ratio 6:5. It is to be noticed further that in these waves of permanent type the motion of the water-particles is not purely oscillatory, there being on the whole a gradual drift at the surface in the direction of propagation. These various conclusions appear to agree in a general way with what is observed in the case of sea-waves. In the case of finite depth the calculations are more difficult, and we can only here notice the limiting type which is obtained when the wave-length is supposed very great compared with the depth (h). We have then practically the " solitary wave " to which attention was first directed by J. Scott Russell (1844) FIG. 8. from observation. The theory has been worked out by ]. Boussmesq (1871) and Lord Rayleigh. The surface-elevation is given by n=c sec h« !(*/&) ...... (5) provided t»=A'(A-(-o)/3o, ..... (6) and the velocity of propagation is c-VU(*+o)) ...... (7) In the extreme form a = h and the crest forms an angle of 120*. It appears that a solitary wave of depression, of permanent type, is impossible. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Experimental researches: E. H. u. W. Weber, Wellenlehre (Leipzig, 1825) ; ]. Scott Russell, " Report on Waves," Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1844). Theoretical works : S. D. Poisson, " Memoire sur la theorie du son," /. de I'icole polyt. 7 (1807); " Mem. sur la theorie des ondes," Mem. de I'acad. roy. des sc. I (1816); A. Cauchy, " Mem. sur la theorie des ondes," Iffm. de I'acad. roy. des sc. I (1827) ; Sir G. B. Airy, " Tides and Waves," Encycl. Metrop. (1845). Many classical investigations are now most conveniently accessible 430 WAVELLITE— WAXWING in the following collections: G. Green, Math. Papers (Cambridge, 1871); H. v. Helmholtz, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (Leipzig, 1882- 1895); Lord Rayleigh, Scientific Papers (Cambridge, 1899-1903); W. J. M. Rankine, Misc. Scientific Papers (London, 1881); Sir G. G. Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers (Cambridge, 1880-1905). Numerous references to other writers will be found in the articles by P. Forch- heimer (" Hydraulik "), H. Lamb (" Schwingungen elastischer Korper, insb. Akustik "), and A. E. H. Love (" Hydrodynamik ") in various divisions of the fourth volume of the Encykl. d. math. Wiss. ; and in H. Lamb's Hydrodynamics (3rd ed., Cambridge, 1906). (H. LB.) WAVELLITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated aluminium phosphate, A13(OH)3(PO4)2 + 4|H2O, crystallizing in the ortho- rhombic system. Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence, the mineral usually taking the form of hemispherical or globular aggregates with an internal radiated structure. It is translucent and varies in colour from grey or white to greenish, yellowish, &c. The hardness is 3!, and the specific gravity 2-32. It was first found, at the end of the i8th century, by Dr W. Wavell near Barnstaple in Devonshire, where it lines crevices in a black slaty rock. It has also been found in Ireland (Tipperary and Cork), Arkansas, &c. (L. J. S.) WAVERLY, a village of Tioga county, New York, U.S.A., about 18 m. S.E. of Elmira, on the Cayuta Creek, near the Chemung and the Susquehanna rivers, which unite several miles S. of the village. Pop. (1890) 4123; (1900) 4465, of whom 295 were foreign-born; (1905) 4915; (1910) 4855. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the Erie and the Lehigh Valley railways. With South Waverly (pop. in 1910 1084) — separated from Waverly only by the state line and really a part of the village — Sayre, and Athens, Pennsylvania, it is connected by electric railway and the three form practically an industrial unit. Waverly is also connected by electric line with Elmira. The village is a railway centre of some importance, distributes coal from the Wyoming Valley mines, and ships the dairy products of a large farming district and small fruits and garden products. Waverly was settled about 1804 by settlers from Connecticut and the Hudson River Valley, and was incorporated as a village in 1854. WAVRE, a town of Belgium, in the province of Brabant, 14 m. S.E. of Brussels. Pop. (1904) 8517. It. was on this place that Grouchy advanced on the day of Waterloo, gaining a useless success here over a Prussian corps while the fate of the campaign was being decided elsewhere. The Prussians erected here a fine monument by Van Oemberg in 1859. WAX, a solid fatty substance of animal and vegetable origin, allied to the fixed oils and fats. From these it is distinguished by the fact that while oils and fats are glycerides, a true wax contains no glycerin, but is a combination of fatty acids with certain solid monatomic alcohols (see OILS). WAX FIGURES. Beeswax is possessed of properties which render it a most convenient medium for preparing figures and models, either by modelling or by casting in moulds. At ordinary temperatures it can be cut and shaped with facility; it melts to a limpid fluid at a low heat; it mixes with any colouring matter, and takes surface tints well; and its texture and con- sistency may be modified by the addition of earthy matters and oils or fats. When molten, it takes the minutest impressions of a mould, and it sets and hardens at such a temperature that no ordinary climatic influences affect the form it assumes, even when it is cast in thin laminae. The facilities which wax offers for modelling have been taken advantage of from the remotest times. Figures in wax of their deities were used in the funeral rites of the ancient Egyptians, and deposited among other offerings in their graves; many of these are now preserved in museums. That the Egyptians also modelled fruits can be learned from numerous allusions in early literature. Among the Greeks during their best art period, wax figures were largely used as dolls for children; statuettes of deities were modelled for votive offerings and for religious ceremonies, and wax images to which magical properties were attributed were treasured by the people. Wax figures and models held a still more important place among the ancient Romans. The masks (effigies or imagines') of ancestors, modelled in wax, were preserved by patrician families, this jus imagtnum being one of the privileges of the nobles, and these masks were exposed to view on ceremonial occasions, and carried in their funeral processions. The closing days of the Saturnalia were known as Sigillaria, on account of the custom of making, towards the end of the festival, presents of wax models of fruits and waxen statuettes which were fashioned by the Sigillarii or manufacturers of small figures in wax and other media. The practice of wax modelling can be traced through the middle ages, when votive offerings of wax figures were made to churches, and the memory and lineaments of monarchs and great personages were preserved by means of wax masks as in the days of Roman patricians. In these ages malice and supersti- tion found expression in the formation of wax images of hated persons, into the bodies of which long pins were thrust, in the confident expectation that thereby deadly injury would be induced to the person represented; and this belief and practice continued till the I7th century. Indeed the superstition still survives in the Highlands of Scotland, where as recently as 1885 a clay model of an enemy was found in a stream, having been placed there in the belief that, as the clay was washed away, so would the health of the hated one decline. With the renaissance of art in Italy, modelling in wax took a position of high im- portance, and it was practised by some of the greatest of the early masters. The bronze medallions of Pisano and the other famous medallists owe their value to the art qualities of wax models from which they were cast by the cire perdue process; and indeed all early bronzes and metal work were cast from wax models. The tete de cire in the Wicar collection at Lille is one of the most lovely examples of artistic work in this medium in existence. Wicar, one of Napoleon's commissaries, brought this figure from Italy. It represents the head and shoulders of a young girl. It has been claimed as a work of Greek or Roman art, and has been assigned to Leonardo da Vinci and to Raphael, but all that can be said is that it probably dates from the Italian Renaissance. In 1909 Dr Bode, the director of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin, purchased in England, for (it was stated) £8000, a life-sized half-length female figure in wax, which he attributed to Leonardo da Vinci or his school. The figure was shown to have once been in the possession of Richard Cockle Lucas (1800-1883), a sculptor and worker in ivory, wax, &c. It was claimed that the figure was really Lucas's work and was a reproduction in wax of a picture of " Flora" attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, now in the possession of the Morrison family at Basildon Park, near Pang- bourne; this view was repudiated by Dr Bode, but was generally accepted in England (see The Times, Oct.-Dec. 1909; and particularly the Burlington Magazine, May, June, August, 1910). Till towards the close of the i8th century modelling of medallion portraits and of relief groups, the latter frequently polychromatic, was in considerable vogue throughout Europe. About the end of the i8th century Flaxman executed in wax many portraits and other relief figures which Josiah Wedgwood translated into pottery for his jasper ware. The modelling of the soft parts of dissections, &c., for teaching illustrations of anatomy was first practised at Florence, and is now very common. Such preparations formed part of a show at Hamburg in 1721, and from that time wax-works, on a plane lower than art, have been popular attractions. These exhibitions consist principally of images of historical or notorious personages, made up of waxen masks on lay figures in which sometimes mechanism is fitted to give motion to the figure. Such an exhibition of wax-works with mechanical motions was shown in Germany early in the 1 8th century, and is described by Steele in the Taller. The most famous modern wax-work exhibition is that of Madame Tussaud (q.v.) in London. WAX-TREE, WAX MYRTLE, CANDLEBERRY, popular names of species of Myrica, especially M. cerifera, a North American plant, the fruits of which have a waxy covering and are used as a source of vegetable wax. M. Gale is the native British gale (q.v.) or sweet-gale. WAXWING, a bird first so called apparently by P. J. Selby in 1825 (Illustr. Brit. Ornithology, p. 87), having been before known WAYCROSS— WAYLAND THE SMITH as the " silk-tail " (Philos. Transactions, 1685, p. 1161) — a literal rendering of the German Seidenschwanz — or "chatterer" — the prefix " German," " Bohemian " or " waxen " being often also applied. Selby's convenient name has now been generally adopted, since the bird is readily distinguished from almost all others by the curious expansion of the shaft of some of its wing- feathers at the tip into a flake that looks like scarlet sealing-wax, while its exceedingly silent habit makes the name " chatterer " wholly inappropriate, and indeed this last arose from a mis- interpretation of the specific term garrulus, meaning a jay (from the general resemblance in colour of the two birds), and not referring to any garrulous quality. It is the Ampelis garruliis of Linnaeus and of more recent ornithologists, and is the type of tin- Passerine family Ampelidae. The waxwing is a bird that for many years excited vast interest. An irregular winter-visitant, sometimes in countless hordes, to the whole of the central and some parts of southern Europe, it was of old time looked upon as the harbinger of war, plague or death, and, while its harmonious coloration and the grace of its form were attractive, the curiosity with which its irregular appearances were regarded was enhanced by the mystery which enshrouded its birthplace, and until the summer of 1856 defied the searching of any explorer. In that year, however, all doubt was dispelled through the successful search in Lapland, organized by John Wolley, as briefly described by him to the Zoological Society (Proceedings, 1857, pp. 55, 56, pi. cxxii.).1 In 1858 H. E. Dresser found a small settlement of the species on an island in the Baltic near Uleaborg, and with his own hands took a nest. It is now pretty evident that the wax- wing, though doubtless breeding yearly in some parts of northern Europe, is as irregular in the choice of its summer-quarters as in that of its winter-retreats. Moreover, the species exhibits the same irregular habits in America. It has been found in Nebraska in " millions," as well as breeding on the Yukon and on the Anderson river. Beautiful as is the bird with its full erectile crest, its cinnamon- brown plumage passing in parts into grey or chestnut, and relieved by black, white and yellow — all of the purest tint — the external feature which has invited most attention is the " sealing-wax " (already mentioned) which tips some of the secondary or radial quills, and occasionally those of the tail. This is nearly as much exhibited by the kindred species, A. cedrorum — the well-known cedar-bird of the English in North America — which is easily dis- tinguished by its smaller size, less black chin-spot; the yellower tinge of the lower parts and the want of white on the wings. In the A. phoenicopterus of southern-eastern Siberia and Japan, the remiges and rectrices are tipped with red in the ordinary way without dilatation of the shaft of the feathers. Both the waxwing and cedar-bird seem to live chiefly on insects in summer, but are marvellously addicted to berries during the rest of the year, and will gorge themselves if opportunity allow. They are pleasant cage-birds, quickly becoming tame. The erratic habits of the waxwing are probably due chiefly to the supplies of food it may require, prompted also by the number of mouths to be fed, for there is some reason to think that this varies greatly from one year to another, according to season. The flocks which visit Britain and other countries outside the breeding range of the species naturally contain a very large proportion of young birds. (A. N.) WAYCROSS, a city and the county-seat of Ware county, •Georgia, U.S.A., about 96 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 60 m. \V. of Brunswick. Pop. (1880) 628; (1800) 3364; (1900) 5919 2899 negroes) ; (1910)14,485. Waycross is served by the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, several branches of the latter intersecting here. In the city is the Bunn-Bell Institute (Baptist, opened in 1909). There are large railway car construction and repair shops here, and Way- cross is a commercial centre for the forest products (naval stores and lumber) and the cotton, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, melons and pears of the surrounding country. The municipality owns the water-works, the water-supply being obtained from artesian wells. Before the passage of the state prohibition law Waycross secured virtual prohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors by requiring a large liquor license fee ($20,000 in 1883, increased to $30,000 in 1892). Waycross was settled in 1870, was first in- corporated in 1874 and became a city in 1909. 1 A fuller account of his discovery, illustrated by Hewitson, is given in The Ibis (1861, pp. 92-106, pi. iv). WAYLAND, FRANCIS (1796-1865), American educationist, was born in New York City on the nth of March 1796. His father was an Englishman of the same name, who was a Baptist pastor. The son graduated at Union College in 1813 and studied medicine in Troy and in New York City, but in 1816 entered Andover Theological Seminary, where he was greatly influenced by Moses Stuart. He was too poor to conclude his course in theology, and in 1817-1821 was a tutor at Union College, to which after five years as pastor of the First Baptist Church of Boston he returned in 1826 as professor of natural philosophy. In 1827 he became president of Brown University. In the twenty-eight years of his administration he gradually built up the college, improving academic discipline, formed a library and gave scientific studies a more prominent place. He also worked for higher educational ideals outside the college, writing text-books on ethics and economics, and promoting the free school system of Rhode Island and especially (1828) of Pro- vidence. His Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States (1842) and his Report to the Corporation of Brown University of 1850 pointed the way to educational reforms, particularly the introduction of industrial courses, which were only partially adopted in his lifetime. He resigned the presidency of Brown in 1855, and in 1857-1858 was pastor of the First Baptist Church of Providence. He died on the 3oth of September 1865. He was an early advocate of the temperance and anti- slavery causes, for many years was " inspector of the state prison and Providence county jail," president of the Prison Discipline Society, and active in prison reform and local charities. He was one of the " law and order " leaders during the " Dorr Rebellion " of 1842, and was called " the first citizen of Rhode Island." His son Francis (1826-1904) graduated at Brown in 1846, and studied law at Harvard; he became probate judge in Connecticut in 1864, was lieutenant-governor in 1869-1870, and in 1872 became a professor in the Yale Law School, of which he was dean from 1873 to 1903. Besides several volumes of sermons and addresses and the volumes already mentioned, he published Elements of Moral Science (1835, repeatedly revised and translated into foreign languages) ; Elements of Political Economy (1837), in which he advocated free-trade; The Limitations of Human Responsibility (1838); Domestic Slavery Considered as a Scriptural Institution (1845); Memoirs of Harriet Ware (1850); Memoirs of Adoniram Judson (1853); Elements oj Intellectual Philosophy (1854); Notes on the Principles and Practices of Baptist Churches (1857); Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel (1863); and a brief Memoir of Thomas Chalmers (1864). See The Life and Labors of Francis Wayland (2 vols., New York, 1867) by his sons Francis and Heman Lincoln; the shorter sketch (Boston, 1891) by James O. Murray in the " American Religious Leaders " series; and an article by G. C. Verplanck in vol. xiv. of the A merican Journal of Education. WAYLAND THE SMITH (Scand. Volundr, Ger. Wieland), hero of romance. The legend of Wayland probably had its home in the north, where he and his brother Egill1 were the types of the skilled workman, but there are abundant local traditions of the wonderful smith in Westphalia and in southern England. His story is told in one of the oldest songs of the Edda, the V dlundarkviOa, and, with considerable variations, in the prose P»3reJbsaga (Thidrek's sage), while the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and Dear's Lament contain allusions to it. The tale of Wayland falls naturally into two parts, the former of which contains obviously mythical features. He was the son of the giant sailor Wate and of a mermaiden. His grandfather was that Vilkinus, king of Norway, who lent his name to the Vilkina- or pibrekssaga. Three brothers Volundr, Egill and Slagfibr seized the swan-maidens Hlajjgujr, Olrun and Hervor, who, divested of their feather dresses, stayed with them seven or eight years as their wives. The second part of the story concerns Volundr, lord of the elves, the cunning smith, who, after learning his art from Mime, then from the dwarfs, came to the court of King NfJ'oJ'r, and there defeated in fight the smith Amilias. V6lundr's sword, Mimung, with which he won this victory, was one of the famous weapons in German epic poetry. In the Dietrich cycle it descended to 1 Egill was compelled to prove his skill as an archer by shooting an apple off the head of his three- year-old son; he is thus the prototype of William Tell. 432 WAYNE Wayland's son Wittich, and was cunningly exchanged by Hilde- brand for a commoner blade before Wittich's fight with Dietrich. Nf J>o]r, in order to secure Volundr's services, lamed him by cutting the sinews of his knees, and then established him in a smithy on a neighbouring island. The smith avenged himself by the slaughter of Ni^ojT's two sons and the rape of his daughter Bodvildr. He then soared away on wings he had prepared. The story in its main outlines bears a striking resemblance to the myth of Daedalus. For the vengeance of Volundr there is a very close counterpart in the medieval versions of the vengeance of the Moorish slave on his master. The denouement of this tale, which made its first appearance in European literature in the De obedientia (Opera, Venice, 3 vols., 1518-1519) of Jovianus Pontanus (d. 1 503) , is different, for the Moorish slave casts himself down from a high tower. The Aaron of the Shakespearian play of Titus Andronicus was eventually derived from this source. Swords fashioned by Wayland are regular properties of medieval romance. King Rhydderich gave one to Merlin, and Rimenhild made a similar gift to Child Horn. English local tradition placed Wayland Smith's forge in a cave close to the White Horse in Berkshire. If a horse to be shod, or any broken tool were left with a sixpenny piece at the entrance of the cave the repairs would presently be executed. The earliest extant record of the Wayland legend is the repre- sentation in carved ivory on a casket of Northumbrian workman- ship of a date not later than the beginning of the 8th century. The fragments of this casket, known as the Franks casket, came The Franks Casket. into the possession of a professor at Clermont in Auvergne about the middle of the last century, and was presented to the British Museum by Sir A. W. Franks, who had bought it in Paris for a dealer. One fragment is in Florence. The left-hand compartment of the front of the casket shows Volundr holding with a pair of tongs the skull of one of Nf)>oJ>r's children, which he is fashioning into a goblet. The boy's body lies at his feet. Bodvildr and her attendant also appear, and Egill, who in one version made Volundr's wings, is depicted in the act of catching birds. See also Vigffisson and Powell, Corpus poet. bar. (i. pp. 168-174, Oxford, 1883); A. S. Napier, The Franks Casket (Oxford, 1901); G. Sarrazin, Germanische Heldensage in Shakespere's Titus Androni- cus (Herrig's Archiv, xcvii., Brunswick, 1896); P. Maurus, Die Wielandsage in der Literatur (Erlangen and Leipzig, 1902); C. B. Deppingand F. Michel, Velandle Forgeron (Paris, 1833). Sir Walter Scott handled the Wayland legend in Kenilworth', there are dramas on the subject by Borsch (Bonn, 1895), English version by A. Comyn (London, 1898), August Demmin (Leipzig, 1880), H. Drachmann (Copenhagen, 1898), and one founded on K. Simrock's heroic poem on Wieland is printed in Richard Wagner's Gesammelte Schriften (vol. iii. 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1887). WAYNE, ANTHONY (1745-1796), American soldier, was born in the township of Easttown, Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the ist of January 1745, of a Yorkshire family. As a boy he exhibited a marked bent toward a military life. He was educated in Philadelphia, and was a surveyor in Pennsylvania and (1765) in Nova Scotia, where he was agent for a propoi colony. He married in 1766 and passed the next few years on the Chester county farm inherited from his father, holding some minor offices and after 1774 taking an active part upon various patriotic committees. Having recruited and organized the Fourth Pennsylvania battalion of Continental troops, he first saw active service at its head in Canada during the retreat of Benedict Arnold after the Quebec campaign. His excellent behaviour at the skirmish of Three Rivers led Philip Schuyler to place him for some months in command of Ticonderoga. While at this post, on the 2ist of February 1777, he was com- missioned brigadier-general. In April Washington ordered him to take command of the " Pennsylvania Line " at Morristown, and he rendered distinguished service at Brandywine and Germantown, and by his coolness and courage at Monmouth, after the retreat of General Charles Lee, did much to save the day for the Americans. Later in 1778 political necessity led to his being superseded by St Clair, his ranking officer, in the command of the regular Pennsylvania troops, but upon Washington's recommendation he organized a new Light Infantry corps, with which he performed the most daring exploit of the War of Independence — the recapture of Stony Point by a midnight attack (15-16 July 1779) at the point of the bayonet. This well-planned enterprise aroused the greatest enthusiasm throughout the country and won for Wayne the popular soubriquet " Mad Anthony." Upon the disbanding of the Light Infantry corps, Wayne, again in command of the Pennsylvania line, rendered effective service in counteracting the effect of Benedict Arnold's treason and of the mutiny of the Pennsylvania troops. In 1781 he was sent south to join General Nathanael Greene, but in Virginia was deflected to aid Lafayette against Lord Coruwallis. After the American success at Yorktown, Wayne served with such marked success in Georgia, that the state rewarded him with a large rice planta- tion (which proved a financial failure) and Congress breveted him major-general. In 1792 Washington offered him the command of the regular army with the rank of major-general to fight the hostile Indians north-west of the Ohio, who had been rendered insolent by their successes over General Josiah Harmar in 1790 and General Arthur St Clair in 1791, and indirectly to compel the British to yield the posts they held on the American side of the lakes. Wayne spent the winter of 1792-1793 in recruiting his troops near Pittsburg and in drilling them for effective service in the reorganized army. The government continued its efforts to induce the Indians to allow white settlements beyond the Ohio, but a mission in 1793 ended in a failure. Meanwhile Wayne had transferred his troops toFort Washington (Cincinnati) , and upon learning of the failure of the negotiations, advanced the greater part of his forces to Greenville, a post on a branch of the Great Miami, about 80 m. north of Cincinnati. During the winter he also established an outpost at the scene of St Clair's defeat. The Indians attacked this post, Fort Recovery, in June 1794, but were repulsed with considerable slaughter. Late in July Wayne's legion of regulars, numbering about 2000, was reinforced by about 1600 Kentucky militia under General Charles Scott, and;the combined forces advanced to the junction of the Auglaize and Maumee rivers, where Fort Defiance was constructed. Here Wayne made a final effort to treat with the Indians, and upon being rebuffed, moved forward and encountered them on the 2oth of August in the battle of Fallen Timbers, fought near the falls of the Maumee, and almost under the walls of the British post Fort Miami. This decisive defeat, supple- mented by the Treaty of Greenville, which he negotiated with the Indians on the 3rd of August 1795, resulted in opening the North-west to civilization. Wayne retained his position as com- mander of the army after its reorganization, and he rendered service in quelling the proposed filibustering expeditions from Kentucky against the Spanish dominions, and also took the lead in occupying the lake posts delivered up by the British. While engaged in this service he died at Erie, Pennsylvania, on the isth of December 1796, and was interred there. In 1809 his remains were removed to St David's Churchyard, Radnor, Pennsylvania. WAYNESBORO— WAYNFLETE 433 See Charles J. Stilte, Major-General Anthony Wayne and the Pennsylvania Line (Philadelphia, 1893); J. Munsell, (ed.), Wayne's Orderly Book of the Northern Army at Fort Ticonderoea and Mount Independence (Albany, 1859); Boyer, A Journal of Wayne's Cam- paign (Cincinnati, 1866); William Clark, A Journal of Major- General Anthony Wayne's Campaign against the Shawnee Indians (MSS. owned by R. C. Ballard Thruston); H. P. Johnston, The nine of Stony Point (New York, 1900); J. R. Spears, Anthony Vayne (New York, 1903). WAYNESBORO, a borough of Franklin county, Pennsylvania, J.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 14 m. S.E. of Chambers- burg, and about 65 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 381 1 ; (190x3)5396; (1910)7199. Waynesboro is served by the Cumber- ad Valley and the Western Maryland railways. It lies at the ot of the South Mountain, and under the borough are many and caverns. A settlement was made here about 1734; : was called Mount Vernon for twenty years, and then Wallace- own (in honour of an early settler) until the close of the War of ^dependence, when it was named Waynesborough in honour of eneral Anthony Wayne; a village was platted in 1797; its barter as a borough, granted in 1818, was repealed in 1824 but > revived in 1830, the spelling being changed to " Waynesboro." See Benjamin M. Nead, Waynesboro (Harrisburg, Pa., 1900). WAYNFLETE, WILLIAM (1395-1486), English lord chancellor nd bishop of Winchester, was the son of Richard Pattene or Patyn, alias Barbour, of Wainfleet, Lincolnshire (Magd. Coll. )xon. Reg. f. 84b), whose monumental effigy, formerly in the church of Wainfleet, now in Magdalen College Chapel at Oxford, as to be in the dress of a merchant. His mother was Margery, aughterof SirWilliam Brereton of that ilk in Cheshire(Ormerod's Cheshire, iii. 81). Of Waynflete's education it is only possible i assert that he was at Oxford University. It has been alleged hat he was a Wykehamist, a scholar at Winchester College and College, Oxford. But unless he was, as is improbable, he " Willelmus Pattney, de eadem, Sar. Dioc.," admitted in he was not a scholar of Winchester, and in any case was not a scholar of New College. Nor was he a commoner in college at Winchester or at New College, as his name does not appear in the Hall books, or lists of those dining in hall, at either college. That he was a day-boy commoner at Winchester is possible, but seems unlikely. He was never claimed in his lifetime by either college as one of its alumni. That he was at Oxford, and probably a scholar at one of the grammar schools there, before passing on to the higher faculties, is shown by a letter of the chancellor addressed to him when provost of Eton (Ep. Acad. Oxf. Hist. Soc. i. 158) which speaks of the university as his " mother who brought him forth into the light of knowledge and nourished him with the alimony of all the sciences." He is probably the William Barbour who was ordained acolyte by Bishop Fleming of Lincoln on the 2ist of April 1420 and sub- deacon on the 2ist of January 1421 ; and as " William Barbour," otherwise Waynflete of Spalding, was ordained deacon on the :8th of March 1421, and priest on the zist of January 1426, with title from Spalding Priory. He may have been the William Waynflete who was admitted a scholar of the King's Hall, Cambridge, on the 6th of March 1428 (Exch. Q. R. Bdle. 346, no. 31), and was described as LL.B. when receiving letters of protection on the isth of July 1429 (Proc. P.O. iii. 347) to enable him to accompany Robert FitzHugh, D.D., warden of the hall, on an embassy to Rome. For the scholars of the King's Hall were what we should call fellows, as may be seen by the appoint- ment to the hall on the 3rd of April 1360 of Nicholas of Drayton, B.C.L.,and John Kent, B. A., instead of two scholars who had gone off to the French wars without the warden's leave (Cal. Close Rolls). William Waynflete, presented to the vicarage of Skendleby, Lines, by the Priory of Bardney (Lincoln, Ep. Reg. f. 34, Chandler, 16), on the I4th of June 1430, may also have been our Waynflete. There was, however, another William Waynflete, who was instituted rector of Wroxhall, Somerset, on the i7th of May 1433 (Wells, Ep. Reg. Stafford), and was dead when his successor was appointed on the i8th of November 1436 (Wells, Ep. Reg. Stillington). A successor to the William Waynflete at the King's Hall was admitted on the 3rd of April 1434. Meanwhile, our Waynflete had become headmaster of Winchester ; Mr William Wanneflete being paid 505. as Informator scolarium, teacher of the scholars of the college, for the quarter beginning on the 24th of June 1430 (Win. Coll. Bursars' Roll 8-9 Hen. VI.) and so continuously, under many variants of spelling, at the rate of £10 a year until Michaelmas 1441 (V.C.H., Bucks, ii. 154). He was collated by Bishop Beaufort at some date unascertainable (through the loss of the 2nd volume of Beaufort's Episcopal Register) to the mastership of St Mary Magdalen's Hospital, a leper hospital on St Giles' Hill, just outside the city of Win- chester (Vet. Mon. iii. 5). The first recorded headmaster after the foundation of the college, John Melton, had been presented by Wykeham to the mastership of this hospital in 1393 shortly before his retirement. Its emoluments, amounting to £9, 125. a year, nearly doubled the headmaster's income. Under the influence of Archbishop Chicheley, who had himself founded two colleges in imitation of Wykeham, and Thomas Bekynton, king's secretary and privy seal, and other Wyke- hamists, Henry VI., on the nth of October 1440, founded, in imitation of Winchester College, " a college in the parish church of Eton by Windsor not far from our birthplace," called the King's College of the Blessed Mary of Eton by Windsor, as " a sort of first-fruits of his taking the government on himself." The college was to consist of a provost, 10 priests, 6 choristers, 25 poor and needy scholars, 25 almsmen and a magister infor- mator " to teach gratis the scholars and all others coming from any part of England to learn grammar." Only two fellows, 4 choristers, 2 scholars and 2 almsmen were named in the charter and probably were only colourably members. Waynflete was not, as alleged (Diet. Nat. Biog.), named a fellow. On the sth of March 1440-1441, the king endowed the college out of alien priories with some £500 a year, almost exactly the amount of the original endowment of Winchester. On the 3ist of July 1441 Henry VI. went for a week-end visit to Winchester College to see the school for himself. Here he seems to have been so much impressed with Waynflete, that at Michaelmas, 1441, Waynflete*ceased to be headmaster of Winchester. In October he appears dining in the hall there as a guest, and at Christmas 1442 he received a royal livery, five yards of violet cloth, as provost of Eton, Though reckoned first headmaster of Eton, there is no definite evidence that he was. The school building was not begun till May 1442 (V.C.H., Bucks, ii. 154). William Westbury, who left New College, " transferring himself to the king's service," in May 1442, and appears in the first extant Eton Audit Roll 1444-1445 as headmaster, was probably such from May 1442. If Waynflete was headmaster from October 1441 to May 1442, his duties must have been little more than nominal. As provost, Waynflete procured the exemption of the college from archidiaconal authority on the 2nd of May, and made the contract for completion of the carpenter's work of the eastern side of the quadrangle on the 3Oth of November 1443. On the 2ist of December 1443 he was sworn to the statutes by Bishop Bekynton and the earl of Suffolk, the king's commissioners, and himself administered the oath to the other members of the foundation, then only five fellows and eleven scholars over fifteen years of age. He is credited with having taken half the scholars and fellows of Winchester to Eton to start the school there. In fact, five scholars and perhaps one commoner left Winchester for Eton in 1443, probably in July, just before the election. For three of them were admitted scholars of King's College, Cambridge, on the i9th of July, that college, by its second charter of the loth of July 1443 having been placed in the same relation to Eton that New College bore to Winchester; i.e. it was to be recruited entirely from Eton. The chief part of Waynflete's duties as provost was the financing and completion of the buildings and establishment. The number of scholars was largely increased by an election of 25 new ones on the 26th of September 1444, the income being then £946, of which the king contributed £120 and Waynflete £18, or more than half his stipend of £30 a year. The full number of 70 scholars was not filled up till Waynflete's last year as provost, 1446-1447 (Eton Audit Roll). So greatly did Waynflete ingratiate himself 434 WAYNFLETE with Henry that when Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, Henry's uncle, died on the nth of April 1447, the same day Henry wrote to the chapter of Winchester, the prior and monks of St Swithin's cathedral, to elect Waynflete as his successor. On the i2th of April he was given the custody of the temporalities, on the isth of April he was elected, and on the loth of May provided to the see by a papal bull. On the i3th of July 1447 he was consecrated in Eton church, when the warden and fellows and others of his old college gave him a horse at a cost of £6, 135. 4d., and 133. 4d. to the boys. Subsequent visits to Winchester inspired Henry with the idea of rebuilding Eton church on cathedral dimensions. Waynflete was assigned as the principal executor of his " will " for that purpose, and if there was any variance between the executors, he was to determine it. From 1448 to 1450 £3336 or some £100,000 of our money was spent on the church, of which Waynflete with the marquis of Suffolk and the bishop of Salisbury contributed £700 or £21,000. The troubles which began in 1450 put a stop to the work. Waynflete, as bishop, lost no time in following the example of Wykeham and his royal patron in becoming a college founder. On the 6th of May 1448 he obtained licence in mortmain and on the zoth of August founded at Oxford " for the extirpation of heresies and errors, the increase of the clerical order and the adornment of holy mother church, a perpetual hall, called Seint Marie Maudeleyn Halle, for study in the sciences of sacred theology and philosophy," to consist of a president and 50 scholars. Its site was not that of the present college, but of two earlier halls called Boston and Hare, where the new schools now are. Thirteen M.A.'s and seven bachelors, besides the president, John Hornley, B.D., were named in the charter. The dedication to Mary Magdalen was no doubt derived from the hospital at Winchester of which the founder had been master. On St Wolstan's Day, the igth of January 1448-1449, Waynflete was enthroned in Winchester cathedral in the presence of the king; and, probably partly for his sake, parliament was held there in June and July 1449, when the king frequently attended the college chapel, Waynflete officiating (Win. Coll. Reg. Vet.). When Jack Cade's rebellion occurred in 1450 Waynflete was employed with Archbishop Stafford, the chancellor, to negotiate with the rebels at St Margaret's church, Southwark, close to Winchester House. A full pardon was promised, but on the ist of August Waynflete was one of the special commissioners to try the rebels. On the 7th of May 1451 Waynflete, from " le peynted chambre " in his manor house at Southwark, asserting that his bishopric was canonically obtained and that he laboured under no disqualification, but feared some grievous attempt against himself and his see, appealed to the protection of the pope. It is suggested (Diet. Nat. Biog.) that this was due to some disturbances at Winchester (Proc. P.C. vi. 108), where one of Cade's quarters was sent after his execution. But it is more likely, as suggested by Richard Chandler (Life of Waynflete, 1811), that it was some Yorkist attack on him in progress in the papal court, to meet which he appointed next day 19 proctors to act for him. In the result nothing disturbed his peaceable possession of the see. With the archbishop of Canterbury he received Henry VI. on a pilgrimage to St Thomas a Becket on the and of August 1451. When in November the duke of York encamped near Dartford, Waynflete with three others was sent from the king's camp at Blackheath to propose terms, which were accepted. Edward, prince of Wales, was born on the i3th of October 1453 and baptized by Waynflete the next day. This year Waynflete acquired the reversion of the manor of Stanswick, Berks, from Lady Danvers (Chandler, p. 87) for Magdalen Hall. The king became insane in 1454. On the death of the chancellor, John Kemp, archbishop of Canterbury, during the sitting of parliament, presided over by the duke of York, commissioners, headed by Waynflete, were sent to Henry, to ask him to name a new chancellor, apparently intending that Waynflete should be named. But no answer could be extracted from the king, and after some delay Lord Salisbury took the seals. During York's regency, both before and after the battle of St Albans, Waynflete took an active part in the proceedings of the privy council. With a view to an ampler site for his college, Waynflete obtained on the 5th of July 1456 a grant of the Hospital of St John the Baptist outside the east gate at Oxford and on the 1 5th of July licence to found a college there. Having obtained a papal bull, he founded it by deed of the I2th of June 1458, converting the hospital into a college with a president and six fellows, to which college two days later Magdalen Hall surrendered itself and its possessions, its members being incorporated into " the New College of St Mary Magdalen." Meanwhile Waynflete himself had been advanced to the highest office in the state, the chancellorship, the seals being delivered to him by the king in the priory of Coventry in the presence of the duke of York, apparently as a person acceptable to both parties. On the 27th of October 1457 he took part in the trial and condemnation for heresy of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, who had been ordained subdeacon and deacon on the same day and by the same bishop as Waynflete himself. Only Pecock's books and not the heretic were burnt. As the heresy consisted chiefly in defending the clergy on grounds of reason instead of authority, the proceeding does not show any great enlightenment on Waynflete's part. It must have been at this time that an addition was made by Waynflete to the Eton college statutes, compelling the fellows to forswear the heresies of John Wycliffe and Pecock. Waynflete presided as chancellor at the parliament at Coventry in November 1459, which, after the Yorkist catastrophe at Ludlow, attainted the Yorkist leaders. It was no doubt because of this that, three days before the Yorkist attack at Northampton, he delivered the great seal to the king in his tent near Delapre abbey, a nunnery by Northampton, on the 7th of July 1460 (Rot. Claus. 38 Hen. VI. m. 5 d). It was taken with Henry and handed to the Yorkist, George Neville, bishop of Exeter, brother of the kingmaker, earl of Warwick, in London on 25th July following. Whether, as alleged by some, Waynflete fled and hid himself during the period covered by the battle of Wakefield and Edward's fiist parliament in 1461, is very doubtful. A testimonial to his fidelity written by Henry to the pope on the 8th of November 1460 (Chandler, 346) was written while Henry was in Yorkist hands. The fact too that complaints laid before Edward IV. himself in August 1461 of wrongful exaction of manorial rights from the tenants of the episcopal manor of East Meon, Hants, were decided in the bishop's favour in parliament in the December following (Rot. Parl. v. 475) also suggests that he was not regarded as an enemy to the Yorkists, though a personal favourite of Henry's. A general charter of confirmation to him and his successors of the property and rights of the bishopric of Winchester on the ist of July 1462 (Pat. 2 Ed. IV.) points in the same direction. It is certain that he took an active part in the restoration of Eton College, which Edward annexed to St George's, Windsor, in 1463, depriving it of a large part of its possessions. In the earliest Audit Rolls after the restoration of the college in 1467 there are many entries of visits of Provost Westbury to " the lord of Winchester," which in January 1468-1469 were for " beginning the work of the church " " and providing money for them." Why a pardon was granted to Waynflete on the ist of February 1469 (Pat. 8 Ed. IV. pt. m. m. 16) does not appear. On the restoration of Henry VI. on the 28th of September 1470 Waynflete welcomed him on his release from the Tower, which necessitated a new pardon, granted a month after Edward's reinstatement on the 3oth of May 1471 (Pat. u. Ed. IV. pat. i. m. 24), and a loan to the king of 2000 marks (£1333, 6s. 8d.), or some £40,000 of our money. In the years 1471-1472 to 1474 Waynflete was largely engaged in completing the church, now called chapel, at Eton, his glazier supplying the windows, and he contracted on the 1 5th of August 1475 for the rood-loft to be made on one side " like to the rode lofte in Bishop Wykcham's college at Winchester," and on the other like' that " of the college of St Thomas of Acres in London." In 1479 he built the ante-chapel at the west-end, as it now stands, of stone from Headington, Oxford. In 1474 Waynflete, being the principal executor of Sir John Fastolf, who died in 1459, leaving a much-contested will, pro- cured the conversion of his bequest for a collegiate church of WAYZGOOSE— WAZIRISTAN 435 seven priests and seven almsmen at Caistor, Norfolk, into one for seven fellows and seven poor scholars at Magdalen. In the same year that college took possession of the alien priory of Sele, Sussex, the proceedings for the suppression of which had been going on since 1469. The new, now the old, buildings at Magdalen were begun the same year, the foundation-stone being laid in the middle of the high altar on the 5th of May 1474 (Wood, 207). Licences on the ist of July, the 22nd of July 1477 and the I2th of February 1479, authorized additions to the endowment. On the 23rd of August 1480, the college being completed, the great west window being contracted to be made after the fashion of that at All Souls' College, a new president, Richard Mayhew, fellow of New College, was installed on the 23rd of August 1480, and statutes were promulgated. The foundation is commonly dated from this year and not from 1448, when Magdalen Hall was founded, though if not dated from 1448 it surely dates from 1458, when that hall and St John's Hospital were converted into Magdalen College. The statutes were for the most part a replica of those of New College, members of which were, equally with members of Magdalen, declared to be eligible for the presidency. They provided for a head and 70 scholars, but the latter were divided into 40 fellows and 30 scholars called demies, because their commons were half those of the fellows. Magdalen College School was established at the gates and as a part of the college, to be, like Eton, a free grammar school, free of tuition fees for all comers, under a master and usher, the first master being John Ankywyll, a married man, with a salary of £10 a year, the same as at Winchester and Eton. The renewal of interest in classical literature was shown in the prohibition of the study of sophistry by any scholar under the age of eighteen, unless he had been pronounced proficient in grammaticals. On the 22nd of September 1481 Waynflete received Edward IV. in state at the college, where he passed the night, and in July 1483 he received Richard III. there in even greater state, when Master William Grocyn, " the Grecian," a fellow of New College, " responded," in divinity. In 1484 Waynflete gave the college the endowment for a free grammar school at his name-place, Wainfleet, sufficient to produce for the chantry-priest-schoolmaster £10 a year, the same salary as the headmaster of Magdalen School, and built the school which still exists almost untouched, a fine brick build- ing with two towers, 76 ft. long by 26 ft. broad. The next year saw the appropriation to the college of the Augustinian Priory of Selborne, Hants. On the 27th of April 1486, Waynflete, like Wykeham, made his will at their favourite manor, South or Bishop's Waltham. It is remarkable that he gives the same pecuniary bequests to Winchester and New Colleges as to his own college of Magdalen, but the latter he made residuary devisee of all his lands. He died on the nth of May 1486, and was buried in the chantry chapel of St Mary Magdalen behind the high altar in Winchester cathedral, which he had erected in his lifetime. The effigy on it may be taken to be an authentic portrait. (A. F. L.) WAYZGOOSE, a term for the annual dinner and outing of printers and their employ6s. The derivation of the term is doubtful. It may be a misspelling for " wasegoose," from wase, Mid. Eng. for " sheaf," thus meaning sheaf or harvest goose, the bird that was fit to eat at harvest-time, the "stubble- goose " mentioned by Chaucer in " The Cook's Prologue." It is more probable that the merry-making which has become particularly associated with the printers' trade was once general, and an imitation of the grand goose-feast annually held at Waes, in Brabant, at Martinmas. The relations of England and Holland were formerly very close, and it is not difficult to believe that any outing or yearly banquet might have grown to be called colloquially a " Waes-Goose." It is difficult to explain why the term should have only survived in the printing trade, though the English printers owed much to their Dutch fellow-workers. Certainly the goose has long ago parted company with the printers' wayzgoose, which is usually held in July, though it has no fixed season. An unlikely suggestion is that the original wayzgoose was a feast given by an apprentice to his comrades at which the bird formed the staple eatable. WAZIR, or VIZIER (Arabic viazir), a minister, usually the principal minister under a Mahommedan ruler. In India the nawab of Oudh was long known as the nawab wazir, the title of minister to the Mogul emperor having become hereditary in the family. WAZIRABAD, a town of British India, in Gujranwala district of the Punjab, near the right bank of the river Chenab, 62 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901) 18,069. It is an important railway junction. The main line of the North-Western railway here crosses the Chenab by the Alexandra bridge, opened by the prince of Wales in 1876. The branch to Sialkot has been ex- tended to Jammu (51 m.); another branch follows the line of the Chenab canal towards Multan. Boat-building and manufactures of steel and iron are carried on. WAZIRISTAN, a section of the mountain tract in the North- West Frontier Province of India, lying between the Tochi river on the north and the Gomal river on the south. The whole of Waziristan lies within the British sphere of influence, the boundary with Afghanistan having been demarcated in 1894. It forms two political agencies, but only a portion, consisting of the Tochi valley, with an area of about 700 sq. m. and a population (1903) of 24,670, is directly administered. Northern Waziristan has an area of about 2310 sq. m., and southern Waziristan an area of about 2734 sq. m. The Tochi and the Gomal rivers enclose Waziristan, their affluents rising to the west of that country in the upland valleys of Shawal and Birmal, and flowing north and south to a junction with the main streams. Between the two rivers stretches the central dominating range of Waziristan from north-east to south- west, geologically connected with the great limestone ranges of the Suliman hills to the south, and dominated by the great peaks of Shuidar (Sheikh Haidar) and Pirghal, both of them between n,ooo and 12,000 ft. above the sea, and hardly inferior to the Khaisargarh peak of the Takht-i-Suliman. From these peaks westwards a view is obtained across the grass slopes and cedar woods of Birmal and Shawal (lying thousands of feet below) to the long, serrated ridges of the central watershed which shuts off the plains of Ghazni. To the eastward several lines of drainage strike away for the Indus, breaking through parallel folds and flexures of the mountains, of which the conformation is here distinctly observable, although not so marked as it is south of the Gomal. These lines of drainage are, as usual, the main avenues of approach to the interior of the country. They are the Khaisora and the Shakdu on the north, which, uniting, join the Tochi south of Bannu, and the Tank Zam (which is also called Khaisor near its head) on the south. The two former lead from the frontier to Rasmak and Makin, villages of some local importance, situated on the slopes of Shuidar; and the latter leads to Kaniguram, the Waziri capital, and the centre of a con- siderable iron trade. Kaniguram lies at the foot of the Pirghal mountain. Amongst the mountains of Waziristan there is much fine scenery and a delightful climate. Thick forests of Hex clothe many of the spurs, which reach down to the grassy deodar- covered uplands of Birmal on the west ; and the spreading poplar attains ma*gnificent dimensions amongst the flats and plateaus of the eastern slopes. The indigenous trade of the country is inconsiderable, although Waziri iron is much esteemed. The agricultural products are poor, and the general appearance of the priest-ridden people is significant of the endurance of many hardships, even of chronic starvation. The most notable product of the country is the Waziri breed of horses and donkeys. The latter especially deserve to rank as the best of their kind on the Indian frontier, if not in all India. The geological formation of Waziristan is the same as that of the contiguous frontier. Recent subaqueous deposits have been disturbed by a central upheaval of limestone; the lower hills are soft in composition and easily weather-worn, the slopes are rounded, and large masses of detritus have collected in the nullah beds and raised their level. Through these deposits heavy rain-floods have forced their way with many bends and curves to the plains, enclosing within each curve a " warn " or " raghza," which slopes gradually to the hills and affords the only available space for irrigation ana agriculture. A " warn " is a gently sloping open space, generally 436 WAZZAN— WEALD, THE raised but slightly above the river level. A " raghza " differs from a " warn " in being on a higher level and often beyond the reach of irrigation. Pasture is found abundantly in the hills, but cultivation only on the borders of the main streams. Passing up and down these mam water-courses, there is an appearance of great fertility and wealth, which is entirely due to these thriving strips of verdure, their restricted and narrow limits being hardly visible from the river beds. From above, when viewed from the flanking ridges, the vast «rtent of hill country, neither high, nor imposing, nor difficult of access, but invariably stony and rough, compares strongly with the narrow bands of enclosed cultivation winding about like green ribbons, and marking the course of the main strea*ns from the snow- covered peaks to the plains. The physiography of Waziristan is that of the Ku.ram to the north rather than that of the Suliman hills to the south. The Waziris are the largest tribe on the frontier, but their state of civilization is very low. They are a race of robbers and murderers, and the Waziri name is execrated even by the neighbouring Mahommedan tribes. Mahommedans from a settled district often regard Waziris as utter barbarians, and seem inclined to deny their title to belong to the faith. They have been described as being " free-born and murderous, hot- headed and light-hearted, self-respecting but vain." The poverty of their country and the effort required to gain a subsistence in it have made the Waziris a hardy and enduring race. Their physique is uncommonly good, and though on the average short of stature, some extremely tall and large men are to be found amongst them. They are generally deep-chested and compact of build, with a powerful muscular development common to the whole body, and not confined to the lower limbs as is the case with some hill tribes of the Himalayas. As mountaineers the Waziris would probably hold their own with any other Pathan tribe of the frontier. Except in a few of the highest hills, which are well- wooded, the Waziri country is a mass of rock and stones, bearing a poor growth of grass and thinly sprinkled with dark evergreen bushes; progress in every direction except on devious paths known to the natives is obstructed by precipices or by toilsome stony ascents; and knowledge of the topography, a mere labyrinth of intricate ranges and valleys, comes only as the result of long acquaintance. Broken ground and tortuous ravines, by making crime easy and precaution against attack difficult, have fostered violence among the people and developed in them an extraordinary faculty of prudence and alertness. In con- sequence of his isolation the Waziri has become independent, self-reliant and democratic hi sentiment. Through the in- accessibility of his own country to lowlanders, combined with the proximity of open and fertile tracts inhabited by races of inferior stamina, he has developed into a confirmed raider; and the passage through his country of mountain footpaths, connecting India with Afghanistan, has made him by frequent opportunity a hereditary highwayman as well. The women enjoy more freedom than amongst most Pathan tribes, and are frequently unfaithful. The ordinary punishment of adultery is to put the woman to death, and to cut off half the right foot of the man. Amongst Waziris also, as amongst other Pathans, the blood-feud is a national institution. The Waziris, who number some 40,000 fighting men altogether, are divided into two main sections, the Darwesh Khel (30,000) and the Mahsuds (8000) , with two smaller sections. The Darwesh Khel, the more settled and civilized of the two, inhabit the lower hills bordering on Kohat and Bannu districts, and the ground lying on both sides of the Kurram river, between Thai on the north and the Tochi Valley on the south. The Mahsuds, who inhabit the tract of country lying between the Tochi Valley on the north and the Gomal river on the south, have earned for themselves an evil name as the most confirmed raiders on the border; but they are a plucky race, as active over the hills as the Afridis, and next to them the best-armed large tribe on the frontier. The Mahsud country, especially that part within reach of British posts, is more difficult even than Tirah. To the south and east it is girt by an intricate belt of uninhabited, generally waterless hills and ravines. To the north a zone of Darwesh Khel territory, not less than 20 m. hi width, hilly and difficult, separates the Mahsuds from the Tochi. The Tochi Valley is inhabited by a degraded Pathan tribe, known as Dauris, who have voluntarily placed themselves under British protection since 1895. In dealing with the Mahsuds it must be remembered that from Wana to Tank, from Tank to Bannu, and from Bannu to Datta Khel, or for a distance of over 200 m., British territory is open to Mahsud depredations. This length of frontier is equal to the whole Thal-Kohat-Pesha- war-Malakand line, covering the eight or ten tribes that took part in the frontier risings of 1897. So that the Mahsuds should really be compared with the whole of those ten tribes, and not with any single one. British expeditions were needed against various sections of the Waziris hi 1852, 1859, 1860, 1880, 1881, 1894, 1897 and 1902. The success of Sir Robert Sandeman in subduing the wild tribes of Baluchistan had led to a similar attempt to open up Waziristan to British civilization; but the Pathan is much more democratic and much less subject to the influence of his maliks than is the Baluchi to the authority of his chiefs; and the policy finally broke down in 1894, when the Waziris made a night attack upon the camp of the British Delimitation Com- mission at Wana. The Commission had been appointed to settle the boundary with the Afghans, and the Waziris regarded it as the final threat to their independence. The attack was delivered with such determination that the tribesmen penetrated into the centre of the camp, and it was only with the greatest difficulty that friend could be distinguished from foe. A large force of 11,000 British troops subsequently traversed the tribal country, destroyed then- towers and dictated terms, one of which was that the Tochi Valley should be occupied by British garrisons. But still there was trouble, which led to the Tochi expedition of 1897; and, in spite of the further lessons taught the Waziris in two expeditions in 1902, the attempt to " Sandemanise " Waziristan was given up by Lord Curzon. The British garrisons in the Tochi and Gomal valleys were withdrawn, and two corps of tribal militia, from 1300 to 1500 strong, were gradually formed to replace the British troops. See Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pashto, by J. G. Lorimer (Calcutta, 1902); Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884); Mahsud Waziri Operations (1902), Blue-book. WAZZAN, a small hillside town, 60 m. N.W. by N. of Fez, Morocco. It has a considerable trade with the country round, and manufactures a coarse white woollen cloth with rough surface from which the hooded cloaks (called jellabs) are made. Its proudest name is Dar D'manah — House of Safety — as it is sanctuary for any who gain its limits, on account of the tomb of a sainted Idrisi Sharif, who lived there in 1727. It is the head- quarters of his descendants. WEALD, THE, a district in the south-east of England. It includes the portions of Sussex, Kent and Surrey which are enclosed between the North and South Downs — a district of Lower Cretaceous rocks encircled by Upper Cretaceous hills. It extends from Frensham and Petersfield on the Hampshire borders to the English Channel between Folkestone and East- bourne. With the exception of the easternmost part, it drains by rivers running northward and southward through gaps in the Downs, the origin of which is considered under that heading. The Weald was formerly covered by the forest of Andredesleah or Andredsweald (" the wood or forest without habitations "), which was 120 m. in length and about 30 in greatest breadth. About 1660 the total area under forest was estimated at over 200,000 acres. The chief remains of the ancient forests are Ashdown, St Leonards and Tilgate, and the nomenclature often indicates the former extent of woodland, as in the case of Hurst- pierpoint (hurst meaning wood), Midhurst, Fernhurst, Billings- hurst, Ashurst and many others. The forests were interspersed with lagoons; and the rainfall being very great caused marshes, but it abated in consequence of the cutting down of the Wealden forests for fuel in the extensive ironworks that formerly existed in the district. The locality best preserving the ancient char- acter of the Weald is the hilly district in the centre, forming a WEALDEN— WEALTH 437 LUC S! picturesque broken range running east and west under the name of the Forest Ridges. This forms the main water-parting of the Weald, dividing the Vale of Sussex from the Vale of Kent; and was also the seat of the iron industry which was prosecuted by the Romans and probably earlier, reached its highest importance Jhe i6th and i7th centuries, and was maintained even till the y years of the igth century. The Andredesleah had an early orical interest as forming a physical barrier which kept the South Saxons isolated from other Saxon kingdoms. Descending from over sea upon the coastal district of Sussex, to which they gave name, towards the close of the 5th century, they populated it thickly, and maintained independence, in face of the accretions of the West Saxon kingdom, for upwards of a hundred years. WEALDEN, in geology, a thick series of estuarine and fresh- water deposits of Lower Cretaceous age, which derives its name from its development in the Weald of Kent and Sussex. In the type area it is exposed by the denudation of a broad anticlinal fold from which the higher Cretaceous beds have been removed. The Wealden rocks lie in the central part of this anticline between the escarpments of the North and South Downs; they extend eastwards from the neighbourhood of Haslemere and Klland Chapel to the west between Pevensey and Hythe. This forma- tion is divisible into two portions, the Weald Clay above and the Hastings Sands below. The Weald Clay which occupies the central, upland part of the area from Horsham to the sea coast consists of dark brown and blue clays and shales, occasionally mottled in the neighbourhood of sandy lenticles, which together with calcareous sandstones, shelly limestones and nodular iron- stones take a subordinate place in the series. About Horsham the Weald Clay is 1000 ft. thick, but it decreases in an eastward direction; at Tunbridge it is only 600 ft. Certain subordinate beds within the Weald Clay have received distinctive names. " Horsham stone " is a calcareous flaggy sandstone, often ripple marked, usually less than 5 ft. thick, which occurs at about 120 ft. above the base of the Clay. " Sussex marble " is the name given to more than one of the high limestone beds which are mainly composed of a large form of Paludina (P.fluviorum) ; some of the lower limestone layers contain a small species (P. sussexiensis). The Sussex marble (proper) occurs about 100 ft. below the top of the clays; it is the most important of the limestone bands, and its thickness varies from 6 ft. to 2 in.; it is known also as Bethersden marble, Petworth marble, Laughton stone, &c. It has been widely used in the Weald district in church architec- ture and for polished mantelpieces. The ironstones were formerly smelted in the western part of the area. The Hastings Sands are divisible into three main subdivisions: the Tunbridge Wells Sand, the Wadhurst Clay and the Ashdown Sand. Like the overlying Weald Clay this series thickens as a whole towards the west. In the west, the Tunbridge WeMs Sand is sepa- rated into an upper and lower division by the thickening of a bed of clay — the Grinstead Clay — which in the east, about Rye, &c., is quite thin; at Cuckfield a second clay bed IS ft. thick divides the upper division. The upper beds of the lower Tunbridge Wells Sand cause ;ood landscapes around West Hoathly and near East Grinstead. The Wadhurst Clay is very constant in character; near the base it frequently contains clay-ironstone, which in former times was the main source of supply for the Wealden iron industry. Much of the higher portion of the Hastings Sand country is made of the Ashdown Sands, consisting of sand, soft sandstones and subordinate clay bends ; in the east, however, clay is strongly developed at the base of this group, and at Fairlight is more than 360 ft. thick, while the sandy portion is only 150 ft. These clays with sandy layers are known as the Fairlight Clays. Beds of lignite are found in these beds, and a calcareous sandstone, called Tilgate stone, occurs near the top of the Ashdown Sands and in the Wadhurst Clay. The old town of Hastings is built on Ashdown Sand, but St Leonards is mainly on Tunbridge Wells Sand. _ Wealden beds occur on the southern side of the Isle of Wight and in the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire. The Wealden anticline can be traced across the Channel into the Bas Boulonnais. A separate Wealden area exists in north Germany between Brunswick and Bentheim, in the Ostervald and Teutoberger Wald, where the Deister Sandstone (150 ft.) corresponds to the Hastings Sands and the Wald :rthon (70-100 ft.) to the Weald Clay. The former contains valuable .:oal beds, worked in the neighbourhood of Obernkirchen, &c., and i. good building stone. The fossils of the Wealden beds comprise freshwater shellfish, Vnio, Patudina, Melanopsis, Cyrena; and estuarine and marine K'< T forms such as Ostrea, Exogyra and Mytttus. An interesting series of dinosaurs and pterodactyles has been obtained from the Wealden of England and the continent of Europe, of which Iguanodon is the best known — a large number of almost entire skeletons of this genus were discovered in some buried Cretaceous valleys at Bcrnissart in Belgium ; other forms are Hettrosuchus, Ornithocheirus, Ornithopsis, Cimoliosaurus and Titanosaurus. Among the plant remains are Chara, Bennettites, Equisitites, Fittonia, Sagenopteris and Thuiites. The fishes, plants and reptiles of these formations possess a decidedly Jurassic aspect, and for this reason several authorities are in favour of retaining the Wealden rocks in that system, and the close re- lationship between this formation and the underlying Purbeckian, both in England and in Germany, tends to support this view. See CRETACEOUS, NEOCOMIAN, PURBECKIAN; also W. Topley, " Geology of the Weald," Mem. Ceol. Survey (London, 1875). (J. A. H.) WEALTH, etymologically the condition of well-being, pros- perity in its widest sense. The word does not appear in Old English, but is a Middle English formation, welthe, on the O. Eng. wela, well-being, from wel, well, cognate with Dan. vel, Ger. wohl. The original meaning survives in the Prayer for the King's Majesty of the English Book of Common Prayer, " Grant him in health and wealth long to live," and in " commonwealth," i.e. good of the body politic, hence applied to the body politic itself. In economics, wealth is most commonly defined as consisting of all useful and agreeable things which possess exchange value, and this again is generally regarded as coextensive with all desirable things except those which do not involve labour or sacrifice for their acquisition in the quantity desired. On analysis it will be evident that this definition implies, directly, preliminary conceptions of utility and value, and, indirectly, of sacrifice and labour, and these terms, familiar though they may appear, are by no means simple and obvious in their meaning. Utility, for the purposes of economic reasoning, is usually held to mean the capacity to satisfy a desire or serve a purpose (J. S. Mill), and in this sense is clearly a much wider term than wealth. Sunshine and fresh air, good temper and pleasant manners, and all the infinite variety of means of gratification, material and immaterial, are covered by utility as thus defined. Wealth is thus a species of utility, and in order to separate it from other species some di/erentia must be found. This, according to the general definition, is exchange value, but a little reflection will show that in some cases it is necessary rather to contrast value with wealth. " Value," says Ricardo, expanding a thought of Adam Smith, " essentially differs from riches, for value depends not on abundance but on the difficulty or facility of production." According to the well-known tables ascribed to Gregory King (1648-1712), a deficiency of a small amount in the annual supply of corn will raise its value far more than in pro- portion; but it would be paradoxical to argue that this rise in value indicated an increase in an important item of national wealth. Again, as the mines of a country are exhausted and its natural resources otherwise impaired, a rise in the value of the remainder may take place, and as the free gifts of nature are appropriated they become valuable for exchange; but the country can hardly be said to be so much the wealthier in con- sequence. And these difficulties are rather increased than diminished if we substitute for value the more familiar concrete term " money-price " — for the contrast between the quantity of wealth and its nominal value becomes more sharply marked. Suppose, for example, that in the total money value of the national inventory a decline were observed to be in progress, whilst at the same time, as is quite possible, an increase was noticed in the quantity of all the important items and an improvement in their quality, it would be in accordance with common sense to say that the wealth of the country was in- creasing and not decreasing. So great are these difficulties that some economists (e.g. Ricardo) have proposed to take utility as the direct measure of wealth, and, as H. Sidgwick has pointed out, if double the quantity meant double the utility this would be an easy and natural procedure. But even to the same individual the increase in utility is by no means simply proportioned to the increase in quantity, and the utility of different commodities to different WEAPON— WEASEL individuals, and a fortiori of different amounts, is proverbial. The very same things may to the same individual be productive of more utility simply owing to a change in his tastes or habits, and a different distribution of the very same things, which make up the wealth of a nation, might indefinitely change the quantity of utility ; but it would be paradoxical to say that the wealth had increased because it was put to better uses. We thus seem thrown back on value as the essential characteristic, allowance being made for any change in the standard of value; but there are still difficulties to be overcome. Some things that undoubtedly possess value or that can command a price are immaterial, e.g. the advice of a lawyer or physician or the song of a prima donna, and, although perhaps the skill of a workman (in any grade of the social scale) might be considered as attached to the man, as a coal mine is attached to a place, it is more in accordance with popular usage to consider skill as immaterial, whilst at the same time it seems equally natural prima facie to confine the term wealth to material things in the common sense. Again, the credit system of a country is a product of great labour and sacrifice, it is most closely connected with the production of its material wealth in the narrowest sense, and it certainly commands a pecuniary value, and yet credit is more generally held to be a representative rather than a part of wealth, owing apparently to its insubstantial character. Apart from the question of materiality some writers have insisted on relative permanence and possibility of accumulation as essential attributes of wealth, and have thus still further narrowed the scope of the definition. There can be no doubt that it is on many grounds desirable in economics to use terms as far as possible in their popular acceptations; but this rule must always be subordinate to the primary object in view. In nearly every department of know- ledge in which popular terms have been retained it has been found necessary either constantly to use qualifying adjectives where the context is not a sufficient guide, and in some cases, when analysis discloses very different elements, to make a selection. Sometimes it has been found convenient to use a term with some variation in the definition according to the branch of the subject in hand.1 Applying these rules to the definition of wealth, perhaps the best solution is that which is generally connected with German economists (e.g. Adolf von Held). Wealth consists of utilities, and in the first great department of economics — the consumption of wealth — it is utility with which we are principally concerned— the idea of value, for example, being overshadowed. The most general law of the consumption of wealth is that successive portions of any stock give a diminishing amount of utility when consumed. Then in the department of the production of wealth the most important characteristics are the labour and sacrifice necessary to put the utilities desired into the things and to place the things where they are wanted. The idea of value is again secondary and subordinate. We can readily see the part played by nature, labour and capital re- spectively in the production of any commodity without con- sidering the effects on its value of the various factors; we can understand the principles of division of labour and of the relative productiveness of large and small industries without entering into questions of value except in the most general manner. In the department of the distribution of wealth the fundamental conception is the right of appropriation; and accordingly J. S. Mill very properly commences this part of his subject by an account of the relative advantages of the socialistic and individual systems of property. It is quite possible under the former to conceive of all the distribution being made without any exchange and with reference simply to the wants or the deserts of the members of the society. Thus it is not until we arrive at the department of the exchange of wealth that the characteristic of value becomes predominant, although of course value is closely connected with utility and labour and sacrifice. 1 On the uses and difficulties of definitions in political economy compare H. Sidgwick's Principles of Political Economy, bk. i. ch. ii., and J. N. Keynes's Scope and Method of Political Economy. Usually, however, it will be found that in most cases anything which can fairly be classed as wealth in one department is also wealth in the others, and thus the definition is reached that wealth in general consists of all " consumable utilities which require labour for their production and can be appropriated and exchanged." It only remains to add that " utilities " may be divided into " inner " and " outer " (to translate the German literally)— the " inner " being such as are simply sources of personal gratification to their possessor, e.g. a good ear for music; the " outer " utilities again may be divided into " free " and " economic," the former, as a rule, e.g. sunlight, not being the result of labour and not capable of appropriation or exchange, and the latter as a rule possessing each of these marks. It is these " economic utilities " which constitute wealth in the specific sense of the term, although its use may be extended by analogy to include almost all utilities. See A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (1907) ; J. B. Clark, Philosophy of Wealth (1886) and Distribution of Wealth (1899); W. E. Hearn, Plutology (1864); F. A. Walker, Political Economy (1888); and J. S. Nicholson, Principles of Political Economy WEAPON (O. Eng. w&pen, cf. Du. wapen, Ger. Wappe, also Wappen, a coat of arms, heraldic shield), any instrument of offence or defence, more usually a term confined to offensive or attacking instruments. The general sketch of the history and development of weapons of offence and defence is given under ARMS AND ARMOUR; particular weapons are treated under such heads as HALBERD, LANCE, SPEAR, SWORD, GUN, PISTOL, RIFLE, ORDNANCE AND MACHINE-GUNS. WEAR, a river of Durham, England, rising in the Pennine chain near the Cumberland border, and traversing a valley about 60 m. in length to the North Sea, with a drainage area of 458 sq. m. A series of streams draining from the hills between Killhope Law and Burnhope Seat (2452 ft.) are collected at Wearhead, up to which point the valley is traversed by a branc of the North-Eastern railway. Hence eastward, past the small towns of St John's Chapel and Stanhope, and as far as that of Wolsingham, Weardale is narrow and picturesque, sharply aligned by high-lying moorland. Below, it takes a south-easterly bend as far as Bishop Auckland, then turns northward and north- eastward, the course of the river becoming extremely sinuous. The scenery is particularly fine where the river sweeps round the bold peninsula which bears the cathedral and castle of the city of Durham. The valley line continues northerly until Chester- le-Street is passed, then it turns north-east; and soon the river becomes navigable, carrying a great traffic in coal, and having its banks lined with factories. At the mouth is the large seaport of Sunderland. WEASEL (Putorius nivalis), the smallest European species of the group of mammals of which the polecat and stoat are well-known members (see CARNIVORA). The weasel is an elegant little animal, with elongated slender body, back much arched, head small and flattened, ears short and rounded, neck long and flexible, limbs short, five toes on each foot, all with sharp, com- pressed, curved claws, tail rather short, slender, cylindrical, and pointed at the tip, and fur short and close. The upper-parts, out- side of limbs and tail, are uniform reddish brown, the under-parts white. In cold regions the weasel turns white in winter, but less regularly and only at a lower temperature than the stoat or ermine, from which it is distinguished by its smaller size and the absence of the black tail-tip. The length of the head and body of the male is usually about 8 in., that of the tail 2\ in.; the female is smaller. The weasel is generally distributed through- out Europe and Northern and Central Asia; and is represented by a closely allied animal in North America. It possesses all the active, courageous and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest of the genus, but its diminutive size prevents it attac'iing and destroying any but the smaller mammals and birds. Mice, rats, water-rats and moles, as well as frogs, constitute its principal food. It is generally found on or near the surface of the ground, but it can not only pursue its prey through holes and crevices of rocks and under dense tangled herbage, but follow it up the ! WEATHER— WEAVER-BIRD 439 stems and branches of trees, or even into the water, swimming with perfect ease. It constructs a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the ground or a bank or hollow tree, The Weasel (Putorius nivalis). in which it brings up its litter of four to six (usually five) young ones. The mother will defend her young with the utmost despera- tion against any assailant, and has been known to sacrifice her own life rather than desert them. (R. L.*) WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. iieir, Icel. vedr, and Ger. Welter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind "), the condition of the atmosphere in regard to its temperature, presence or absence of wind or cloud, its dry- ness or humidity, and all the various meteorological phenomena (see METEOROLOGY). The term " weathering " is used in geology of the gradual action of the weather upon rocks, and is also applied, in architecture, to the inclination or slope outwards given to cornices, string courses and window sills, to throw off the rain. WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833- ), American lawyer and political leader, was born at Dayton, Ohio, on the izth of June 1833. He studied law at Cincinnati, Ohio, and served on the Federal side in the Civil War, becoming colonel in November 1862; he was mustered out in May 1864, and in March 1865 was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was district- attorney for the second Judicial District of Iowa in 1866-1870 and an assessor of internal revenue in Iowa in 1863-1873; and was a representative in Congress in 1870-1881 and in 1885-1889, being elected by a Greenback-Democratic fusion. In 1880 he was the candidate of the Greenback party for president and received a popular vote of 308,578; and in 1892 he was the candidate of the People's party, and received 22 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,041,021. WEAVER-BIRD, the name1 by which a group of between 200 and 300 species are now usually called, from the elaborately interwoven nests that many of them build, some of the structures being of the most marvellous kind. By the older systematists such of these birds as were then known were distributed among the genera Oriolus, Loxia, Emberiza and Fringilla; and it. was G. L. Cuvier who in 1817 first brought together these dissevered forms, comprising them in a genus Ploceus. Since his time others have been referred to its neighbourhood, and especially 1 First bestowed in this form apparently by : entwining of the cage in which it was kept with such vegetable fibres as it could r, and hence in 1788 Gmelin named it Oriolus textor. In 1800 M. Daudin used the term " Tisserin " for several species of the Linnaean genus Loxia, and this was adopted* some years later by Cuvier as the equivalent of his Ploceus, as mentioned in the text. the genus Vidua with its allies, so as to make of them a sub- family Ploceinae, which in 1847 was raised by J. Cabanis to the rank of a family Ploceidae — a step the propriety of which has since been generally admitted, though the grounds for taking it are such as could not be held valid in any other order than that of Passeres. The Ploceidae are closely related to the FnngUlidae (see FINCH), and are now divided into two sub- families, the Ploceinae and Viduinae, the former chiefly found in Africa and its islands, the latter in the Ethiopian, Australian and Indian regions. Perhaps the most typical Ploceine weaver-bird is Hyphant- ornis cucullata, an African species, and it is to the Ethiopian Region that by far the greatest number of these birds belong, and in it they seem to attain their maximum of development. They are all small, with, generally speaking, a sparrow-like build; but in richness of colouring the males of some are very conspicuous — glowing in crimson, scarlet or golden-yellow, set off by jet- black, while the females are usually dull in hue. Some species build nests that are not very remarkable, except in being almost invariably domed — others (such as the most typical Indian weaver-bird, Ploceus baya) fabricate singular structures2 of closely and uniformly interwoven tendrils or fine roots, that often hang from the bough of a tree over water, and, starting with a solidly wrought rope, open out into a globular chamber, and then contract into a tube several inches in length, through which the birds effect their exit and entrance. But the most wonderful nests of all, and indeed the most wonderful built by birds, are those of the so-called sociable grosbeak, Philhetaerus socius, of Africa. These are composed wholly of grass, and are joined together to the number of 100 or 200 — indeed 320 are said to have been found in one of these aggregated masses, which usually take the form of a gigantic mushroom,* affording a home and nursery to many pairs of the birds which have been at the trouble of building it. These nests, however, have been so often described and figured by South African travellers that there is no need here to dilate longer on their marvels. It may be added that this species of weaver-bird, known to French writers as the RepuUicain, is of exceptionally dull plumage. The group of widow-birds,4 Viduinae, is remarkable for the extraordinary growth of the tail-feathers in the males at the breeding-season. In the largest species, Vidua (sometimes called Chera) progne, the cock-bird, which, with the exception of a scarlet and buff bar on the upper wing-coverts, is wholly black, there is simply a great elongation of the rectrices; but in V. paradisea the form of the tail is quite unique. The middle pair of feathers have the webs greatly widened, and through the twisting of the shafts their inferior surfaces are vertically opposed. These feathers are comparatively short, and end in a hair-like filament. The next pair are produced to the length of about a foot — the bird not being so big as a sparrow — and droop gracefully in the form of « sickle. But this is not all: each has attached to its base a hair-like filament of the same length as the feather, and this filament originally adhered to and ran along the margin of the outer web, only becoming detached when the feather is full grown.6 In another species, V. principalis, the middle two pairs of rectrices are equally elongated, but their webs are convex, and the outer pair contains the inner, so that when the margins of the two pairs are applied 1 These differ from those built by some of the ORIOLES (q.v.) and other birds, whose nests may be compared to pensile pocket's, while those of these weaver-birds can best be likened to a stocking hung up by the " toe," with the " heel " enlarged to receive the eggs, while access and exit are obtained through the " leg." * But at a distance they may often be mistaken for a native hut, with its grass-roof. 4 It has been ingeniously suggested that this name should be more correctly written Whydah bird — from the place on the West Coast of Africa so named; but Edwards, who in 1745 figured one of the species, states that he was informed that " the Portuguese call this bird the widow, from its colour and long train" (Nat. Hist. Birds, i. p. 86). ' This curious structure was long ago described by Brisson (Orni- thologie, iii. p. 123), and more recently by Strickland (Contr. Orni- thology (1850), pp. 88 and 149, pi. 59). 440 WEAVING a sort of cylinder is formed.1 The females of all the widow-birds differ greatly in appearance from the males, and are generally clothed in a plumage of mottled brown. Usually classed with the weaver-birds is a vast group of small seed-eating forms, often called Spermestinae, but for which Estreldinae would seem to be a more fitting name. These comprehend the numerous species so commonly seen in cages, and known as ama- davats, Estrelda amandava, nutmeg-birds, Munia punctularia, wax- bills, Pytelia melba and phoenicoptera, cutthroats, Amadina fasciata, the Java sparrow, Munia oryzivora and many others. Many of these genera are common to Africa and India, and some also to Australia. (A. N.) WEAVING. The process of weaving consists in interlacing, at right angles, two or more series of flexible materials, of which the longitudinal are called warp and the transverse weft. Weaving, therefore, only embraces one section of the textile industry, for felted, plaited, netted, hosiery and lace fabrics lie outside this definition. Felting consists in bringing masses of loose fibres, such as wool and hair, under the combined influences of heat, moisture and friction, when they become firmly inter- locked in every direction. Plaited fabrics have only one series of threads interlaced, and those at other than right angles. In nets all threads are held in their appointed places by knots, which are tied wherever one thread intersects another. Hosiery fabrics, whether made from one or many threads, are held together by intersecting a series of loops; while lace fabrics are formed by passing one set of threads between and round small groups of a second set of threads, instead of moving them from side to side. Notwithstanding the foregoing limitations, woven fabrics are varied in texture and have an enormous range of application. The demands made by prehistoric man for fabrics designed for clothing and shelter were few and simple, and these were fashioned by interlacing strips of fibrous material and grasses, which in their natural condition were long enough for the purpose in hand. But, as he passed from a state of savagery into a civilized being, his needs developed with his culture, and those needs are still extending. It no longer suffices to minister to individual necessities; luxury, commerce and numerous industries must also be considered. The invention of spinning (q.v.) gave a great impetus to the introduction of varied effects previously; the use of multicoloured threads provided ornament for simple structures, but the demand for variety extended far beyond the limits of colour, and different materials were employed either separately or conjointly, together with different schemes of interlacing. Eventually the weaver was called upon to furnish articles possessing lustre, softness and delicacy; or those that combine strength and durability with diverse colourings, with a snowy whiteness, or with elaborate ornamentation. In cold countries a demand arose for warm clothing, and in hot ones for cooler materials; while commerce and industry have requisitioned fabrics that vary from normal characteristics to those that exceed an inch in thickness. In order to meet these and other requirements the world has been searched for suitable raw materials. From the animal kingdom, wool, hair, fur, feathers, silk and the pinna fibre have long been procured. From the vegetable kingdom, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, ramie and a host of other less known but almost equally valuable materials are derived. Amongst minerals there are gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, glass and asbestos. In addition, strips of paper, or skin, in the plain, gilt, silvered and painted con- ditions are available as well as artificial fibres. All of the fore- going may be used alone or in combination. From such varied raw materials it is not surprising that woven fabrics should present an almost endless variety of effects; yet these differences are only in part due to the method of weaving. The processes of bleaching (q.v.), mercerizing (q.v.), dyeing (q.v.), printing (see TEXTILE PRINTING) and finishing (q.v.) contribute almost as much to the character and effect of the resultant product as do the incorporation in one fabric of threads spun in different ways, and from fibres of different origin, with paper, metal, beads or even precious stones. 1 Both these species seem to have been first described and figured in 1600 by Aldrovandus (lib. xv. cap. 22, 23) from pictures sent to him by Ferdinando de' Medici, duke of Tuscany. INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY All weaving schemes are reducible to a few elementary principles, but no attempted classification has been quite successful, for fabrics are constantly met with that possess characteristics supposed to be peculiar to one class, but lack others which are deemed equally typical. Nevertheless, since some classification is essential, the following will be adopted, namely: Group i, to include all fabrics made from one warp and one weft, provided both sets of threads remain parallel in the finished article and are intersected to give the requisite feel and appearance. Group 2, to include (a) fabrics constructed from two warps and one weft, or two wefts and one warp, as in those that are backed, reversible and figured with extra material; (b) two or more distinct fabrics built simultaneously from two or more warps and wefts, as in two, three and other ply cloths; (c) fabrics built by so intersecting two or more warps and wefts that only one texture results, as in loom-made tapestries and figured repps. Group 3, to include fabrics in which a portion of the weft or warp rises vertically from the ground- work of a finished piece, as in velveteens, velvets, plushes and piled carpets. Groups 4, to embrace all fabrics in which one portion of the warp is twisted partially, or wholly, round another portion, as in gauzes and lappet cloths. Although some fabrics do not appear to fall into any of the above divisions, and in others the essential features of two or more groups are combined, yet the grouping enumerated above is sufficiently inclusive for most purposes. The fabrics included in Group I are affected by the nature and closeness of the yarns employed in their construction, by colour, or by the scheme of intersecting the threads. The most important section of this group is Plain Cloth, in which the warp and weft threads are approximately equal in thickness and closeness, and pass over and under each other alternately, as in fig. i, which shows a design, plan and two sections of plain cloth. Such a fabric would, therefore, appear to admit of but slight ornamentation, yet this is by no means the case, for if thick and thin threads of warp and weft alternate, the resultant fabric may be made to assume a corrugated appearance on the face, while beneath it remains flat, as in popiins, repps and cords. A plan and a longitudinal section of a repp cloth is shown at fig. 2. Colour may also be employed to ornament plain fabrics, and its simplest application produces stripes and checks. But colour may convert these fabrics into the most artistic and costly productions of the loom, as is the case with tapestries, which FIG. I.— Plain Cloth. Repp Cloth. are at once the oldest and most widely diffused of ornamented textiles. Tapestries only differ from simple plain cloth in having each horizontal line of weft made up of numerous short lengths of parti-coloured thread. Many fine specimens of this art have been recovered from ancient Egyptian and Peruvian tombs, and many are still produced in the Gobelins and other celebrated manufactories of Europe. Twills are next in importance to plain cloth on account of their wide range of application and great variety of effects; in elabor- ately figured goods their use is as extensive as where they provide the only ornament. Twills invariably form diagonal ribs in fabrics, and these are due to the intervals at which the warp and weft are intersected ; thus two or more warp threads are passed over or under one or more than one weft thread in regular succession. Twills are said to be equal when similar quantities of warp and weft are upon the face of a fabric, unequal when one set of threads greatly pre- ponderates over the other set, as in figs. 3, 4, which require four warp and weft threads to complete the scheme of intersections. If the ribs form angles of 45 degrees, the warp and weft threads per inch are about equal in number, but for an unequal twill the material most in evidence should be closest and finest. The angle formed may be greater or less than 45 degrees, as in figs. 5, 6; if greater, the warp preponderates, if less, the weft preponderates. Twills are simple and fancy; both terms refer to the schemes of intersecting. In the INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY] WEAVING 441 former the same number of warp threads are placed successively above or below each weft thread, and the ribs are of uniform width, as in figs. 3, 4. In the latter more warp threads may be above one p,G. 3- — Four-thread J Twill. FIG. 4.— Four-thread J Twill. ck than another, the ribs may vary in width and small ornament •ay be introduced between the ribs, as in figs. 5, 6 and 7, where the ark squares represent warp upon the surface. Twills may _ be oken up into zigzags, lozenges, squares and other geometrical aesigns; all of which may be produced by reversings in the diagonal lines, or by reversing the weave of an unequal twill. Fig. 8 is a -gzag, namely, a twill reversed in one direction. Fig. 9 is a diamond, FIG. 5— Upright Twill. FIG. 6. — Reclining Twill. or a twill reversed in two directions, and fig. 10 is a diaper, or an unequal twill which gives a warp face in one place and a weft face ' i another. Satins and satteens form another important section of 3roup i. In a satin the bulk of the warp, and in a satteen the bulk f the weft, is on the face of a fabric. If perfect in construction both sent a smooth, patternless appearance, which is due in part to scheme of intersections, in part to using fine material for the FIG. 7.— Fancy Twill. FIG. 8. — Zigzag. surface threads and placing it close enough together to render 'the points of intersection invisible; the threads of the other set being coarser and lewer in number. Satins differ from twills in having each warp thread lifted, or depressed, separately, but not successively. From five to upwards of thirty threads of warp and weft are required to complete the various schemes of intersecting. If the intervals between the intersections are equal the weave is said to be perfect, IJ!!IJZZIZI1ZZIIIJ-X FIG. 9. — Diamond. FIG. 10. — Diaper. as in fig. 1 1 , but if the intervals are irregular it is said to be imperfect, as in fig. 12. In Damasks a satin is combined with a satteen weave, and since any desired size and shape of either weave may be pro- duced, great facilities are offered for the development of all kinds of ornamentation. But in combination neither the satin nor the satteen can be perfect in construction, for one requires a preponder- ance of warp, the other a preponderance of weft; as a sequence every point of intersection is distinctly visible on both surfaces. Brocades are fabrics in which both sets of threads may be floated irregularly upon the surface to produce ornamental effects, and they may be taken as typical of all one warp and one weft fabrics that are figured by irregularly floated materials, whether the threads, are uniformly or irregularly distributed, and whether one weave or several weaves be employed. Group 2 includes all backed and reversible fabrics, as well as those ornamented with extra material and compounded. Cloths intended for men's wear are often backed, the object of which is to give weight and bulk to a thin texture without interfering with the FIG. II. — Five-thread Satteen. FIG. 12. — Six-thread Satteen. face effects. Either warp or weft may be used as backing; if the former there are two series of warp to one series of weft threads, while in the latter there are two series of weft to one series of warp threads. The face material is superposed upon that of the back, but the ratio of face threads may be one or two to one of back. In order to avoid disturbing the face weave, only those threads are used to bind the backing that are hidden on the face, as in fig. 13, which gives the design and a transverse section of a backed fabric; A is face weft; B back weft, and the circles are warp threads; of the latter C, D, are beneath both B and A. This diagram will serve equally as a longitudinal section of a warp-backed fabric, if A represents a thread of face warp, B a thread of back warp and the circles are weft threads. Weft backing is capable of giving a more spongy feel to a fabric than warp, because softer materials may be used, but in these fabrics the length output of loom is reduced by reason of the wefts being superposed. Warp-backed fabrics, whether uniformly coloured or striped, do not materially reduce the output of a loom, for every weft thread adds to the cloth length. Reversible fabrics may have either two series of differently coloured wefts or warps to one of the other series, in which event they may be similarly figured on both sides by causing the threads of the double series to change places, as in the design and transverse section, fig. 14; or, by allowing one series to remain con- stantly above the other, as in backed cloths, both sides may be similar or dis- similar in colour and pattern. Fabrics figured with extra material may have two ,-„ ,,T ,. , series of warp or weft threads to one FlG- 13~ Weft-backed series of the other set, and they may yield Fabric. reversible or one-sided cloths. A ground texture may have extra material placed above or below it, as in fig. 15, where a design and transverse section of the cloth are given; the waved lines and circles represent a cross-section of plain cloth and A is a thread of extra material; or ordinary and extra material may be used con- jointly for figuring. Compound cloths must have at least two textures, and be as distinct in character as if woven in separate looms; they have many advantages over backed cloths, thus: the same design and colouring may be produced on both sides ; where bulk and weight are required a fine surface texture may be formed over a ground of inferior material, and soft weft be passed between the upper and lower textures. The fabric is more perfect and admits of either simple or elaborate patterns being wrought upon the surface, with simple ones beneath, as in piques and matelasscs. One texture may be constantly above the other and connected at the selvages only, as in hose pipes and pillow slips; or at intervals a thread may pass from one texture into the other, in which event both are united, as in many styles of bed-covers and vestings. If differently coloured, FIG. 14. — Weft Reversible Fabric. FIG. 15. — Figuring with Extra Weft. the textures may change places at pleasure, as in Kidderminster carpets; or, from three to twelve textures may be woven simultane- ously, and united, as in belting cloth. There may be from one to three threads of face warp to one of back, and the wefting may or may not correspond with the warping. Fig. 16 shows the face and 442 WEAVING [INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY FIG. 16. — Compound Fabric. FIG. 17. — Tapestry with Two Warps and Two Wefts. back weaves, the design, and a transverse section of a compound cloth with two threads of face warp and weft to one of back, and both are stitched together. The circles in the upper and lower lines represent face and back warps respectively, and A, B, C are weft threads placed in the upper and lower textures. Loom-made tapestries and figured repps form another section of Group 2. As compared with true tapestries, the loom-made articles have more limited colour schemes, and their figured effects may be obtained from warp as well as weft, whether interlaced to form a plain face, or left floating more or less loosely. Every weft thread, in passing from selvage to selvage, is taken to the surface where required, the other portions being bound at the back. Some specimens are reversible, others are one- sided, but, however numerous the warps and wefts, only one texture is produced. When an extra warp of fine material is used to bind the wefts firmly together a plain or twill weave shows on both sides. If a single warp is employed, two or more wefts form the figure, and the warp seldom floats upon the surface. Where warps do assist to form figure it rarely happens that more than three can be used without overcrowding the reed. Fig. 1 7 gives the design, and a transverse section of a reversible tapestry in four colours, two of which are warps and two wefts. If either warp or weft is on the surface, corresponding threads are be- neath. The bent lines represent weft and the circles warp. Figured repps differ from plain ones in having threads of one, or more than one, thick warp floated over thick and thin weft alike; or, in having several differently coloured warps from which a fixed number of threads are lifted over each thick weft thread; the face of the texture is then uniform, and the figure is due to colour. Group 3. Piled Fabrics. — In all methods of weaving hitherto dealt with the warp and weft threads have been laid in longitudinal and transverse parallel lines. In piled fabrics, however, portions of the weft or warp assume a vertical position. If the former there are two series of weft threads, one being intersected with the warp to form a firm ground texture, the other being bound into the ground at regular intervals, as in the design and transverse section of a velveteen, fig. 18; the circles and waved lines form plain cloth, and the loose thread A is a pile pick. After leaving the loom all threads A are cut by push- ing a knife lengthwise between the plain cloth and the pile. As each pick is severed both pieces rise vertically and the fibres open out as at B. Since the pile threads are from two to six times as numerous as those of the ground, and rise FIG. 18. — Velveteen. from an immense number of places, a uni- form brush-like surface is formed. Raised figures are produced by carrying the threads A beneath the ground cloth, where no figure is required, so that the knife shall only cut those portions of the pile weft that remain on the surface. The effect upon the face varies with the distribution of the binding points, and the length of pile is determined by the distance separating one point from another. Chenille. — When chenille is used in the construction of figured weft-pile fabrics? it is necessary to employ two weaving operations, namely, one to furnish the chenille, the other to place it in the final fabric. Chenille is made from groups of warp threads that are separated from each other by considerable intervals; then, multi- coloured wefts are passed from side to side in accordance with a predetermined scheme. This fabric is next cut midway between the groups of warp into longitudinal strips, and, if reversible fabrics such as table-covers and curtains are required, each strip is twisted axially until the protruding ends of weft radiate from the core of warp, and form a cylinder of pile. In the second weaving this chenille is folded backward and forward in a second warp to lay the colours in their appointed places and pile projects on both sides of the fabric. If chenille is intended for carpets, the ends of pile weft are bent in one direction, and then woven into the upper surface of a strong ground texture. Warp-piled Fabrics have at least two series of warp threads to one of weft, and are more varied in structure than weft-piled fabrics, because they may be either plain or figured, and have their surfaces cut, looped or both. Velvets and Plushes are woven single and double. In the former case both ground and pile warps are intersected with the weft, but at intervals of two or three picks the pile threads are lifted over a wire, which is subsequently withdrawn; if the wire is furnished with a knife at its outer extremity, in withdrawing it the pile threads are cut, but if the wire is pointed a line of loops remains, as in terry velvet. Fig. 19 is the design, and two longitudinal sections of a Utrecht velvet. The circles at A are weft threads, and the bent line is a pile thread, part of which is shown cut, another part being looped over a wire. At B the circles are repeated to show how tl ground warp intersects the weft. Double Plushes consist of two distinct ground textures which a kept far enough apart to ensure the requisite length of pile. As weaving proceeds the pile threads are interlaced with each series of weft threads, and passed from one to the other. The uniting pile material is next severed midway between the upper and lower textures, and two equal fabrics result. Fig. 20 gives three longi- FIG. 19. — Utrecht Velvet. FIG. 20.— Double Plush. tudinal sections of a double pile fabric. The circles A, B are weft threads in the upper and lower fabrics respectively; the lines that interlace with these wefts are pile warp threads which pass vertically from one fabric to the other. At C, D the circles are repeated to show how the ground warps intersect the wefts, and at E the arrows indicate the cutting point. Figured Warp-pile Fabrics are made with regular and irregular cut and looped surfaces. If regular, the effect is due to colour, and this again may be accomplished in various ways, such as (a) by knotting tufts of coloured threads upon a warp, as in Eastern carpets; (b) by printing a fabric after it leaves the loom ; (c) by printing each pile thread before placing it in a loom, so that a pattern shall be formed simultaneously with a pile surface, as in tapestry carpets; (d) by providing several sets of pile threads, no two of which are similar in colour; then, if five sets are available, one-fifth of all the pile warp must be lifted over each wire, but any one of five colours may be selected at any place, as in Brussels and Wilton carpets. Fig. 21 is the design, and a longitudinal section of a Brussels carpet. The circles represent two tiers of weft, and the lines of pile threads, when not lifted over a wire to form loops, are laid between the wefts; the ground warp interlaces with the weft to bind the whole together. When the surface of a piled fabric is irregular, also when cut and looped pile are used in combination, design is no longer dependent upon colour, for in the FIG. 21. — Brussels Carpet, former case pile threads are only lifted over wires where required, at other places a flat texture is formed. In the latter case the entire surface of a fabric is covered with pile, but if the figure is cut and the ground looped the pattern will be distinct. Group 4. Crossed Weaving. — This group includes all fabrics in which the warp threads intertwist amongst themselves to give intermediate effects between ordinary weaving and lace, gauzes. Also those in which some warp threads are laid trans- versely in a piece to imitate embroidery, as in lappets. Plain Gauze embodies the principles that underlie the construction of all crossed woven textiles. In these fabrics the twisting of two warp threads together leaves large interstices between both warp and weft. But although light and open in texture, gauze fabrics are the firmest that can be made from a given quantity and quality of material. One warp thread from each pair is made to cross the other at every pick, to the right and to the left alternately, therefore the same threads are above every pick, but since in crossing from side to FIG. 22. — Plain Gauze. side they pass below the remaining threads, all are bound securely together, as in fig. 22, where A is a longitudinal section and B a plan of gauze. Lena is a muslin composed of an odd number of picks of a plain weave followed by one pick of gauze. In texture it is heavier than gauze, and the cracks are farther apart transversely. Fancy Gauze may be made in many ways, such as (a) by using crossing threads that differ in colour or count from the remaining threads, provided they are subjected to slight tensile strain; (b) by causing some to twist to the right, others to the left simultane- ously; (c) by combining gauze with another weave, as plain, twill, satin, brocade or pile; (a) by varying the number of threads that cross, and by causing those threads to entwine several ordinary threads; (e) by passing two or more weft threads into each crossing, and operating any assortment of crossing threads at pleasure. MACHINERY] WEAVING 443 Lappet weaving consists in diapering the surface of a plain or gauze fabric with simple figures. This is done by drawing certain warp threads into a transverse position and then lifting them over a thread of weft to fix them in the texture; after which they are moved in the opposite direc- tion and lifted over the following pick. The material between one binding point and another must float loosely, and this limits the usefulness of lappet figuring. In fig- 23i the thick lines show a lappet spot upon a plain texture. Notwithstanding diverse struc- ture, intricate mechanisms are t ir,K not essential to the production of IG. 23.— Lappet Fabnc. ekher s{mple or com£lex textures ; the most elaborate and beautiful specimens of the weaver's art have been manufactured upon simple machinery. Weaving Machinery. The longitudinal threads of a fabric are called warp, caine, twist and organzine, and the transverse threads are weft, shoot, woof, filling and tram. A loom for intersecting these several threads must provide for: (i) Shedding; namely, raising and lowering the warp threads in a predetermined sequence so as to form two lines between which the weft may be passed. (2) Picking, or placing lines of weft between the divided warp. (3) Beating-up, or striking each weft thread into its appointed position in the fabric. (4) Letting-off , or holding the warp tense and delivering it as weaving proceeds. (5) Taking-up, or drawing away the cloth as manufactured. (6) Temples, for stretching the fabric widthwise in order to prevent the edge threads of a warp from injuring the reed, and from breaking. Power looms require the above-named contrivances to act automatically, and in addition: (7) A weft -fork, to stop a loom when the weft becomes exhausted or breaks. (8) Mechanism for stopping a loom when the shuttle fails to reach its appointed box. (9) For weaving cross stripes, multiple shuttle boxes are needed to bring different colours, or counts of weft, into use at the pioper time. (10) In some looms a device for automatically ejecting a spent cop, pirn or shuttle, and inserting a full one, is requisite, (n) If a weaver has to attend to a greater number of looms than usual, a device for stopping a loom when a warp thread fails is essential. The Hand-Loom. — During the iyth and the first half of the i8th centuries it was observed that wherever any branch of the textile industry had been carried to a high state of excellence the looms FIG. 24. — Diagram of Hand-Loom. used to manufacture a given fabric were similar in essentials, although in structural details they differed greatly. Prior to the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay, in 1733, no far-reaching invention had for generations been applied to the hand-loom, and subsequently the Jacquard machine and multiple shuttle boxes represent the chief changes. A hand-loom as used in Europe at the present time (see fig. 24) has the warp coiled evenly upon a beam whose gudgeons are laid in open steps formed in the loom framing. Two ropes are coiled round this beam, and weighted to prevent the warp from being given off too freely. From the beam the threads pass alter- nately over and under two lease rods, then separately through the eyes of the shedding harness, in pairs between the dents of a reed, and finally they are attached to a cloth roller. For small patterns healdt and loose reed stop motions. The first was invented in 1796 by Robert Miller, and its action depends upon the shuttle, as it is a box, raising two blades, K, which if left down would strike against stops, and so disengage the driving gear. The second was invented in 1834 by VV. H. Hornby and William Kenworthy; it is an appliance for liberating the lower part of a reed when a shuttle remains in the warp, thus relieving it, for the time being, of its function of beating up the weft. On the release of a reed from the motion of the slay, a dagger stops the loom. Temples must keep a fabric distended to the breadth of the warp in the reed, and be self- adjusting. This is usually accomplished by small rollers whose surfaces are covered with fine, closely set points. The rollers are pl.n-fd near the selvages of a web which is prevented from contracting xv it It h wise by being drawn tightly over the points. Looms are varied in details to suit different kinds of work, but as a rule fabrics figured with small patterns are provided with healds for shedding as at L, while those with large patterns are provided with the Jacquard and its harness. Healds may be operated either by tappets or dobbies, but the range of usefulness in tappets is generally reached with twelve shafts of healds and with patterns having sixteen picks to a repeat; where they are unsuitable for licakl shedding a dobby is used. A dobby may resemble, in con- struction and action, a small Jacquard; if so the selection of healds that rise and fall for any pick is made by cards. In other types of dobbies the selection is frequently made by lags, into which pegs are inserted to pattern in the same manner that cards are perforated. By acting upon levers the pegs bring corresponding hooks into contact with oscillating griffe bars, and these lift the required heald shafts. Such machines are made single and double acting, and some have rollers in place of pegs to form a pattern. When multiple shuttles are required for power looms one of two types is selected, namely, drop or rotating boxes; the former are applicable to either light or heavy looms, but the latter are chiefly confined to light looms. As previously stated, Robert Kay invented drop boxes in 1760, but they were not successfully applied to the power loom until 1845, when Squire Diggle patented a simple device for operating them automatically. Since his time many other methods have been introduced, the most successful of these being operated indirectly from the shedding motion. Revolving boxes v/ere patented in 1843 by Luke Smith. They consist in mounting a series of shuttles in chambers formed in the periphery of a cylinder, and in moving the cylinder far enough, in each direction, to bring the required shuttle in line with the picker. Automatic Weft Supply. — Many devices have been added to power looms with a view to reduce stoppages, amongst which those for the automatic supply of weft are probably the most important. These efforts originated with Charles Parker, who, in 1840, obtained the first patent, but no marked success was achieved until 1894, when J. ri. Northrop patented a cop changer. By his plan a cylindrical hopper, placed over one shuttle box, is charged with cops or pirns. At the instant fresh weft becomes necessary the lowest cop in the hopper is pressed into a shuttle from above, the spent one is pressed out from beneath, and the new weft is led into the shuttle eye, while the loom is moving at its normal speed. The mechanism is controlled by the weft fork, or by a feeler which acts when only a predetermined quantity of weft remains inside a shuttle. Many inventions are designed to eject an empty shuttle and intro- duce a full one; others change a cop, but differ in construction and action from the Northrop, yet, at the time of writing, they have not been so successful as the last-named. By relieving a weaver of the labour of withdrawing, filling, threading and inserting shuttles it w.i- si-en that a large increase might be made in the number of looms allotted to one weaver, provided suitable mechanism could be devised for stopping a loom on the failure of a warp thread. Warp Stopping Motions date from 1786, when Dr Cartwright siis|K'iulcd an independent detector from each warp thread until a fracture occurred, at which time a detector fell into the path of a vibrator and the loom was arrested. The demand for warp stop motions was, however, small until automatic weft supply mechanisms were adopted. The majority of those devices now in use are con- structed upon Dr Cartwright's lines, but some are so attached to wire healds that, at one position in every shed, an unbroken thread supports both hcald and detector until a thread fails, when a de- tector is engaged by a vibrator, and the driving mechanism is dis- located. In other warp stop motions pairs of threads are crossed between the lease rods, and a wire passed between them is held forward by the crossed threads until one breaks; the wire then springs back, makes contact with a metal bar, and electro-mechanical connexions stop the loom. Smallware Looms. — _A loom, which was for a long period operated manually, but to which mechanical power could be applied, was brought into use more than a century before Dr Cartwright's in- vention. It was known as the Dutch engine loom, and was designed to weave from eight to upwards of forty tapes or ribbons simultane- ously. This machine may be regarded as a series of looms mounted in one frame, each having a complete set of parts, and as the first practical effort to connect and control all the motions of weaving from one centre. The place and date of its invention are uncertain ; but it is known that in some districts its use was entirely prohibited, in others it was strictly limited, and that it was worked in Holland about 1620. In England the first patent was obtained by John Kay and John Snell, in 1745, for additions which enabled it to be worked by hand, by water, or other force, and in 1760 John Snell appears to have added the draw harness for weaving flowered ribbons. In 1765 a factory in Manchester was filled with ribbon looms which were either invented by M. Vaucanson, or Kay and Snell, but one weaver could only attend to one machine. When worked by hand it was known as the bar loom, because the weaver oscillated by hand a horizontal bar that set in motion all parts of the machine. The shuttles and reeds are actuated from the batten, the former originally by pegs, but later by a rack and pinion arrangement, which in action shoot the shuttles simultaneously across a web, to the right and left alternately, each into the place vacated by its next neighbour. One small warp beam is required for each web, but tappets, dobbies, or Jacquards are available for dividing the threads. Where differ- ently coloured wefts are needed in one web the shuttles are mounted in tiers and all raised or lowered at once to bring the proper colour in line with the shed. In Swivel Weaving similar shuttles are added to the battens of broad looms in order to diaper small figure effects, in different colours or materials, over the surface of broad webs. Pile Weaving. — Looms for weaving piled fabrics differ in certain important respects from those employed for ordinary weaving; they are also made to differ from each other to suit the type of fabric to be manufactured, as, for example, double and single, plain and figured, textures. In Double Pile Looms the special features are those that control the pile threads, and those that sever the vertical lines of pile. Two ground warps are requisite, and unless they are kept a uniform distance apart the piled effects will be irregular. For plain goods the pile threads are wound upon two or more beams, and, as they move from web to web, cloth-covered rollers deliver them in fixed lengths. Meanwhile, a shuttle passes twice in succession through each ground warp, and the pile threads in moving above or beneath the wefts are bound securely. Both fabrics are furnished with taking-up rollers which draw the pieces apart and so stretch the uniting pile in front of a knife, which severs it, thus forming two pieces at once. A knife may consist of a short blade that merely moves to and fro across the webs, or of a disk mounted upon a spindle, which, in moving from side to side, revolves; in either case it is automatically sharpened. But if a knife is longer than the breadth of a fabric it receives only a slight lateral movement, and must be periodically removed for sharpening. In plain and printed goods healds control all the warps ; but in figured goods, other than those made from printed warps, a Jacquard is needed to lift, and a creel to hold, the pile threads. Single Pile Looms. — The chief feature which renders most single pile looms dissimilar from others is the mechanism by which wires are woven upon, and withdrawn automatically from, a ground texture. Wires are of two kinds, namely, without and with knives; the former, being flattened and somewhat pointed, are woven above the weft of a ground texture, but beneath the pile, hence, by with- drawing them, looped pile is formed. A wire terminating in a knife with a sloping blade, on being withdrawn, cuts the pile and produces a brush-like surface. The mechanism for operating the wires is placed at one end of a loom and consists of an arm which moves in and out; at each inward movement a wire is inserted, and at each outward movement one is withdrawn. In weaving tapestry carpets, and certain other fabrics, a wire and a shuttle move simultaneously, but a shuttle passes through the ground warp, while a wire passes beneath the pile. After several wires have been woven upon the ground texture the one first inserted is withdrawn by the vibrating arm, and at the next inward movement the same wire enters the warp near the reed, where it is beaten up with the weft, and, from this point, the operation is continuous. Tapestry carpets require three warps, one for the ground texture, a second, o_r stuffing warp, to give bulk and elasticity to the tread, and a third to form the pile. The last named is printed upon a large drum, thread by thread to the colour scheme of the design, then, when the colours have been fixed, and the threads^ccurately placed, they are wound upon a beam, and all the warps are operated by healds. For figured velvets, and Brussels and Wilton carpets, the pile warp beam is replaced by a creel, in order that each thread of pile may be wound upon a bobbin and separately tensioned. This is essential, because, in the weaving of a design, it is probable that no two threads of pile will be required in equal lengths. Creels are made in sections called frames, each of which usually carries as many bobbins as there are loops of pile across a web, and the number of sections equal the number of colours. In weaving these fabrics healds are used to govern the ground warp, but a Jacquard is needed for the pile. It must form two sheds, the lower one to receive a shuttle, the upper one to make a selection of threads beneath which the wire is to pass. Terry Looms. — Looms for weaving piled textures, of the Turkish towel type, have the reed placed under the control of parts that prevent it from advancing its full distance for two picks out of every WEAVING [ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART series that separate one line of loops from another. At such times the weft is not beaten home, but a broad crack is formed. So soon as the reed again moves through its normal space three picks of weft are simultaneously driven home, thus closing the gap, and causing part of the pile to loop upward, the remainder downward. The system is available for plain and figured effects. Gauze Textures are woven in looms having a modified shedding harness, which, at predetermined intervals, draws certain warp threads crosswise beneath others, and lifts them while crossed. Also, a tensioning device to slacken the crossed threads and thus prevent breakages due to excessive strain. At other times the shedding is normal. Lappet Looms have a series of needles fixed upright in laths, and placed in a groove cut in the slay, in front of the reed. Each needle carries a thread which does not pass through the reed, hence, by giving the laths an endlong movement of varying extent, and lifting the needles for each pick, their threads are laid crosswise in the web to pattern. _ (T. W. F.) ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART The archaeology of shuttle-weaving shows that for ages the use of a loom for weaving plain, as distinct from ornamental or figured textiles, whether of fibres or of spun threads, has been practically universal, whilst the essential points of its construction have been almost uniform in charac- ter. An early stage in its development, anterior probably to that when the spinning of threads had been invented, is represented by the loom or frame (see fig. 29) used by a native of Sarawak to make a textile with shreds of From Roth's Natives of Sarawak, by permission of Truslove and Hanson. FIG. 29. — Loom from Sarawak. grass. As will be seen, the shreds of grass for the warp are divided into groups by a flat sword-shaped implement which serves as the batten (Latin spatha). The shuttle is passed above it, leaving a weft of grass in between the warp; the batten is then moved upwards and compresses the weft into the warp; this method of pressing the weft upwards •was usually employed by Egyptian and Greek weavers for their linen textiles of beautiful quality. Fig. 30 gives us an Indian FIG. 30. — Indian Hill Tribesman's Loom. Hill tribesman weaving with spun threads; but here we find the loom fitted with rudely constructed headles, by which the weaver lifts and lowers alternate ranks of warp threads so that he may throw his shuttle-carried weft across and between them. Besides the headles there is a hanging reed or comb, and between the reeds of it the warp threads are passed and fastened to a roller or cylinder. After throwing his shuttle once or twice backwards and forwards, the weaver pulls the comb towards himself, thereby pressing his weft and warp together, thus making the textile which he gradually winds from time to time on to the roller. This advance in the construction of the loom is also virtually of undateable age; and except for more sub- stantial construction, there is little difference in main principles be- tween it and the 1 medieval loom of fig. 31. With such looms, and by arranging coloured warp threads , in a given order and then weaving into I them coloured shuttle or weft threads, simple j textiles with stripes and chequer patterns FIG. 31. — Medieval Loom, from a Cut could be, and were, by Jost Amman; middle of the i6th produced; but textiles cel«ury- of complex patterns and textures necessitated the mor complicated apparatus that belongs to a later stage the evolution of the loom. Fig. 32 is from a Chine drawing, illustrating the description given in a Chinese book published in 1210 on the art of weaving intricate desig The traditions and records of such figured weavings are fa older than the date of this book. As spun silken threads wer brought into use, so the development of looms with increasing numbers of headles and other mechanical facilities for this sort of weaving seems to have started. But as far back as 269 B.C. the Chinese were the only cultivators of silk,1 the delicacy and fineness of which must have postulated possibilities in FIG. 32. — Chinese Loom for Figured Weaving (Photo). weaving far beyond those of looms in which grasses, wools and flax were used. It therefore is probably correct to credit the Chinese with being the earlier inventors of looms for weaving figured silks, which in course of time other nations (acquainted only with wool and flax textiles) saw with wonder. At the comparatively modern period of 300 B.C. Chinese dexterity in fine-figured weaving had become matured and was apparently in advance of any other elsewhere. Designs were being woven by the Chinese of the earlier Han Dynasty 206 B.C. as elaborate almost 1 E. Pariset, Histoire de la soie (Paris, 1862). ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART] WEAVING 449 as those of the present day, with dragons, phoenixes, mystical bird forms, flowers and fruits.1 At that time even Egypt, Assyria or Babylonia, Greece and Rome, seem to have been only learning of the fact that there was such a material as silk.1 Their shuttle-weaving had been and was then concerned with spun wool and flax and possibly some cotton, whilst the orna- mentation of their textiles, although sparkling on occasion with golden threads, was dene apparently not by shuttle-weaving but by either embroidery or a sort of compromise between darning and weaving from which tapestry weaving descended (see TAPESTRY). The range of their colours was limited, reds, purples and yellows being the chief; and their shuttle- weaving was principally concerned with plain stuffs, and in a much smaller degree with striped, spotted and chequered fabrics. Remains of these, whether made by Egyptians thousands of years B.C., by Scandinavians of the early Bronze Age, by lake dwellers, by Aztecs or Peruvians long before the Spanish Conquest, display little if any technical difference when compared with those woven by nomads in Asia, hill tribes in India and natives in Central Africa and islands of the Pacific. Such ornamental effect as is seen in them depends upon the repetition of stripes or very simple crossing forms, still this principle of repetition is a prominent factor in more intricate designs which are shuttle- woven in broad looms and lengths of stuff. The world's apparent indebtedness to the Chinese for knowledge of figured shuttle-weaving leads to some consideration of their early overland commerce westwards. About 200 B.C. during the Han Dynasty Chinese trade had extended beyond inner Asia to the confines of the Graeco-Parthian empire, then at its zenith, and the protection of the route by which the Seres (Chinese) sent their merchandise was fully recognized as a matter of importance. Seventy years later the emperor of China sent a certain Chang Kien on a mission to the Indo-Scythians; and according to his records the people as far west as Bactria (adjacent to the Graeco-Parthian territory) were knowing traders, and amongst other things under- stood the preparation of silk. Chinese weavings had for some time been coming into Persia, and doubtless instigated the more skilled weavers there to adapt their shuttle looms in course of time to the weaving of stuffs with greater variety of effects than had been hitherto obtained by them; and into Persian designs were intro- duced details taken not only from Chinese textiles, but also from sculptured, embroidered and other ornament of Graeco-Parthian and earlier Babylonian styles. In A.p. 97 Chinese enterprise in still furthering their trade relations with the Far West is at least sug- gested by the fact that envoys from the emperor of China to Rome actually reached the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, but turned back frightened by the Parthian accounts of the terrors of the sea voyage. Early in the 3rd century A.D. Heliogabalus is reputed to have been amongst the first of the Roman emperors to wear garments entirely of silk (holosericum), which, if figured (as is not unlikely), were probably of Syrian or Persian manufacture. Sidonius Apollinaris (5th century) writes of Persian patterned stuffs, — " Bring forth brilliant cushions and stuffs on which, produced by a miracle of art, we behold the fierce Parthian with his head turned back on a prancing steed; now escaping, now returning to hurl his spear, by turns fleeing from and putting to flight wild animals whom he pursues " — a description quite appropriate to such silk weaving as that in fig. 33. A number of kindred pieces have been recovered of late years from Egyptian burial-places of the Roman period. The Persians of the Sassanian dynasty (3rd to 7th century) traded in silks with Romans and Byzantines; King Chosroes (about 570) encouraged the trade, and ornamental weaving seems to have been an industry of some standing at Bagdad and other towns north, east and south, e.g. Hamadan, Kazvin Kashan, Yezd Persepolis, &c. To the north- west of Persia and north of Syria lay the Byzantine region of Anatolia (now Asia Minor), some towns in which became noted for their fine weavings: the mass of the population there was well off in the 6th century, the country highly cultivated and prosperous, and justice fairly administered,8 thus affording favourable conditions for an industry like ornamental weaving, which had been and was prosper- ing in neighbouring Syrian districts. 1 See Chinese Art, by Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. (London, 1906), vol. ii. p. 95. 1 Aristotle describes the silk-worm and its cocoon. Virgil- Martial and late Roman writers (including Pliny) throw scarcely more light upon the use of silken stuffs than that they were of rarity and greatly prized by opulent Romans. Propertius (19 B.C.) writes of silken garments of varied tissue," and of Cynthia that " perchance she glistens in Arabian Silk." 'W. M. Ramsay, Studies in the History and Art of the Roman Empire (University of Aberdeen, 1906). xxvm. 15 Between the 1st and 6th centuries A.D., then, knowledge of silk and its value in fine weaving was spreading itself, not only in the further western regions of Southern Asia, but also in Egypt, where Greek and Roman taste influenced the works of Copts or those FIG. 33. — Syrian or Persian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century, natives who maintained old Egyptian traditions in technical handi- crafts. Of peculiar interest in this connexion are fragments of flax (yellow and brown) woven with a comparatively elaborate texture, as well as in patterns (see fig. 34) which suggest an ordinary type of Roman pavement designs (3rd century and earlier), the basis of which is roundels linked together. Stuffs in which the style of FIG. 34. — Syrian and Coptic Flax Weaving of the 5th or 6th Century. patterns, though comparatively simple, is rather more Oriental, are of flax and wool, and the official robes of Roman consuls seem to have been of this character, and amongst other goods may have been made with small technical difference at Rome * or at Fostat (Cairo) 4 In 369 by order of the emperors Valens and Valentinian the making of textiles in which gold and silken threads were introduced was limited to women's workrooms or gynecia (see Codex of Theo- dosius, lib. x. tit. 21, lex i). In the 5th century the weaving of silken tunics and mantles was prohibited (Codex Theodosius, lib. x. tit. 21, lex 3). 450 WEAVING or Alexandria or other towns in Lower Egypt as well as in Syria. Contemporaneously the development of similar weaving appears to FIG. 35. — Syrian or Anatolian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century, with Samson and the Lion (repeated). have been proceeding in Byzantine provinces, though perhaps not in so marked a way as when Justinian systematized sericulture1 and still further stimulated shuttle-weaving in the town of Byzantium (Constantinople) itself in A.D. 552. For examples of the elaborate figure weav- ings at that time we have to rely upon such as have been rescued in the service of archaeology from the oblivion of tombs and burial - places. The dates of some speci- mens can be fixed with almost certainty by means of nearly con- temporary records, e.g. those of Sidonius Apollinaris and later Anastasius the Libra- rian; comparison and classification lead to almost conclusive in- ferences as to the dates of other examples. Broadly speaking, the . I earlier of these remains • I (i.e. from about the |j 4th to the 7th century) ' seem to be either of r- j /- u Persian (Sassanian) TI FlG-36— Byzantine Red Silk and Gold manufacture and de- Thread Weaving of the iith Century. Pairs si or of s ian and of lions and pairs of small birds. pSssibly Alexandrian 4 _ make. Christian sub- jects were occasionally introduced into the designs. Between the 7th and the I3th centuries Byzantine manufactures come to the fore, and it is difficult if not impossible now to draw a clear line between those of Roman-Byzantine, Perso- Byzantine and Moslem- 1 This virtually was the starting of sericulture in Europe. [ARCHAEOLOGY AND AR1 Byzantine styles, though one may do so in respect of certain Mosler (Moorish and Saracenic) weavings, which have distinctive featur FIG. 37. — Part of Silk Wrapping of the Emperor Charlemagne, possibly of Bagdad manufacture, gth Century, with Fanciful Elephant and Sacred Tree device in a Roundel. of design, and were produced in the south of Spain and in Sicil; about a period from the loth century to the I3th. Fig. 35, from a piece of sarcenet with repeated parallel series of Samsons and lions (or gladiators?), is probably sth-century Syrian or I FIG. 38. — Fragment of Byzantine Silk, mh Century, with Ogiva Framing about pairs of Birds, &c. Anatolian ; of the same date are pieces with scenes of the Annuncia- tion repeated in roundels, and with artistic birds and lions, in the treasury of the Sancta Sanctorum of the Chapel of St Lawrence :- ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART] WEAVING the old Lateran Palace, Rome. Scriptural subjects1 seem to be ,il of those which were condemned by Anatolian and Syrian rs of the Christian church as early as in the late 4th century, \steruis, bishop of Amasus, in denouncing the luxury of the rich in flaunting themselves in such inappropriately decorated silks, has Irft a most useful description of the subjects decorating them. A ne long maintained in Syrian and Byzantine patterns was that l>eatea roundels, within which other than scriptural subjects were wrought, e.g. hunters on horseback (as in fig. 33), fantastic animals and birds, singly or in pairs, confronting one another or back framing, composed of animals, birds and the like, formally treated and repeated vertically and horizontally, as in fig. 36, which is from a silk and gold thread shuttle-weaving classified as Byzantine of the nth century manufacture. But this style of composition also occurs in a Sassanian or Syrian silk of the 5th century at Le Mans,1 and again in the Cope of St Maxim at Chinon, which is powdered with panthers. Conventional eagles (reminiscent perhaps of the Roman Eagle), with scale patterns on their breasts and wings, are woven in the wrappings reputed to have been given by the Empress Placidia for the corpse of St Germain (448) preserved at the church of St Eusebius at Auxerre. Some likeness in style may be detected between these latter and a fragment of one of the wrappings of St Cuthbert (d. 688) at Durham, though in this case the elaborate ornamentation is set within a roundel. Prior to the discovery of woven silks in the Akhmin cemeteries, the periods to which tradition and association had ascribed the Auxerre and Durham specimens were con- sidered too early; but there now seems to be far less reason to question that ascription. Fig. 37 is from part of a silken wrapping of Charlemagne (early gth century) now at Aix-la- Chapelle. It bears a Greek inscrip- tion of the names of Peter, governor of Negropont, and Michael, chamberlain of the Imperial Chambers, and this is taken by some authorities as evidence that the weaving was made at Byzan- tium. On the other hand, Eginhard, Charlemagne's secretary, has written of gifts, including rich textiles pre- sented in his day by Haroun al Raschid to the emperor,4 and a fabric like that in question might have been made quite possibly even at Baghdad in the 9th century or earlier. In the nth century amongst the handicrafts- men in the city of Byzantium were many skilled native and foreign weavers; and their designs generally appear to reflect the style of earlier Persianesque and Syrian taste. |- About the I2th century the well- used pattern scheme of roundels became more or less superseded by one of continuous ovals, of ogival framings (see fig. 38), contemporary with which are Saracenic patterns based on hexagonal and star-shape frames. Within these new varieties of pattern framings recur the Byzan- tine and Persianesque pairs of birds, animals, &c. But distinct from these is the more restricted style which has been mentioned. It had arisen under the influence for the most part of the Fatimy Khalifs, not only in Syria and Alexandria but also in Sicily and Patterns of this Moslem or Saracenic type are usually FIG. 39. — Specimens of various Small Loom Weavings between the 7th and 15th centuries. A. Part of a narrow band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with a Latin inscription s°ut;hern Spam. along the edges. German work of the I3th century. Moslem or Sarac B. Part of a broad band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with figures of the Crucifixion composed of a succession of parallel and the. Annunciation (?). It bears an inscription, Odilia me fecit. It is probably German bands— narrow and wide— containing work of the I3th century. .Kui?c inscriptions, groups of small C and D. Specimens of Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads; C bears a Latin inscrip- lntncate geometrical devices, and tion, and the faces of the Virgin and Child are embroidered. occasionally conventional amma s E. Part of a narrow band woven in gold and silk threads with chevron spaces filled with delicate and birds. A I2tn-centurvexample scroll ornament, among which are occasional animal and bird devices. Possibly English or °; tn's cla®s °' pattern has been given French work of the I3th century. elsewhere (see BROCADE, fig. l). F. Part of a narrow band or clavus from a Coptic tunic of the 9th or loth century. ,, Almena, Malaga, Grenada and Seville were notable Moorish weav- ing places in Spain for such patterned silks and stuffs as these; and even after the Christian conquest of Grenada at the end of the to back, frequently with a sacred tree device* between them. A piece of Sassanian silk, probably of the 6th century, shows a gryphon practically identical with that sculptured on the patterned saddle- cloth of a king (Chosroes II.?) in the archway to the garden of the king's palace at Kermchah. Less common perhaps are patterns, without roundel or other 1 The silken wrappings of St Wilibald (700-786), a founder of the church at Eichstatt, where they are still preserved, are woven with repeated roundels, each enclosing a Daniel between two lions, and are perhaps Byzantine of the 8th century. 1 See Sir George Birdwood's chapter on Knop and Flower pattern in his Industrial Arts of India, in which this device of ancient Assyrian art is discussed as well as its relation and that of the horn, a fanlike symbol, to cognate ornament in Greek, Roman and even Renaissance art. 1 5th century this city retained its celebrity for silks woven " 4 la Moresque." In Sicily no similar survival of Saracenic influence seems to have been as strongly maintained, notwithstanding the numerous Saracen weavers at work in the island for years before the Royal factory for silk weaving came to be organized at Palermo under Norman supremacy. According to the usual story, Roger of Sicily, or Roger Guiscard, who in 1 147 made a successful raid on the shores of Attica, and took Athens, Thebes and Corinth, carried off as prisoners a number of Greek (Byzantine) weavers and settled them at Palermo in the factory known as the H6tel des Tiraz. A mixture of Byzantine ' See Abfctdaire d'arctiMogie (June 1854). 4 Recherchfi, &c., by Francisque Michel, i. 40. 452 WEAVING [ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART and Saracenic styles of textile patterns ensued ; and this peculiarity portantpart, and possibly was applicable to early brocades. Carmoca is demonstrated in many of the rich fabrics attributed to south and or Carmuk (Arab Kamkla, from the Chinese Kimka — also brocade) north Italian weavers from the 1 2th century onwards. From Palermo j was another handsome stuff corresponding in a way with Indian Apparel of a Dalmatic woven in Venice late in the with the Virgin in glory. century, B Part of , Orphrey with the Virgin and Child (Siena weaving, 1425-1450). c Part of Orphrey, with Annunciation (Florentine w ing, late 15th century).- the FIG. the art of ornamental weaving in this style soon extended into the mainland, and from Apulia a bishop of St Evroul in Normandy is mentioned as having obtained a number of silken goods in the I2th century. From the I3th century onwards Lucca, Florence, Milan, Genoa and Venice became important centres, using not only im- ported silk, but also such as was being then cultivated in Italy, for sericulture had become an Italian industry early in the I3th century. Wandering Saracenic and Byzantine weavers even before that time had strayed or been taken to work at places in Germany, France and Britain, but the output of their productions in northern countries was almost infinitesimal as compared with that of the | far greater Italian output, nevertheless they were sowing the seeds of a harvest to be reaped centuries later by these more northerly European countries. To the influence of these early sporadic weayings we seem to trace a distinctive class of work, which was done by inmates of monasteries and convents as well as by devout ladies, in little looms, for use as stoles, maniples, orphreys and similar narrow bands. A rhyming chronicler of the I3th century paraphrases the older record by Egin- hard of the skill of Charlemagne's daughters in silk weaving, " ouvrer en soie en taulieles " or small looms.1 The illustrations in fig. 39 give varieties of this class of work between the 7th and isth centuries, for which Cologne especially seems to have become famous in the 1 5th century. Venice also made work of corresponding character: and the designs were evidently furnished by or directly adapted from the compositions of such artists as those who produced the notable German and Venetian woodcuts of the 15th century (fig. 40). Whilst the bulk of the Italian patterned stuffs issuing in great lengths from large looms were of silk, a good many also were woven in wools, or wools intermixed with silks. The earlier of the silk textiles — Persian, Syrian and Byzantine — were of the nature of sarcenet and taffetas; later in development are satins, damask satins, brocades, and still later (i.e. about the end of the I4th century) come Italian velvets and cloths of gold, which quite transcended the ancient and less substantial attalic cloths of the early Roman period. Medieval inventories and records contain many names of textiles, but the exact technical meaning of several of them is un- certain. Csndal, Sandal, Syndonus seem to relate to such materials as sarcenet or taffeta : zetani, from low Latin, is held by some writers to be of the same class as samit or examite, so called because the weft threads were only caught at every sixth thread of the warp; damask, now regarded as a special class of textile, the ornamentation of which depends upon contrasting sheens in the surface of the stuff, whether of silk or linen, got its name from Damascus, much in the same way as Baudekin comes from Baldak, or Baghdad. Baudekin, and an apparently somewhat earlier word ciclatoun, seem to have been general terms for rich-looking textiles, in which gold thread played an im- 1 See Recherches, &c., by Francisque Michel, i. 93-94. 40. Kincobs. Velvet (Italian vellulo — shaggy) is veluiau in French docu- ments ot the I4th century, and is a finely piled material of silk, and on that account may have been called Samit, as the German word FIG. 41. — Piece of North Italian Silk Weaving of the I4th century, with pattern planned on an ogival basis with fantastic birds, some of which are of a Chinese type, and Persianesque cone forms containing sham Arabic inscriptions. Sammet implies velvet, as does the Russian Axamitt. Diaper (Italian diaspro, meaning patterned) was used not only to denote a regular and geometric patterning but in some cases a special sort of linen or silk. Muslin from Mosul, and gauze from Gaza., are two ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART] WEAVING 453 well-known and kindred textiles. Frequently one meets with odd phrases such as " silk of Brydges " (Bruges), " silk dornex " (from Dorneck), " sheets of raynes " (Rheims), and " fuschan in Appules " (Naples fustian). Many of the foregoing stuffs are identifiable by textures peculiar to them; this is, however, not so as regards their ornamental patterns, for these are frequently interchanged, the same class of patterns iring in satin damasks, velvets and brocades. This is particu- larly the case with I3th- and 14th-century Italian stuffs. In the patterns of these, as previously suggested, are strong traces of Sara- iviiic and Byzantine motives, intermingled with badges, heraldic devices, human figures, eagles, falcons, hounds, lions, harts, boards, leopards, rays of light, Persianesque pine cone and cloud forms, and even Chinese mystical birds, symmetrically distributed, without framings, as a rule, though elaborations of the ogival frame or scheme are also met with, but less frequently (see fig. 41). Such fabrics, m ide in the main by Lucchese weavers, appear to have been traded in with other European countries. But besides trade records, there are others relating to Lucchese weavers who left their own town under stress of circumstances, civil wars and the like, to settle and work elsewhere, as in France and Flanders, during the Ijjth century. Nevertheless the northern parts of Italy were the fertile places for producing fine types of patterned textiles used by Italian and other FIG. 42. — Damask and Brocade Silk Fabric, facture of the I5th century. Italian manu- European courts and nobles: and if the art seriously dwindled in the town of Lucca, it flourished conspicuously, from the end of the I4th century and up to the beginning of the loth century, in Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Florence and Milan. There was nothing similar to compete with it in France, Germany or England. The identifica- tion of its splendid varieties is made possible upon referring to contemporary paintings by Orcagna, Cnvelli, Spinello Aretino and later Italian masters, as well as to those of the Flemish School, Gheraet David, Mabuse, &c. Of a specially distinct class, very dignified in effect, are patterns ol the I5th century based upon the repetition of conventional pentagonally constructed leaf panels, clearly defined in outline, each encircling a pomegranate or cone form around which radiate small leaves or blossoms; though they were more richly developed in superb velvets and cloths of gold, for which Florence, Venice and Genoa were famed, this type of design is also woven in less costly materials. A composite unusual and beautiful design of another kind is given in fig. 42. Repeated large leaf shapes can just be detected in it, but more remarkable are the bunches of radiating stalks of wheat-ears and cornflowers within them ; whilst about them, arranged in hexagonal trcllising, are leafy bars, small birds, crowns, pomegranates and other daintily depicted plant forms. This piece of damask combined with brocade weaving is of late I5th century manufacture: and after the opening of the next century the freedom towards realistic treatment, which we find here, enters into many of the Italian patterns. In some of them, however, an Ottoman or Anatolian feeling is apparent, as in fig. 43 from a figured silk which is considered to have been made in Venice. The chained dogs and birds in this design recall the rather more formal ones in Lucchese patterns of a hundred and fifty years earlier, whereas the lengthy serrated leaves and elongated flower devices charged with carnations and hyacinths depicted on a smaller scale are unmis- takably Ottoman. Persian fabrics of rather thin silk material or taffetas like that of the original of this were also being woven with varieties of floral designs, as well as others portraying Persian stories. At this period there was considerable activity in weaving sumptuous stuffs at Broussa and Constantinople (fig. 44). Arabic and Turkish weavers often came over to be employed in Venice, blending Italian and Oriental characteristics into their designs. In Spain during the early i6th century we have traces of Hispano- Moresque influence in the overlapping and interlocking nondescript forms; but Spanish weavings are hardly comparable in quality with the Italian of the same time. In the middle of this century cloths of gold or of silver, with the pattern details raised in velvet and brocatelles of similar formal design were made in greater quantities in Italy for costumes of men and women. The frequent basis of most of the designs is the ogival framework already re- ferred to, but it is much elaborated with detail and combined with the cone device of a previous century. The ornamenta- tion of this style is purely conventional throughout, the various devices hav- ing little of the appear- ance of actual objects like fruit, leaves, &c. The time, however, was close at hand when a more general reaction | was to set in, in the direction of designs re- presenting forms very nearly as they actually look, an example of which occurs in fig. 45, with its leaf forms and crowns. This from a class of silk damask or lampas, which is kindred to brocatelle; a feature in lampas is that its ground is different in colour from that of the ornament on it, and as in the case of portions of brocatelles its texture is of taffeta or sarcenet quality.1 At the end of the 1 6th century a pe- culiar type of pattern consists of repetitions in different positions of the same detail treated real- istically or purely orna- mentally, little if any- thing of quite the same character having been previously designed. Of such fig. 46, with its repeated realistic leafy FIG. 43. — Piece of Venetian Silk Weav- logs variously placed, is ing showing Ottoman influence in the an example. The prin- design (i6th century), ciple in the composition of -these patterns, but with a greater variety of conventional detail, is followed in French iyth century examples. However, as soon as figured weaving became well organized in France at this time, a school of designers arose in that country who adopted a realism that predominated in French patterns during the succeeding 150 years, that is, from Louis XIV. to the end of the i8th century. Throughout this period French figured stuffs seem to surpass those of other countries. " If, " writes Monsieur Pariset, " any account is to be taken of the weavers during the lith and I5th centuries who made cloths and velvets of silk at Paris, Rouen, Lyons.Nimes and Avignon, it must be remembered that they were almost solely Italian emigrants from Lucca and Florence, who had fled their towns during troublous times. " By a charter granted by Francis I. to Lyons, foreign and native workmen were encouraged to promote the city's interests in trade and manufacture; still, it is not until the i?th century- that Lyons really asserts herself in producing fabrics possessing French taste and ornamentation. The more important designs were supplied by trained artists of whom Reval, a pupil of Le Brun, the first_principal of the Academic des Beaux Arts founded by Colbert in Paris (1648), Pillement and Philippe de la Salle in the i8th century, may be 'See Ornament in European Silks (London. 1899), p. 15- 454 WEAVING [ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART named. Their influence in the domain of fanciful, and at times extravagant realistic, floral patterns was widespread. Soon after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in consequence of which thousands of Protestant weavers left France, factories for weaving silks and mixed materials with patterns imitating the successive French phases became organized at Spitalfields, in Cheshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk and elsewhere in England, as well as in Germany at Crefeld, Elberfeld, Barmen and Weissen. Entirely distinct from what has already been discussed is a branch of artistic weaving con- cerned with the decora- tion of linens, that flourished notably in Italy towards the end of the I5th century and in the l6th century. From early times long and narrow Italian table- cloths were enriched with ornament of linen or cotton threads of a single colour, and Signora Isabella Erera has written at some FIG. 44. — Ottoman (Anatolian) Silk and Gold Thread Weaving of the 1 6th century, withogival framed ornament. The original is stated to have come from a sultana's tomb at Broussa or Constantinople. Q length about them,1 illustrating the result of her investigations with several examples culled from paintings by Pietro Lorenzetto of Siena In Leonardo da Vinci's (1340), by Ghirlandaja (1447-1490), &c. painting of the Last Supper, now in the Louvre, the border of the tablecloth is very like many examples of this sort of textile in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Their char- acteristic ornament, in rather heavy blue thread, consists of quaint animals and birds in pairs, which are evident derivations of those so often seen in Italo-Byzantine and Lucchese silks and brocades. Be- larly with Perugia. In the i6th century, work of similar style was produced, but it was lighter and flatter in texture and often done FIG. 45. — Italian Silk Damask or Lampas, with purple ground and pattern of late i6th century. sides animals and birds, reversed names and words were sometimes introduced, e.g. " Amor " for " Roma," " Asoizarg " for " Graziosa " and " Eroma " for " Amore," &c. The simpler of these table-cloth patterns probably date from before the I4th century, whilst the fuller ones were certainly made in considerable quantities in the isth century. An inventory dated 1842 has an entry of two napkins or cloths woven in cotton wi.th bands of dragons and lions a la Perugina, which is suggestive that this type of weaving was associated particu- 1 See the Italian monthly art review, Emporium, vol. xxiii. (1906). FIG. 46. — Italian Silk Damask or Lampas of late l6th century, with pattern of repeated leafy logs. with red or yellow silk, and embroidery was sometimes added to 1 weaving. The most important and probably the best known class of late ornamental linen weaving is that of damask household napery, which, as a reflection of satin damask, was developed in the flax-growing regions of Saxony, Flanders and North France, during the late istn or early i6th century; it was then rare and acquired for use by wealthy persons only.2 The style of design in the better of the old linen damasks has some kinship with that of bold 15th- and 16th- century woodcuts of the Flemish or German schools. To some extent these damask figure subjects recall those of the colour Cologne and Venetian orphreys for copes and apparels for dal- matics. The early history of linen damask is obscure, but a great many of its results are preserved in England. A napkin with the royal shield of Henry VII., the supporters within the garte" surmounted by the crown, is in the Victoria and Albert Museuri where it is called Flemish. On the other hand it is possibly the work of Flemings in England, since from the time of Edward I. and for a hundred years " a constant stream of emigrants passed from Flanders to England."3 The Victoria and Albert Museun contains an early 16th-century tablecloth in damask linen German or Flemish manufacture with various subjects, chiefly religious and moral: Gideon being shown as a kneeling knight, the fleece of wool on the ground being near him, while from above the dew falls on it ; below Gideon is the Virgin Mary and the unicorn, and lower down an angel with seven dogs heads 'typifying different virtues as shown in the lettering— -fides, spes, charitas, &c. In another which was probably made in England (at Norwich?) by Flemings during the second half of the l6th century, we find St George and the Dragon, the royal arms of Queen Anne Boleyn, the badges of Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Elizabeth, the crowned Tudor Rose, and repeated portraits of Queen Elizabeth, with the legend below, " God save the Queene." This specimen is also in the Victoria and Albert Museum. A hundred years later in date is a tablecloth on which is a view of old St Paul's (burnt in 1666), while above and below occurs the wreathed shield of the City of London. A different class of linen, with the design done in blue, was evidently, from the inscriptions on it, the work of a German or Fleming, and probably woven in Germany about 1730. Here we find the wreathed arms of the City of London, a view of " London," and " George der II. Konig in Engelland " mounted on horseback. In this specimen the design is repeated, and 2 The earl of Northumberland (1512) is said to have had but eight linen cloths for his personal use, while his large retinue of servants had but one, which was washed once a month. (See notes by Rev. C. H. Evelyn White on damask linen. Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. p. 132.) 3 See Rev. C. H. Evelyn White s paper on damask linen, Pro- ceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. pp. 130-140. WEB— WEBER, C. VON 455 not reversed, as is the case with the earlier pieces. A large collection of this German damask weaving with coloured thread was formed under the auspices of the Royal Kunstgewerbe Museum at Dresden.1 The north-eastern Irish industry of damask weaving owes much to French Protestant refugees, who settled there towards the close of the iyth century, though linen manu- facture had been established in the district by a colony of Scots in 1634. Uunfermline in Scotland is said to produce as much damask as the rest of Europe, but there are important manufactories of it at Courtrai and Liege in Belgium, in Silesia, Austria and else- where. LITERATURE. — The following are titles of a few works on weaving, from which much important information on the subject may be derived:—]. Bezon, Dictionnaire des tissus (8 vols., Paris, 1859- 1863), more or less technical only, Dictionnaire des sciences (Pans, 175 1-1780), technical; Michel Fruncisque, Recherches sur le commerce, lafibrication et I'usage des etofes de soie, d'or el d'argent (2 vols., Paris, 1852-1854), a well-known work full of erudition in resrject of the archaeology of woven fabrics, their technical characteristics, &c. ; James Yates, Textrinum antiquorum : an Account of the Art of Weaving among the Ancients (London, 1843), a very valuable and learned work of reference; Very Rev. Daniel Rock, D.D., Textile Fabrics (London, 1870), with some few good illustrations; Panset, Ilistoire de I • soie (Paris 1862) ; Raymond Cax, L'Art de decorer les tissus, &c. (Paris, 1000); £lan Cole, Ornament in European Mks (London, 1899), well illustrated; J. Lessing, Berlin konighche Mttseen, Die Gewebe-Sammlung des k. Kunstgewerbe-Museums (Berlin, 1900), a very fine series of phototype facsimiles of all kinds of textiles; A. Riegl, Die dgyptischen Textil-Funde (Wien, 1889); R. Forrer, Romische und byzantinische Seiden-Texlilien (Strassburg, 1891); A. Dupont Auberville, L'Ornament des tissus (Paris, 1877), admirable illustrations; F. Fischbach, Die wichtigsten Webe-Orna- mente (3 vols., Wiesbaden, 1901), admirable illustrations; Raymond Cax, Le Musee historique des tissus . . . de Lyon (Lyon, 1902) ; Nuremberg: Germanisches Museum, Katalog der Gewebesammlung des germanischen National- Museums (Nuremberg, 1896). (A. S. C.) WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh — to weave), that which is woven (see WEAVING). The word is thus applied to anything resembling a web of cloth, to the vexillum of the feather of a bird, to the membrane which connects the toes of many aquatic birds and some aquatic mammals; it is particu- larly used of the " cobweb," the net spun by the spider, the Old English name for which was dtor-coppe, i.e. poison-head (dtor, poison, and coppe, tuft or head). In architecture the term " web " is sometimes given, in preference to " panel," to the stone shell of a vault resting on the ribs and taking its winding surface from the same; see VAULT. WEBB, MATTHEW (1848-1883), English swimmer, generally known as " Captain Webb," was born at Dawley in Shropshire on the i8th of January 1848, the son of a doctor. While still a boy he saved one of his brothers from drowning in the Severn, and, while serving on board the training ship in the Mersey, he again distinguished himself by saving a drowning comrade. He served his apprenticeship in the East India and China trade, shipped as second mate for several owners, and in 1874, was awarded the first Stanhope gold medal by the Royal Humane Society for an attempt to save a seaman who had fallen over- board from the Cunard steamship " Russia." In 1875 Captain Webb abandoned a sea-faring life and became a professional swimmer. On the 3rd of July he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend, a distance of 20 m., in 4$ hours, a record which remained unbeaten until 1899. In the same year, after one unsuccessful attempt, he swam the English Channel, on the 24th of August, from Dover to Calais in 21 J hours. For the next few years Webb gave performances of diving and swimming at the Royal Aquarium in London and elsewhere. Crossing to America, he attempted, on the 24th of July 1883, to swim the rapids and whirlpool below Niagara Falls. In this attempt he lost his life. WEBB, SIDNEY (1850- ), English socialist and author, was bom in London on the i3th of July 1839. He was educated at private schools in London and Switzerland, at the Birkbeck Institute and the City of London College. From 1875 to 1878 he was employed in a city office, but he entered the civil service by open competition as a clerk in the War Office in 1878, became 'See Leinendamastmuster des XVII. und XVIII. Jahrhunderts, Emil Kumsch (Dresden, 1891). surveyor of taxes in 1879, and in 1881 entered the colonial office, where he remained until 1891. In 1885 he was called to the bar at Gray's Inn. Mr Webb was one of the early members of the Fabian Society, contributing to Fabian Essays (1889); and he became well-known as a socialist, both by his speeches and his writings. He entered the London County Council in 1892 as member for Deptford, and was returned at the head of the poll in the successive elections of 1895, 1898, 1901 and 1904. He resigned from the civil service in 1891 to give his whole time to the work of the Council (where he was chairman of the Technical Education Board) and to the study of economics. He served from 1903 to 1906 on the Royal Commission on Trade Union Law and on other important commissions. He married in 1892 Miss Beatrice Potter, herself a writer on economics and sociology, the author of The Co-operative Movement in Great Britain (1891) and a contributor to Charles Booth's L'fe and Labour of the People (1891-1903). His most important works are: a number of Fabian tracts; London Education (1904); The Eight Hours Day (1891), in conjunction with Harold Cox; and, with Mrs Sidney Webb, The History of Trade Unionism [1894, new ed. 1902), Industrial Democracy (1897, new ed. 1902), Problems of Modern Industry (1898), History of Liquor Licensing (1903), English Local Government (1006), &c. Mrs Webb was member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law, and she and her husband were responsible for the Minority Report (see POOR LAW) and for starting the widespread movement in its favour. WEBB CITY, a city of Jasper county, Missouri, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, about 160 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) S°43'» (i9°°) 920Ii °f whom 248 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 11,817. It is served by the Missouri Pacific and the St Louis & San Francisco railway systems, and is the headquarters of the electric interurban railway connecting with Carthage and Joplin, Missouri, Galena, Kansas and other cities. With Carterville (pop. 1910, 4539). which adjoins it on the E., it forms practically one city; they are among the most famous and productive " camps " in the rich lead and zinc region of south-western Missouri, and Webb City owes its industrial importance primarily to the mining and shipping of those metals. The value of the factory product increased from $353,566 in 1900 to $637,965 in 1905. Webb City was laid out and incorporated as a town in 1875, and first chartered as a city in 1876. White lead was discovered here in 1873, on the farm of John C. Webb, in whose honour the city is named; and systematic mining began in 1877. WEBBE, WILLIAM (fl. 1586), English literary critic, was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1572-1573. He was tutor to the two sons of Edward Sulyard of Flemyngs, Essex, and later to the children of Henry Grey of Pirgo in the same county. A letter from him is prefixed to the 1592 edition of Tancred and Gismundo* written by his friend, Robert Wilmot. In 1586 he published A Discourse of English Poetrie, dedicated to his patron, Edward Sulyard. Webbe argued that the dearth of good English poetry since Chaucer's day was not due to lack of poetic ability, or to the poverty of the language, but to the want of a proper system of prosody. He abuses " this tinkerly verse which we call ryme," as of barbarous origin, and comments on the works of his con- temporaries, displaying enthusiasm for Spenser's Shepheardes Calendar, and admiration for Phaer's translation of Virgil. He urged the adoption of hexameters and sapphics for English verse, and gives some lamentable examples of his own com- position. The Discourse was reprinted in J. Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays (1811-1815), by E. Arber in 1869, and in Gregory Smith s Elizabethan Critical Essays (1904)- WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786- 1826), German composer, was born at Eutin, near Ltibeck, on the i8th of December 1 786, of a family that had long been devoted to art. His father, Baron Franz Anton von Weber, a military * The original play, Gismonde of Salerne, was by five authors, and was produced in the Queen's presence at the Inner Temple in 1568. 456 WEBER, C. VON officer in the service of the palgrave Karl Theodor, was an excellent violinist, and his mother once sang on the stage. His cousins, Josepha, Aloysia, Constanze and Sophie, daughters of Franz Anton's brother Fridolin, attained a high reputation as vocalists. The great composer, Mozart, after having been rejected by Aloysia, married Constanze, and thus became Franz Anton's nephew by marriage. Fridolin played the violin nearly as well as his brother; and the whole family displayed exceptional talent for music. Franz Anton von Weber was a man of thriftless habits and culpable eccentricity. Having been wounded at Rosbach, he quitted the army, and in 1758 he was appointed financial councillor to Clement August, elector of Cologne, who for nine years overlooked his incorrigible neglect of duty. But the elector's successor dismissed him in 1768; and for many years after this he lived in idleness at Hildesheim, squandering the property of his wife, Anna de' Fumetti, and doing nothing for the support of his children until 1778, when he was appointed director of the opera at Liibeck. In 1779 the prince bishop of Eutin made him his kapellmeister, and not long afterwards his wife died of a broken heart. Five years later he went to Vienna, placed two of his sons under Michael Haydn, and in 1785 married the young Viennese singer Genovefa von Brenner. In the following year Carl Maria von Weber was born — a delicate child, afflicted with congenital disease of the hip- joint. On his return from Vienna, Franz Anton, finding that a new kapellmeister had been chosen in his place, accepted the humbler position of " Stadt Musikant." This, however, he soon relin- quished; and for some years he wandered from town to town, giving dramatic performances, in conjunction with the children of his first wife, wherever he could collect an audience. The . effect of this restless life upon the little Carl Maria's health and ,education was deplorable; but, as he accompanied his father everywhere, he became familiarized with the stage from his earliest infancy, and thus gained an amount of dramatic experience that laid the foundation of his future greatness. Franz Anton hoped to see him develop into an infant prodigy, like his cousin Mozart, whose marvellous career was then rapidly approaching its close. In furtherance of this scheme, the child was taught to sing and place his fingers upon the pianoforte almost as soon as he could speak, though he was unable to walk until he was four years old. Happily his power of observation and aptitude for general learning were so precocious that he seems, in spite of all these disadvantages, to have instinctively educated him- self as became a gentleman. In 1798 Michael Haydn taught him gratuitously at Salzburg. In the March of that year his mother died. In April the family visited Vienna, removing in the autumn to Munich. Here the child's first composition — a set of " Six Fughettas" — was m-Mished, with a pompous dedication to his half-brother Edmund; and here also he took lessons in singing and in composition. Soon afterwards he began to play successfully in public, and his father compelled him to write incessantly. Among the compositions of this period were a mass and an opera — Die Macht der Liebe und des Weins — now destroyed. A set of " Variations for the Pianoforte," composed a little later, was lithographed by Carl Maria himself, under the guidance of Alois Senefelder, the inventor of the process, in which both the father and the child took great interest. In 1800 the family removed to Freiberg, where the Ritter von Steinsberg gave Carl Maria the libretto of an opera called Das Waldmadchen, which the boy, though not yet fourteen years old, at once set to music, and produced in November at the Freiburg theatre. The performance was by no means successful, and the composer himself was accustomed to speak of the work as " a very immature production " ; yet it was afterwards reproduced at Chemnitz, and even at Vienna. Carl Maria returned with his father to Salzburg in 1801, resuming his studies under Michael Haydn. Here he composed his second opera, Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn, which was unsuccessfully produced at Nuremberg in 1803. In that year he again visited Vienna, where, though Joseph Haydn and Albrechtsberger were both receiving pupils, his father preferred placing him under Abt Vogler. Through Vogler's instrument- ality Carl Maria was appointed conductor of the opera at Breslau, before he had completed his eighteenth year. In this capacity he greatly enlarged his experience of the stage, so that he ranks among the greatest masters of stage-craft in musical history; but he lived a sadly irregular life, contracted debts, and lost his beautiful voice through accidentally drinking an acid used in lithography — a mishap which nearly cost him his life. Thes hindrances, however, did not prevent him from beginning a nev opera called Riibezahl, the libretto of which was "romantic" to the last degree, and Weber worked at it enthusiastically, but it was never completed, and little of it has been preserve beyond a quintet and the masterly overture, which, re-written in 1811 under the title of Der Beherrscher derGeister,novr ranks among its author's finest instrumental compositions. Quitting Breslau in 1806, Weber removed in the following year to Stuttgart, where he had been offered the post of private secretary to Duke Ludwig, brother of Frederick, king of Wiirtemberg. The appointment was a disastrous one. The stipend attached to it was insufficient to meet the twofold demands of the young man's new social position and the thrift- lessness of his father, who was entirely dependent upon him for support. Court life at Stuttgart was uncongenial to him, though he yielded to its temptations. The king hated him and his practical jokes. He fell hopelessly into debt, and, worse than all, became involved in a fatal intimacy with Margarethe Lang, a singer at the opera. Notwithstanding these distractions he worked hard, and in 1809 re-modelled Das Waldmadchen, under the title of Sylvana,1 and prepared to produce it at the court theatre. But a dreadful calamity prevented its performance. Franz Anton had misappropriated a large sum of money placed in the young secretary's hands for the purpose of clearing a mortgage upon one of the duke's estates.2 Both father and son were charged with embezzlement, and, on the gth of February 1810, they were arrested at the theatre, during a rehearsal of Syhana, and thrown by the king's order into prison. No one doubted Weber's innocence, but after a summary trial he and his father were ordered to quit the country, and on the 27th of February they began a new life at Mannheim. Having provided a comfortable home for his father, and begun a new comic opera, in one act, called Abu Hassan, Weber re- moved to Darmstadt in order to be near his old master Abt Vogler, and his fellow-pupils Meyerbeer and Gansbacher. On the i6th of September 1810, he reproduced Sylvana at Frankfort, but with very doubtful success. A bu Hassan was com- pleted at Darmstadt in January 1811, after many interruptions, one of which (his attraction to the story of Der Freischulz — see below) exercised a memorable influence upon his later career. Weber started in February 1811 on an extended artistic tour, during which he made many influential friends, and on the 4th of June brought out Abu Hassan with marked success at Munich. His father died at Mannheim in 1812, and after this he had no settled home, until in 1813 his wanderings were brought to an end by the unexpected offer of an appointment as kapellmeister at Prague, coupled with the duty of entirely remodelling the performances at the opera-house. The terms were so liberal that he accepted at once, engaged a new company of performers, and directed them with uninterrupted success until the autumn of 1816. During this period he composed no new operas, but he had already written much of his best pianoforte music, and played it with never-failing success, while the disturbed state of Europe inspired him with some of the finest patriotic melodies in exist- ence. First among these stand ten songs from Korner's Leyer und Schwerdt, including " Vater, ich rufe dich," and " Liitzow's wilde Jagd " ; and in no respect inferior to these are the splendid choruses in his cantata Kampf und Sieg, which was first per- formed at Prague, on the 22nd of December 1815. Weber resigned his office at Prague on the 3oth of September 1 As the MS. of Das Waldmadchen has been lost, it is impossible now to determine its exact relation to the later work. 2 Spitta gives a different account of the occurrence, and attributes the robbery to a servant. WEBER, C. VON 457 1816, and on the 2ist of December, Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony, appointed him kapellmeister at the German opera at Dresden. The Italian operas performed at the court theatre were superintended by Morlacchi, whose jealous and intriguing disposition gave endless trouble. The king, however, placed the two kapellmeisters on an exact equality both of title and salary, and Weber found ample opportunity for the exercise of his remarkable power of organization and control. He now gave his close attention to the story of Der Freischiitz, which he had previously meditated turning into an opera, and, with the assist- ance of Friedrich Kind, he produced an admirable libretto, under the title of Des Jtigers Brant. No subject could have been better fitted than this to serve as a vehicle for the new art-form which, under Weber's skilful management, developed into the type of "romantic opera." He had dealt with the supernatural in Rubczahl, and in Syltiana with the pomp and circumstance of chivalry; but the shadowy impersonations in Riibezahl are scarcely less human than the heroine who invokes them; and the music of Sylvana might easily have been adapted to a story of the igth century. But Weber now knew better than to let the fiend in Der Freischiitz sing; with three soft strokes of a drum below an unchanging dismal chord he brings him straight to us from the nether world. Every note in Euryanthe breathes the spirit of medieval romance; and the fairies in Oberon have an actuality quite distinct from the tinsel of the stage. This un- compromising reality, even in face of the unreal, forms the strongest characteristic of the pure " romantic school," as Weber understood and created it. It treats its wildest subjects in earnest, and without a doubt as to the reality of the scenes it ventures to depict, or the truthfulness of their dramatic interpretation. Weber wrote the first note of the music of Der Freischiitz on the and of July — beginning with the duet which opens the second act. But so numerous were the interruptions caused by Morlacchi's intrigues, the insolence of unfriendly courtiers, and the attacks of jealous critics that nearly three years elapsed before the piece was completed. In the meantime the per- formances at the opera-house were no less successfully remodelled at Dresden than they had already been at Prague, though the work of reformation was far more difficult; for the new kapellmeister was surrounded by enemies who openly subjected him to every possible annoyance, and even the king himself was at one time strongly prejudiced against him. Happily, he no longer stood alone in the world. Having, after much difficulty, broken off his liaison with Margarethe Land, he married the singer Carolina Brandt, a noble-minded woman and con- summate artist, who was well able to repay him for the part he had long played in her mental development. The new opera was completed on the I3th of May 1820, on which day Weber wrote the last note of the overture — which it was his custom to postpone until the rest of the music was finished. There is abundant evidence to prove that he was well satisfied with the result of his labours; but he gave himself no rest. He had engaged to compose the music to Wolff's Gipsy drama, Preciosa. Two months later this also was finished, and both pieces ready for the stage. In consequence of the unsatisfactory state of affairs at Dresden, it had been arranged that both Preciosa and Der Freischiitz — no longer known by its original title, Des Jtigers Braut — should be produced at Berlin. In February 1821 Sir Julius Benedict was accepted by Weber as a pupil; and to his pen we owe a delightful account of the rehearsals and first performance of his master's chef-d'ceuvre. Preciosa was produced with great success at the old Berlin opera-house on the I4th of June 1821. On the 1 8th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the opening of the new " Schauspielhaus " was celebrated by the production of Der Freischiitz. Much anxiety was caused by unforeseen difficulties at the rehearsals; yet, so calm was Weber's mind that he devoted his leisure time to the composition of his Concertstiick in F minor — one of his finest pianoforte pieces. Until the last moment his friends were anxious; the author was not ; and the result justified his confidence in his own powers. The success of the piece was triumphant. The work was received with equal enthusiasm at Vienna on the 3rd of October, and at Dresden on the 26th of January 1822. Yet Weber's position as kapellmeister was not much improved by his success, though, in order to remain faithful to his engagements, he had refused tempting offers at Berlin and Cassel, and, at the last-named place, had installed Ludwig Spohr in a position much more advantageous than his own. For his next opera Weber accepted a libretto based, by Frau Wilhelmine von Chezy, on the story of Euryanthe, as originally told in the I3th century, in Gilbert de Montreuil's Roman de la Violette, and repeated with alterations in the Decamerone, in Shakespeare's Cymbeline, and in several later forms. In place of the ghostly horrors of Der Freischiitz, the romantic element was here supplied by the chivalric pomp of the middle ages. The libretto is in one respect superior to that of Der Freischutz, inasmuch as it substitutes elaborate recitative for the spoken dialogue peculiar to the German " Schauspiel " and French " opera comique. " It is, in fact, a " grand opera " in every sense of the words, — the prototype of the " music drama " perfected fifty years later by Wagner. The overture — as usual, written last — presents a feature that has never been imitated. During its performance the curtain temporarily rises, to exhibit, in a tableau vivant, the scene in the sepulchral vault upon which the whole story turns. This direction is now rarely carried out; but Weber himself well knew how much the interest of the piece depended on it. The work was produced at the Karntnerthor theatre in Vienna, on the zsth of October 1823, and received with enthusiasm. Weber's third and last dramatic masterpiece was an English opera, written for Covent Garden theatre, upon a libretto adapted by Planche from Wieland's Oberon. It was disfigured by the spoken dialogue abandoned in Euryanthe; but in musical beauty it is quite equal to it, while its fairies and. mermaids are as vividly real as the spectres in Der Freischiitz. Though already far gone in consumption, Weber began to compose the music on the 23rd of January 1825. Charles Kemble had offered him £1000 for the work, and he could not afford to rest. He finished the overture in London, at the house of Sir George Smart, soon after his arrival, in March 1826; and on the I2th of April the work was produced with triumphant success. But it cost the composer his life. Wearied out with rehearsals and performances of the opera, and concerts at which he was received with rapturous applause, he grew daily perceptibly weaker; and, notwithstanding the care of his kind host, Sir George Smart, and his family, he was found dead in his bed on the morning of the sth of June 1826. For eighteen years his remains rested in a temporary grave in Moorf?!ds chapel; but in 1844 they were removed and placed in the family vault at Dresden, Wagner making an eloquent speech. Besides his three great dramatic masterpieces and the other works already mentioned, Weber wrote two masses, two symphonies, eight cantatas, and a large number of songs, orchestral and pianoforte pieces, and music of other kinds, amounting altogether to more than 250 compositions. (W. S. R.) Weber's style rises, in his three greatest works, to heights which show his kinship with the great classics and the great moderns. His intellect was quick and clear; but yet finer was the force of character with which he overcame the disadvantages of his feeble health, desultory education and the mistakes of his youth. With such gifts of intellect and character, every moment of his short life was precious to the world; and it is impossible not to regret the placing of his training in the hands of Abt Vogler. Weber's master was an amiable charlatan, whose weakness as a teacher was thoroughly exposed, in perfect innocence, by his two illustrious pupils. Meyerbeer wished to be famous as the maker of a new epoch in opera. Weber could not help being so in reality. But he was sadly hampered by his master's inability to teach realities instead of appearances; and to this impediment alone must we assign the fact that hi? masterpieces do not begin earlier in his career. With extra- ordinary rapidity and thoroughness he learnt English a year before his death in order to compose Oberon^ with the result 458 WEBER, W. E.— WEBER'S LAW that there is only one obvious mistake in the whole work, and the general correctness of declamation is higher than in most of his German works. This is typical-of Weber's general culture, mental energy and determination; points in which, as in many traits in his music, he strikingly resembles Wagner. But all his determination could not quite repair the defects of his purely musical training, and though his weaknesses are not of glaring effect in opera, still there are moments when even the stage cannot explain them away. Thus the finale of Der Freischtttz breaks down so obviously that no one thinks of it as anything but a perfunctory winding-up of the story, though it really might have made quite a fine subject for musical treatment. In Euryanthe Weber attained his full power, and his inspiration did not leave him in the lurch where this work needed large musical designs. B ut the libretto was full of absurdities ; especially in the last act, which not even nine remodellings under Weber's direction could redeem. Yet it is easy to see why it fascinated him, for, whatever may be said against it from the standpoints of probability and literary merit, its emotional contrasts are highly musical. Indeed it is through them that the defects invite criticism. Oberon is spoilt by the old local tradition of English opera according to which its libretto admitted of no music during the action of the drama. Thus Weber had in it no opportunity for his musical stage-craft; apart from the fact that the action itself is entirely without dramatic motive and passion, since the characters are simply shifted from Bordeaux to Bagdad whenever Oberon waves his wand. Many attempts have been made to improve the libretti of Euryanthe and Oberon, but none are quite successful, for Weber has taken a great artist's pains in making the best of bad material. All that can be said against Weber's achievements only reveals the more emphatically how noble and how complete in essentials was his success and his claim to immortality. His pianoforte works, while showing his helplessness in purely musical form, more than bear out his contemporary reputation as a very great pianoforte player. They have a prbnounced theatrical tendency which, in the case of such pieces of gay romanticism as the Invitation a la danse and the Concertstttck, is amusing and by no means inartistic. In orchestration Weber is one of the greatest masters. His treatment of the voice is bold and interesting, but very rash; and his declamation of words is often incorrect. His influence on the music of his own day is comparable to his influence on posterity; for he was not only a most efficient director but a very persuasive journalist; and (in spite of the inexperience that made him disapprove of Beethoven) for all good music other than his own he showed a growing enthusiasm that was infectious. (D. F. T.) WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891), German physicist, was born at Wittenberg on the 24th of October 1804, and was a younger brother of Ernst Heinrich Weber, the author of Weber's Law (see below). He studied at the university of Halle, where he took his doctor's degree in 1826 and became extraordinary professor of physics in 1828. Three years later he removed to Gottingen as professor of physics, and remained there till 1837, when he was one of the seven professors who were expelled from their chairs for protesting against the action of the king of Hanover (duke of Cumberland) in suspending the constitution. A period of retirement followed this episode, but in 1843 he accepted the chair of physics at Leipzig, and six years later returned to Gottingen, where he died on the 23rd of June 1891. Weber's name is especially known for his work on electrical measurement. Until his time there was no established system either of stating or measuring electrical quantities; but he showed, as his colleague K. F. Gauss did for magnetic quantities, that it is both theoretically and practically possible to define them, not merely by reference to other arbitrary quantities of the same kind, but absolutely in terms in which the units of length, time, and mass are alone involved. He also carried on extensive researches in the theory of magnetism; and it is interesting that in connexion with his observations in terrestrial magnetism he not only employed an early form of mirror galvanometer, but also, about 1833, devised a system of electromagnetic telegraphy, by which a distance of some 9000 ft. was worked over. In conjunction with his elder brother he published in 1825 a well- known treatise on waves, Die Wellenlehre auf Experimente gegrundet; and in 1833 he collaborated with his younger brother, the physiologist Eduard Friedrich Weber (1806-1871), in an investigation into the mechanism of walking. WEBER'S LAW, in psychology, the name given to a principle first enunciated by the German scientist, Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795-1878), who became professor at Leipzig (of anatomy, 1818, of physiology, 1840). He was specially famous for his researches into aural and cutaneous sensations. His law, the purport of which is that the increase of stimulus necessary to produce an increase of sensation in any sense is not a fixed quantity but depends on the proportion which the increase bears to the immediately preceding stimulus, is the principal generalization of that branch of scientific investigation which has come to be known as psycho-physics (q.ii.). According to Gustav Fechner (q.v.), who has done most to prosecute these inquiries and to consolidate them under a separate name, " psycho-physics is an exact doctrine of the relation of function or dependence between body and soul." In other words, it is through- out an attempt to submit to definite measurement the relation of physical stimuli to the resulting psychical or mental facts, and forms an important department of experimental psychology. It 'deals with the quantitative aspects of mental facts — their intensity or quantity proper and their duration. Physical science enables us, at least in the case of some of the senses, to measure with accuracy the objective amount of the stimulus, and introspection enables us to state the nature of the subjective resujt. Thus we are able to say whether a stimulus produces any psychical result, and can fix in that way the minimum sensibiie or " threshold of consciousness " for each of the senses. In like manner (though with less accuracy, owing to the dis- turbing nature of the conditions) we can fix the sensational maxi- mum, or upper limit of sensibility, in the different senses, that is to say, the point beyond which no increase of stimulus produces any appreciable increase of sensation. We thus determine, as Wundt puts it, the limit-values between which changes of intensity in the stimulus are accompanied by changes in sensation. But the central inquiry of psycho-physics remains behind. Between the quantitative mini- mum and the quantitative maximum thus fixed can we discover any definite relation betwee.n changes in the objective intensity of the stimuli and changes in the intensity of the sensations as estimated by consciousness. The answer of psycho-physics to this inquiry n given in the generalization variously known as " Weber's law," Fechner's law," or the " psycho-physical law," which professes to formulate with exactitude the relations which exist between change of stimulus and change of sensation. As we have no means of subjectively measuring the absolute intensity of our sensations, it is necessary to depend upon the ir.ental estimate or comparison of two or more sensations. Comparison enables us to say whether they are equal in intensity, or if unequal which is the greater and which is the less. But as they approach equality in this respect it becomes more and more difficult to detect the difference. By a series of experiments, therefore, it will 1 e possible, in the case of any particular individual, to determine the feast observable difference in intensity between two sensations of any particular sense. This least observable difference is called by Fechner the Unterschiedsschwelle or " difference-threshold," that is to say, the limit of the discriminative sensibility of the sense in question. That such a "threshold," or least observable difference, exists is plain from very simple examples. Very small increases may be made in the objective amount of light, sound or pressure — that is, in the physical stimuli applied to these senses — without the subject on whom the experiment is made detecting any change. It is further evident that, by means of this Unterschiedsschwelle, it is possible to compare the discriminative sensibility of different individuals, or of different senses, or (as in the case of the skin) of different parts of the same sense organ : the smaller the difference observable the finer the discriminative sensibility. Thus the discrimination of the muscular sense is much more delicate than that of the sense of touch or pressure, and the discriminative sensibility of the skin and the retina varies very much according to the parts of the surface affected. Various methods have been adopted with a view to determine these minima of discriminative sensibility with an approach to scientific precision. The first is that employed by Weber himself, and has been named the method of just observable differences. It consists either in gradually adding to a given stimulus small amounts which at first cause no perceptible difference in sensation but at a certain point do cause a difference to emerge in consciousness, or, vice versa, in gradu- ally decreasing the amount of additional stimulus, till the differenc- originally perceived becomes imperceptible. By taking the averag of a number of such results, the minimum may be determined with tolerable accuracy. The second method is called by Fechner thr method of correct and incorrect instances. When two stimuli ar WEBSTER, A.— WEBSTER, D. 459 very nearly equal the subject will often fail to recognize which is the greater, saying sometimes that A is greater, sometimes that B is greater. When in a large number of trials the right and Wrong guesses exactly balance one another we may conclude that the difference between the two stimuli is not appreciable by the sense. On the other hand, as soon as the number of correct guesses definitely exceeds half of the total number of cases, it may be inferred that there is a certain subjective appreciation of difference. This method was first employed by Vierordt. The third method, that of average errors, is very similar to the one just explained. Here a certain weight (to take a concrete example) is laid upon the hand of the person experimented upon, and he is asked, by the aid of sub- jective impression alone, to fix upon a second weight exactly equal to the first. It is found that the second weight sometimes slightly exceeds the first, sometimes slightly falls below it. Whether aoove or below is of no consequence to the method, which depends solely on the amount of the error. After a number of experiments, the different errors are added together, and the result being divided by the number of experiments gives us the average error which the subject may be calculated upon to make. This marks the amount of stimulus which is just below the difference-threshold for him. This method was first employed by Fechner and Volkmann. The different methods were first named, and the theory of their applica- tion developed by Fechner in his Elemente der Psychophysik (1860). A number of experimental variations have since been devised by Wundt and others, but they are all reducible to the two types of the " gradation " and " error " methods. These methods have been chiefly applied to determine the relation of the difference-threshold to the absolute magnitude of the stimuli employed. For a very little reflection tells us that the smallest perceivable difference is not an amount whose absolute intensity is constant even within the same sense. It varies with the intensity of the stimuli employed. We are unable, for example, to recognize slight differences in weight when the weights compared are heavy, though we should be perfectly able to make the distinction if the weights compared were both light. Ordinary observation would lead us, therefore, to the conclusion that the greater the intensity of the original stimulus at work the greater must be the increase of stimulus in order that there may be a perceptible difference in the resulting sensation. Weber was the first (after a prolonged series of experiments) to clothe this generality with scientific precision by formulating the law which has since gone by his name. He showed that the smallest perceptible difference is not absolutely the same, but remains relatively the same, that is, it remains the same fraction of the preceding stimulus. For example, if we can distinguish 16 oz. and 17 oz., we shall be able to distinguish 32 oz. and 34 oz., but not 32 oz. and 33 pz., the addition being in each case fa of the preceding stimulus. This fraction (supposing it to be the difference-threshold of the muscular sense) remains a constant, however light or however heavy the weights compared. The law may be formulated thus: — The difference between any two stimuli is experienced as of equal magnitude, in case the mathematical relation of these stimuli remains unaltered. Or, otherwise expressed, in order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmetical progression the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression. It is also expressed by Fechner in the form — The sensation increases as the logarithm of the stimulus. Thelawhasbeen variously interpreted. Fechner himself designated it the psycho-physical law, and treated it as the fundamental formula of the relation between body and mind, thus assigning to it an pntological dignity and significance. But in this " psycho-physical " interpretation of his results he has not had a numerous following. Wundt interprets the law in a purely " psychological " sense, making it a special instance of the general law of relativity which governs our mental states. Introspection can give us no information as to the absolute intensity of the stimulus; fora stimulus is' known in consciousness only through its sensational resultant. Hence, he argues, we can only compare one psychical state with another, and pur standard of measurement is therefore necessarily a relative one ; it depends directly upon the preceding state with which we compare the present. Others (e.g. G. E. Miiller) have attempted to give the law a purely physical or " physiological " explanation. Instead of holding with Fechner that the law expresses a recondite relation between the material and the spiritual world, they prefer to regard the quantitative relation between the last physical antecedent in the brain and the resultant mental change as prima facie one of simple proportion, and to treat Weber's law as holding between the initial physical stimulus and the final action of the nerve-centres. According to this interpretation, the law would be altogether due to the nature of nervous action. As a nerve, says Sully, after a temporary degree of stimulation temporarily loses its sensibility, so the greater the previous stimulation of a nerve the greater is the additional stimulus required to produce an appreciable amount of sensation. Weber's law, it must be added, holds only within certain limits. In the " chemical " senses of taste and smell experiments are almost impossible. It is not practicable to limit the amount of the stimulus with the necessary exactitude, and the results are further vitiated by the long continuance of the physiological effects. The same con- siderations apply with still more force to the organic sensations, and the results in the case of temperature sensations are completely uncertain. The law is approximately true in the case of sight, hearing pressure, and the muscular sense — most exactly in the case of sound. As this is the sense which affords the greatest facilities for measuring the precise amount of the stimulus, it may perhaps be inferred that, if we could attain the same exactitude in the other senses, with the elimination of the numerous disturbing extraneous influences at work, the law would vindicate itself with the same exactitude and certainty. It is further to be noted, however, that even in those senses in which it has been approximately verified, the law holds with stringency only within certain limits. The results are most exact in the middle regions of the sensory scale; when we approach the upper or lower limit of sensibility they become quite uncertain. LITERATURE. — Weber's investigations were published as " Der Tastsinn und das Gemeingefiihl," in Wagner's Handle orterbuch der Physiologieru\. (1846). Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik (1860) contains an elaborate exposition of the whole st-bject. He replied to his critics in two later works, In Sachen der Psychophysik (1877) and Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psychophysik (1882). Delbceuf's Etude psychophysique (1873), Examen critique delaloi psychophysique (1883), and Elements de psychophysique generate et speciale (1883), and G. E. Miiller's Zur Grundlegung der Psychophysik (1878) are also important documents; and the subject is fully treated in Wundt's Qrundziige der physiologischen Psychologie (ed. 1902-1903), and " Uber die Methode d. Minimalanderungen," in Philos. Stud. (Leipzig, 1883), or, more popularly, in his Human and Animal Psychology (2nd ed., 1892), Lectures 2, 3, 4. See also Ladd's Physio- logical Psychology (1887), which is based upon Wundt; Meinong. in Zeitschr. fur Psychologie, xi. (1896); Ziehen, Leitfaden der physio- logischen Psychologie (7th ed., Jena, 1906) ; E. B. Titchener, Experi- mental Psychology (ii., 1905) ; Professor James Ward's " Attempt to Interpret Fechner's Law," in Mind, i. 452 sqq.; and generally text- books of psychology, e.g. G. F. Stout's Manual of Psychology, bk. ii. ch. 7 (following Meinong); James's Principles of Psychology, ch. 13; Kiilpe's Outlines of Psychology, part i. chap. I and 3. (A. S. P.-P.) WEBSTER, ALEXANDER (1707-1784), Scottish writer and minister, son of James Webster, a covenanting minister, was born in Edinburgh in 1707. Having become a minister in the church of Scotland, he propounded a scheme in 1742 for provid- ing pensions for the widows of ministers. The tables which he drew up from information obtained from all the presbyteries of Scotland were based on a system of actuarial calculation that supplied a precedent followed by insurance companies in modern times for reckoning averages of longevity. In 1755 the govern- ment commissioned Webster to obtain data for the first census of Scotland, which he carried out in the same year. In 1753 he was elected moderator of the General Assembly; in 1771 he was appointed a dean of the Chapel Royal and chaplain to George III. in Scotland; and he died on the zsth of January 1784. Webster published in 1748 his Cakulations, setting forth the principles on which his scheme for widows' pensions was based; he also wrote a defence of the Methodist movement in 1742, and Zeal for the Civil and Religious Interests of Mankind Commended (1754)- WEBSTER, BENJAMIN NOTTINGHAM (1797-1882), English actor, manager and dramatic writer, was born in Bath on the 3rd of September 1797, the son of a dancing master. First appearing as Harlequin, and then in small parts at Drury Lane, he went to the Haymarket in 1829, and was given leading comedy character business. He was the lessee of the Haymarket from 1837; he built the new Adelphi theatre (1859); later the Olympic, Princess's and St James's came under his control; and he was the patron of all the contemporary playwrights and many of the best actors, who owed their opportunity of success to him. As a character actor he was unequalled in his day, especially in such parts as Triplet in Masks and Faces, Joey Ladle in No Thoroughfare, and John Peerybingle in his own dramatization of The Cricket on the Hearth. He wrote, trans- lated or adapted nearly a hundred plays. Webster took his formal farewell of the stage in 1874, and he died on the 3rd of July 1882. His daughter, Harriette Georgiana (d. 1897), was the first wife of Edward Levy-Lawson, ist baron Burnham; and his son, W. S. Webster, had three children — Benjamin Webster (b. 1864; married to Miss May Whitby), Annie (Mrs A. E. George) and Lizzie (Mrs Sydney Brough) — all well known on the London stage, and further connected with it in each case by marriage. WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852), American statesman, was born in Salisbury (now Franklin), New Hampshire, on the 460 WEBSTER, D. 1 8th of January 1782. He was a descendant of Thomas Webster, of Scottish ancestry, who settled in New Hampshire about 1636. His father, Ebenezer Webster (1730-1806), was a sturdy frontiers- man; when, in 1763, he built his log cabin in the town of Salis- bury there was no habitation between him and Canada. He was a member of Rogers' Rangers in the Seven Years' War, served in the War of Independence, was for several years a member of the New Hampshire legislature, was a delegate to the New Hampshire convention which ratified the Federal constitution, and was a justice of the court of common pleas for his county. Daniel was a frail but clever child, and his family made great sacrifices to give him and his elder brother Ezekiel a good education. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy about nine months in 1794, was further prepared for college by Dr Samuel Wood, the minister at Boscawen, and graduated at Dartmouth College in 1801. He was chosen Fourth of July orator in Hanover, the college town, in 1800, and in his speech appears the substance of the political principles for the develop- ment of which he is chiefly famous. After graduation he began the study of law in his native town. When in the following winter money had to be earned to enable Ezekiel to remain in college, Daniel accepted the principalship of the academy at Fryeburg, Maine; but he resumed his law studies in the follow- ing year, and in 1804, with Ezekiel's assistance, he was enabled to go to Boston -and conclude his studies under Christopher Gore (1758-1827), later governor of Massachusetts (1800-1810) and a U.S. senator (1813-1816). Admitted to the bar in Boston in 1805, Webster began the practice of law at Boscawen, but his father died a year later, and Webster removed in the autumn of 1807 to Portsmouth, then one of the leading commercial cities of New England. Here he rose rapidly to eminence both at the bar and in politics. His political career began in earnest at the opening of the War of 1812. He led the opposition in his state to the policy of Madison's administration, was elected by the Federalists a member of the National House of Representatives, and took his seat in May 1813. Henry Clay, the speaker, appointed him a member of the Committee on Foreign Relations, of which John C. Calhoun was chairman, and for some forty years these three constituted a great triumvirate in American politics. Webster had been hi the House less than three weeks when he greatly embarrassed the administration by introducing a set of resolutions asking for information relating to the immediate cause of the war. In January 1814, when a bill to encourage enlistments was before the House, he attacked the conduct of the war in his first great speech. An even more forcible speech, delivered later in the same session, in support of a bill for repeal- ing the embargo and non-importation acts, marked him as one of the foremost men in Congress. He successfully opposed a bill providing for what would have been practically an irredeem- able currency, and he voted against the bill for chartering the second United States bank, although it provided for the redemp- tion of bank notes in specie, because he objected to permitting the government to have so large a share in its management. Webster removed to Boston in June 1816. This cost him his seat in Congress after the 4th of March 1817, and for the next six years he was engaged chiefly in the practice of law in the courts of Massachusetts and before the U.S. Supreme Court. His first leading case before the Supreme Court was the Dartmouth College Case. In 1815, when the Dartmouth board of trustees was rent by factions, the majority, who were Federal- ists and Congregationalists, removed the president, John Wheelock, who was a Presbyterian, and appointed Francis Brown in his place. Wheelock appealed to the legislature in the following year, when it was strongly Republican, and that body responded by passing acts which virtually repealed the charter received from George III., created a state university, placed Wheelock at its head, and transferred to it the property of the college. The case came before the Supreme Court of New Hampshire in May 1817. Jeremiah Mason (1768-1848), a lawyer of the first rank, Jeremiah Smith and Webster appeared for the college, and argued that these acts were invalid because they were not within the general scope of the legislature's power, because they violated provisions of the state constitution and because they violated the clause of the Federal Constitution which prohibits a state from impairing the obligation of contracts but the court decided against them. On the last point, however, the case was carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, and there Webster, presenting principally arguments of his colleagues at the state trial and making a powerful appeal to the emotions of the court, won the case for the college and for himself the front rank at the American bar. The result, too, vindicating as it did the supremacy of the Constitution of the United States, was a substantial gain for that nationalism which Webster advocated in his first Fourth of July oration at Hanover, and the promotion of which was for the remainder of his career his principal service to his country. His next great case was that of M'Culloch v. Maryland Maryland had imposed a tax upon the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States. The Maryland Court of Appeals sustained the validity of this act. Webster, supported by William Pinkney and William Wirt, argued in February 1819, (i) that the power to establish a bank was to be implied from the general power given to Congress to administer the financial affairs of the nation, and was a means of administering the finances which was appropriate and within the discretion of Congress; (2) that " the power to tax is the power to destroy," and that a state had not the constitutional power to impose a tax upon any instrumentality of the government of the United States. The Supreme Court sustained these argu- ments and the act of Maryland was held to be void. Four years later (1823) Webster argued the case of Gibbons v. Ogden. The state of New York, in order to reward the enterprise of Robert R. Livingston and the inventive genius of Robert Fulton in the application of the steam engine to traffic on the water, had given to them a monopoly of all transportation by steam within the waters of New York. The highest court of that state sustained the validity of the monopoly. Gibbons, who had begun to run a steamboat from New Jersey, appealed to the Supreme Court. Webster argued that the Federal Constitution gave to Congress control over interstate commerce, and that any interference . by the legislature of a state with this commerce was unconstitu- tional and void. The Supreme Court so held; its opinion, written by Chief Justice Marshall, being little else than a recital of Webster's argument. In the case of Ogden v. Sounders, heard in 1824 and reheard in 1827, in which the question was the validity or invalidity of the insolvent laws of the several states, Webster argued that the clause prohibiting a state from impairing the obligation of contracts applied to future as well as to past contracts, but the court decided against him. Meanwhile Webster had come to be recognized as the first American orator. His oration at Plymouth, on the 22nd of December 1820, on the second centennial anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrims, placed him in this rank. No man mastered more thoroughly the fundamental principles of govern- ment and the currents of feeling which influence the destiny of nations. His oration in 1825 at the laying of the corner stone of the Bunker Hill monument contained perhaps the clearest statement to be found Aywhere of the principles underlying the American War of Independence. In the following year Webster delivered his oration in commemoration of the second and third presidents of the United States — John Adams and Thomas Jefferson — who died on the 4th of July 1826; it is particularly remarkable for Adams's imaginary reply in the Continental Congress to the arguments against a Declaration of Independence, beginning with the familiar quotation: " Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I gave my hand and my heart to this vote." Webster's physical endowments as an orator were extraordinary. Thomas Carlyle thus describes him as he appeared in London in 1839. " Not many days ago I saw at breakfast the notablest of your notabilities, Daniel Webster. He is a magnificent specimen. You might say to all the world, ' This is our Yankee Englishman ; such limbs we make in Yankee land! ' As a logic fencer, or parliamentar Hercules, one would be inclined to back him at first sight against a the extant world. The tanned complexion, that amorphous crag-lik WEBSTER, D. 461 face; the dull black eyes under the precipice of brows, like dull anthracite furnaces, needing only to be blown; the mastiff mouth accurately closed; I have not traced so much of silent Berserkir rage that I remember in any man." In 1820 Webster took an important part in the convention called to revise the constitution of Massachusetts, his arguments in favour of removing the religious test, in favour of retaining property representation in the Senate, and in favour of increasing the independence of the judiciary, being especially notable. He was a member of the National House of Repre- sentatives from 1823 to 1827 and of the Senate from 1827 to 1841. Soon after returning to the House he supported in a notable speech a resolution to send a commissioner to Greece, then in insurrection. The tariff was to him a distasteful subject, and he was governed in his attitude toward it largely by the wishes of the majority of his constituents. He opposed the tariff bill of 1816 and in 1824, and he repudiated the name of " American system," claimed by Clay for his system of protection. When, however, the tariff bill of 1828, which was still more protective, came up for discussion, Webster had ceased to oppose protection; but he did not attempt to argue in favour of it. He stated that his people, after giving warning in 1824 that they would consider protection the policy of the Government, had gone into protected manufactures, and he now asked that that policy be not reversed to the injury of his constituents. In later speeches, too, he defended protection rather as a policy under which industries had been called into being than as advisable if the stage had been clear for the adoption of a new policy. The tariff of 1828 aroused bitter opposition in South Carolina, and called from Vice-President Calhoun the statement of the doctrine of nullification which was adopted by the South Carolina legislature at the close of the year and is known as the South Carolina Exposition. Senator Robert Y. Hayne, from the same state, voiced this doctrine in the Senate, and Webster's reply was his most powerful exposition of the national conception of the Union. The occasion of this famous Webster-Hayne debate was the introduction by Senator Samuel A. Foote (1780- 1846) of Connecticut of a resolution of inquiry into the expediency of restricting the sales of the Western lands. This was on the 2Qth of December 1829, and after Senator Benton of Missouri had denounced the resolution as one inspired by hatred of the East for the West, Hayne, on the igth of January 1830, made a vigorous attack on New England, and declared his opposition to a permanent revenue from the public lands or any other source on the ground that it would promote corruption and the consolidation of the government and " be fatal to the sovereignty and independence of the states." Webster's brief reply drew from Hayne a second speech, in which he entered into a full exposition of the doctrine of nullification, and the important part of Webster's second reply to Hayne on the 26th and 27th of January is a masterly exposition of the Constitution as in his opinion it had come to be after a development of more than forty years. He showed the revolutionary and unpractical character of any doctrine such as nullification (q.v.) based on the assumption that the general government was the agent of the state legislatures. It placed the general government, he said, in the absurd position of a " servant of four-and-twenty masters, of different wills and different purposes, and yet bound to obey all." He then argued at length that the correct assumption was that both the general government and the state government were " all agents of the same supreme power, the people," that the people had established the Constitution of the United States and that in the Supreme Court, established under that Constitution, was vested the final decision on all constitutional questions. Whatever may be said of the original creation of the Constitution, whether by the states or by the people, its development under the influences of a growing nationalism was a strong support to Webster's argument, and no other speech so strengthened Union sentiment throughout the North; its keynote was " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." South Carolina, however, insisted that its doctrine was sound, and in November 1832 passed an ordinance declaring the revenue laws of the United States null and void. President Jackson responded with a proclamation denying the right of nullification, and asked Congress for authority to collect the revenue in South Carolina by force if necessary. A bill, known as the Force Bill, was introduced in the Senate, and in the debate upon it Webster had an encounter with Calhoun. His reply to Calhoun, printed as " The Constitution not a compact between sovereign States," is one of his closest legal arguments, but somewhat overmatched by the keen logic of his adversary. Webster's support of President Jackson in the South Carolina trouble helped to drive Calhoun into an alliance with Clay; and Clay, whose plan of preserving the Union was by compromise, came forward with a bill for greatly reducing the tariff. Webster, strongly opposed to yielding in this way, made a vigorous speech against the bill, but it passed and South Carolina claimed a victory. In the same year (1833) the Whig party began to take definite form under the leadership of Clay, in opposition, chiefly, to President Jackson's bank policy, and Webster joined the ranks behind Clay with an aspiration for the presidency. He was formally nominated for that office by the Massachusetts legislature in 1835, and received the electoral vote of that state, but of that state only. Four years later his party passed him by for William Henry Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, and Webster refused the proffered nomination for vice-president. President Harrison appointed Webster secretary of state but died one month after taking office. John Tyler, who succeeded to the presidency, was soon " read out of his party," and all his cabinet except Webster resigned. Webster hesitated, but after consultation with a delegation of Massachusetts Whigs decided to remain. Although he was severely criticized there were good reasons for his decision. When he entered office the relations between the United States and Great Britain were critical. The M'Leod case1 in which the state of New York insisted on trying a British subject, with whose trial the Federal government had no power to interfere, while the British govern- ment had declared that it would consider conviction and execu- tion a casus belli; the exercise of the hateful right of search by British vessels on the coast of Africa; the Maine boundary, as to which the action of a state might at any time bring the Federal government into armed collision with Great Britain — all these at once met the new secretary, and he felt that he had no right to abandon his work for party reasons. With the special commissioner from Great Britain, Lord Ashburton, he concluded the treaty of 1842 known as the Webster-Ashburton Treaty. Differences arising out of the M'Leod case were adjusted by extend- ing the principle of extradition. The question of the suppression of the African slave trade, with which was connected the right of search, was settled by an agreement that each nation should keep in service off the coast of Africa a squadron carrying not fewer than eighty guns, and that the two squadrons should act in concert when necessary. The North-east boundary dispute was settled by a compromise which allowed Maine about 5500 sq. m. less than she had claimed, and allowed Great Britain about as much less on her claim, and by an agreement on the part of the government of the United States to pay to Maine and Massachusetts " in equal moieties " the sum of $30x3,000 for their assent (see MAINE). Immediately after the treaty had been concluded the Whigs insisted that Webster should leave the cabinet. He refused, for a time, to be driven, but because of their continued attacks, together with his ambition to become president, and because Tyler favoured the annexation of Texas while he was opposed to it, he resigned in May 1843. He was forgiven by his party in the following year, but not until the opposition, provoked by the retention of his position under Tyler, had ruined whatever 1 This case grew out of the Canadian rebellion of 1837. Alexander M'Leod boasted in November 1840 that he was one of a Canadian party who, on the 29th of December 1837, had captured and burned a small American steamboat, the " Caroline," and in the course of the attack had shot Amos Durfee. The Canadian commander had regarded the " Caroline " as being in the service of the insurgents and had asked for volunteers to destroy her (see SEWARD, W. H.). 462 WEBSTER, J. chance he might have had in that year of receiving the presidential nomination. In June 1843, on the occasion of the completion of the Bunker Hill monument, Webster delivered another classic oration. In February 1844 he argued the Girard Will Case before the United States Supreme Court. Stephen Girard (q.v.) had devised and bequeathed the residue of his estate for the establishment and maintenance of Girard College, in which no minister of the Gospel of any sect or denomination whatever should be admitted. The suit was brought to break the will, and Webster, for the plaintiffs, after stating that the devise could stand only on condition that it was a charity, argued that it was not a charity because no teaching was such except Christian teaching. He made an eloquent plea for Christianity, but his case was weak in law, and the court sustained the will. Webster was returned to the Senate in 1845. He opposed the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War, and was, as before, the recognized spokesman of his party. At the beginning of the quarrel of the North and the South over the organization of the territory acquired from Mexico, Calhoun contended that the Constitution of the United States extended over this territory and carried slavery with it, but Webster denied this on the ground that the territory was the property of, not part of, the . United States, and Webster's view prevailed. The whole mattei had, therefore, to be adjusted by Congress, and as the growing intensity of the quarrel revealed the depth of the chasm between the sections, Clay came forward with the famous compromise of 1850, and Webster's last great speech — " The Constitution and the Union," or as it is more commonly known " The Seventh of March Speech " — was in support of this Compromise. It was a noble effort to secure a lasting settlement of the slavery question, but he was bitterly denounced throughout the north as a renegade. In July 1850 Webster again became secretary of state, in the cabinet of President Fillmore. Perhaps the most important act of his second term was obtaining the release of Kossuth and other Hun- garian refugees who had fled to Turkey, and whose surrender had been demanded by the Austrian government. He died at his home in Marshfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of October 1852. Webster was twice married — first in 1808 to Grace, daughter of Rev. Elijah Fletcher, a New Hampshire clergyman. She died in 1828, leaving two sons, Daniel Fletcher, killed in the second battle of Bull Run, and Edward, a major in the United States army, who died while serving in the Mexican War, and a daughter Julia, who married Samuel Appleton. Webster's second wife was Caroline Le Roy, daughter of Jacob Le Roy, a New York merchant. He was married to her in 1829 and she survived him. The universal expression of respect and admiration at the time of Webster's death showed that he had retained the confidence of his people. Never, since the death of Washington, had there been in the United States such a universal expression of public sorrow and bereavement. It is not too much to say that the conviction of the justice of their cause that carried the northern states successfully through the Civil War was largely due to the arguments of Webster. He had convinced the majority of the people that the government created by the Constitution was not a league or confederacy, but a Union, and had all the powers necessary to its maintenance and preservation. He had con- vinced the Supreme Court, and established the principle in American jurisprudence, that whenever a power is granted by a Constitution, everything that is fairly and reasonably involved in the exercise of that power is granted also. He established the freedom of the instrumentalities of the national government from adverse legislation by the states; freedom of commerce between the different states; the right of Congress to regulate the entire passenger traffic through and from the United States, and the sacredness of public franchises from legislative assault. The establishment of these principles was essential to the integrity and permanence of the American Union. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Works of Daniel Webster (6 vols., Boston, 1851) contain a biographical memoir by Edward Everett; G. T. Curtis, Life of Daniel Webster (2 vols., New York, 1870) is the most complete biography, but it is written wholly from an admirer's point of view. See also J. W. Mclntyre (ed.), Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster (18 vols., Boston, 1903); Fletcher Webster (ed.), Daniel Webster's Private Correspondence (2 vols., Boston, 1857) ; H. C. Lodge, Daniel Webster (Boston, 1899) ; J. B. McMaster, Daniel Webster (New York, 1902) ; E. P. Wheeler, Daniel Webster, the Expounder of the Constitution (New York, 1905); S. W. McCall, Daniel Webster (Boston, 1902); and Norman Hapgood, Daniel Webster (Boston 1899). (E. P. W.; X.) WEBSTER, JOHN (fl. 1602-1624), English dramatist, was writer for the stage in the year 1602, when he had a share in three plays noted by Philip Henslow, and he published in 1624 the city pageant for that year, " invented and written by John Webster, merchant-tailor." In the same year a tragedy by Ford and Webster, A late Murther of the Sonn upon the Mother, was licensed for the stage; it is one of the numberless treasures now lost to us through the carelessness of genius or the malignity of chance. Beyond the period included between these two dates there are no traces to be found of his existence; nor is anything known of it with any certainty during that period, except that seven plays appeared with his name on the title page, three of them only the work of his unassisted hand. He was the author of certain additions to Marston's tragi-comedy of The Malcontent (1604); these probably do not extend beyond the induction, a curious and vivacious prelude to a powerful and irregular work of somewhat morbid and sardonic genius. Three years later, in 1607, two comedies and a tragedy, " written by Thomas Dekker and John Webster," were given to the press. The comedies are lively and humorous, full of movement and incident; but the beautiful interlude of poetry which distinguishes the second scene of the fourth act of Westward Hot is unmistakably and unquestionably the work of Dekker; while the companion comedy of Northward Hoi is composed throughout of homespun and coarse-grained prose. The Famous History of Sir Thomas Wyatt is apparently a most awkward and injurious abridgment of an historical play in two parts on a pathetic but undramatic subject, the fate of Lady Jane Grey. In this lost play of Lady Jane (noted by Henslow in 1602) Heywood, Dekker, Chettle and Smith had also taken part; so that even in its original form it can hardly have been other than a rough piece of patchwork. There are some touches of simple eloquence and rude dramatic ability in the mangled and corrupt residue which is all that survives of it; but on the whole this " history " is crude, meagre, and unimpressive. In 1612 John Webster stood revealed to the then somewhat narrow world of readers as a tragic poet and dramatist of the very foremost rank in the very highest class. The White Devil, also known as Vittoria Corombona,1 is a tragedy based on events then comparatively recent — on a chronicle of crime and retribution in which the leading circumstances weie altered and adapted with the most delicate art and the most consummate judgment from the incompleteness of incomposite reality to the requisites of the stage of Shakespeare. By him alone among English poets have the finest scenes and passages of this tragedy been ever surpassed or equalled in the crowning qualities of tragic or dramatic poetry — in pathos and passion, in subtlety and strength, in harmonious variety of art and infallible fidelity to nature. Eleven years had elapsed when the twin masterpiece of its author— if not indeed a still greater or more absolute masterpiece — was published by the poet who had given it to the stage seven years before. The Duchess of Malfy 2 (an Anglicized version of Amalfi, corresponding to such designa- tions as Florence, Venice and Naples) was probably brought on the stage about the time of the death of Shakespeare; it was first printed in the memorable year which witnessed the first publication of his collected plays. This tragedy stands out among its compeers as one of the imperishable and ineradicable land- marks of literature. All the great qualities apparent in The While Devil reappear in The Duchess of Malfy, combined with a yet more perfect execution, and utilized with a yet more consummate 1 The White Divel; or, The Tragedy of Paulo Giordano Ursini, Duke of Brachiano, with the Life and Death of Vittoria Corombona, the famous Venetian Curtizan (1612). Other editions, with varying title-pages, 1631, 1665, 1672. 2 The Dutchess of Malfey, A Tragedy. As it was approi, the weight of the beam alone = G, the weight on one side = P, that on the other = P+Z, and lastly the weight of each scale with its appurtenances = Q then - From this it is inferred that the deviation, and therefore the sensitive- ness, of the balance increases with the length of the beam, and de- creases as the distances, a and s, increase ; also, that a heavy balance is, celeris paribus, less sensitive than a light one, and that the sensitive- ness decreases continually the greater the weight put upon the scales. In order to increase the sensitiveness of a balance, the line AB joining the points of suspension and the centre of gravity of the balance must be Drought nearer to each other. Finally, if a is made extremely small, so that practically tan = Zl/Gs, the sensitiveness is inde- pendent of the amount weighed by the balance. Weisbach also shows that if Gy* is the moment of inertia of the beam, the time, /, of a vibration of the balance is g\2 (P+Q) a+GiJ This shows that the time of a vibration increases as P, Q and / increase, and as a and i diminish. Therefore with equal weights a balance vibrates more slowly the more sensitive it is, and therefore weighing by a sensitive balance is a slower process than with a less sensitive one. The conditions which must be fulfilled by a scale-beam in proper adjustment are: — (i) The beam must take up a horizontal position when the weights in the two scale-pans are equal, from nothing to the full weighing capacity of the machine. (2) The beam must take up a definite position of equilibrium for a given small difference of weight in the scale-pans. The sensitiveness, i.e. the angle of devia- tion of the beam from the horizontal after it has come to rest, due to a given small difference of weight in the scale-pans, should be such as is suited to the purposes for which the balance is intended. Bearing in mind that with ordinary trade balances there is always a possi- bility of the scale-pans and chains getting interchanged, these conditions require; (a) That the beam without the scale-pans and chains must be equally balanced and horizontal ; (6) that the two scale- pans with their chains must be of equal weight; (c) that the arms of the beam must be exactly equal in length; i.e. the line joining the end knife edges must be exactly bisected by a line drawn perpendicular to it from the fulcrum knife-edge. By testing the beam with the scale-pans attached and equal weights in the pans, and noting carefully the position which it takes up; and then inter- changing the scale-pans, &c., and again noting the position which the beam takes up, a correct inference can be drawn as to the causes of error; and if after slightly altering or adjusting the knife-edges and scale-pans in the direction indicated by the experiment, the operation is repeated, any required degree of accuracy may be ob- tained by successive approximations. The chief reason for testing balances with weights in the scale-pans rather than with the scale- pans empty, is that the balance might be unstable with the weights though stable without them. This is not an infrequent occurrence, and arises from the tendency on the part of manufacturers to make balances so extremely sensitive that they are on the verge of in- stability. In fig. 2 Iet.ABCD be the beam of a scale-beam, Z the EQUAL-ARMED] WEIGHING MACHINES 469 FIG. 2. fulcrum knife-edge, and X, Y the knife-edges on which the scales are hung. In order to ensure a high degree of sensitiveness, balances are sometimes constructed so that Z is slightly below the line joining X and Y, and is only slightly above H, the centre of gravity of the beam with the scale- pans and chains attached. The addition of weights in the scales will have the effect of raising the point H till it gets above Z, and the balance, becoming unstable, will turn till it is brought up by a stop of some kind. Fig. 3 represents a precision balance constructed to weigh with great accuracy. The beam is of bronze in a single deep casting, cored out in the middle so as to allow the saddle at the top of the stand to pass through the beam and afford a continuous bearing for the fulcrum knife-edge. The knife-edge and its bearing are both of stui-1 or agate, and the bearing surface is flat. The end knife-edges also are of steel or agate, and have continuous bearing on flat steel or agate surfaces at the upper part of the suspension links. To relieve the knife-edges from wear when the balance is not being used a triangular frame is provided, which is lifted and lowered by a cam action at the bottom, and moves vertically in guides fixed on the stand. By its upward movement the tops of the screw studs near its ends are first received by the projecting studs on each side of the suspension links, and the suspension links are lifted off the end knife-edges; and next, as the sliding frame continues its upward motion, the horizontal studs at the two ends of the beam are received in the forks at the ends of the sliding frame, and by them the fulcrum of the beam is lifted off its bearing. To keep the beam truly in its place, which is very necessary, as all the bearings are flat, the re- From Airy, " On Weighing Machines," Institution of Civil Engineers, 1892. FIG. 3. — Precision Balance. cesses for the ends of the studs are formed so as to draw the beam without strain into its true position every time that it is thrown out of gear by the sliding frame. The end knife-edges are adjusted and tightly jammed into exact position by means of wedge pieces and set screws, and the beam is furnished with delicate adjusting weights at its top. The position of the beam with respect to the horizontal is shown by a horizontal pointer (not shown) projecting from one end of it, which plays past a scale, each division of which corresponds to the Ath or liuth of a erain according to the size and delicacy of the machine. A first-class chemical balance would be made in this manner, but in all places where there are acids and gases the knife-edges and bearings must be made of agate, as the fumes attack and corrode steel. For the weighing of very small quantities with balances of great delicacy, the following method is adopted: — If the balance be in perfect adjustment, and / be the length of each arm, and w a very minute difference of the. weights in the two scale-pans, by which the beam is deflected from the horizontal by a very small angle , it can easily be shown that tan , or , varies as wXl. Therefore the angle of deflection which would be produced by grain weight hung at the distance //io (for example) from the centre is the same as would be produced by t^th of a grain in the scale-pan at the distance /. Therefore by graduating the top of the beam and shifting a rider grain weight till the beam is horizontal, it is easy to ascertain the small difference of weight in the scale-pans which caused the de- flection to the Tfo)th or T^imth part of a grain without using a weight smaller than a grain. The fitting of the knife-edges is of great importance. In ordinary trade balances a triangular piece of hard steel, with a finely-ground edge, is driven through a triangular hole in the beam and jammed tight. This forms the knife-edge, and the scale-pans are hung from the two projecting ends of the piece of steel. Similarly the two projecting ends of the central piece of steel which forms the fulcrum take bearing on two cheeks of the stand, between which the beam sways. It is clear that errors will arise if the pieces of steel are not truly perpendicular to the plane of the beam, and the adjust- ment of great accuracy would be very tedious. Therefore for balances of precision the end knife-edges are fixed on the top of the beam so as to present a continuous unbroken knife-edge, and the fulcrum knife-edge is also made continuous, the beam being cored out or cut away to admit of the introduction of the stand bearing. With this arrangement the knife-edges can be easily adjusted and examined, and the system is now rapidly extending to the better class of trade balances. The knife-edges of weighing machines are the parts that wear out soonest, but very little is known about them experimentally, and the knife-edges made by different makers vary extremely in their angles. Those made by some of the best makers for the most delicate machines are formed to an angle of about 80° between the sides, with the finished edge ground to an angle varying from 1 10° to 120°. The following may be taken as the maximum loads per in. of acting or efficient knife-edge allowed by the best makers: — 1. For scale-beams of the highest accuracy — From ilb per in. for a machine of i ft capacity, to 25 Ib per in. for a machine of 80 Ib capacity. 2. For ordinary trade scale-beams, counter machines, and dead- weight machines — From 20 Ib per in. for a machine of 7 Ib capacity, to 600 Ib per in. for a machine of i ton capacity. 3. For platform machines and weighbridges — From 120 ft per in. for a machine of 4 c.wt. capacity, to I ton per in. for a machine of 25 tons capacity. The sensitiveness of scale-beams depends entirely upon the skill and care used in their construction. With balances of the highest precision it may be as high as nnrinnth of the load weighed, while with trade balances when new it would be about ni^th of the load. In Emery's testing machine there are no knife-edges, but their function is performed by thin steel plates, which are forced under a very heavy pressure into slots formed in the parts that are to be connected, so that the parts are united by the plate. In this case there is no friction and no sensible wear, so that very great perman- ency of condition and constancy of action might be expected. But the resistance to bending of the steel plates would render this arrange- ment unsuitable for scale-beams, in which the movement is large. In some respects it would appear to be very suitable for weighbridges, in which the movement of the lever is very small, but for general convenience of adjustment the knife-edges appear preferable. In the comparison of standard weights, or in any weighing opera- tions where great accuracy is required, it is necessary to use many precautions. The comparison of standard weights has to be con- ducted at the standard temperature, and the room must be brought to that temperature and maintained at it. The balance must be enclosed in a glass case to protect it from draughts of air or from the heat of the body of the operator. And the operations of placing and shifting the weights must be effected by mechanism which will enable this to be done without opening the case or exposing the machine. When the weights which are to be compared are of different metals further complications arise, for the volumes of equal weights of different metals will be different, and therefore the quantity of air displaced by them will be different, and the difference of the weights of air displaced by the two weights must be allowed for. And the weight of air displaced depends upon the density of the air at the time of weighing, and therefore the barometer reading must be taken. For this correction an exact knowledge of the specific gravities of the metals under comparison is required. In this way an exact comparison of the weights in vacua can be computed, but of course the simplest way of arriving at the result would be by the construction of a strong air-tight case which can be completely exhausted of air by an air-pump, and in which the weighing can then be effected in vacua. The difficulty about weighing in vacua is that it is found almost impossible to exhaust the case entirely, or even to maintain a constant degree of exhaustion, by reason of the leakage connected with the weighing operations, and in consequence weighing in vacua is not much in favour. Whatever method is adopted, very exact weighing is a difficult and troublesome work. Counter machines have an advantage over scale-beams in not being encumbered* with suspension chains and the beam above. They are usually made with two beams, each with its three knife- edges, rigidly tied together or cast in one piece and some distance apart, so that the scale-pans being carried on two knife-edges, each is prevented from tipping over sideways. To prevent them from tipping over in the direction of the beams a vertical leg is rigidly fastened to the under side of each pan, the lower end of which is loosely secured by a horizontal stay to a pin in the middle of the frame. In using these machines there is seldom any question of determining the weight to any great nicety, and rapid action is generally of high importance. Hence they are very commonly made unstable, or " accelerating," i.e. they are constructed with the fulcrum knife-edges lower than the line joining the end knife-edges, and they are arranged so that the beam is horizontal when the stop of the weights-pan is hard down on its bearings. This arrangement 470 WEIGHING MACHINES [UNEQUAL-ARMED is well adapted for weighing out parcels of goods of a definite weight, though not for ascertaining the correct weight of a given article. For the latter purpose machines are used of which the beams are made stable, or " vibrating," by constructing them with the fulcrum knife-edges above the line joining the end knife-edges. " Accelerating " machines can be used to the advantage of the vendor in two ways. Firstly, in using them to determine the weight FIG. 4. of a given article. For with unstable balances, although the smallest excess of weight in the goods-pan will cause it to descend till it is brought up by its stop, yet being in this position, a very much greater weight than the difference which brought it there will be required in the weights-pan to enable it to mount again. If W be the weight in each pan when the goods-pan commenced to sink, / the length of each arm, m the distance of the fulcrum below the line joining the end knife-edges, and ft the angle at the fulcrum which defines the range of sway of the beam, it can easily be shown that w, the ad- ditional weignt required in the weights-pan to enable the goods-pan to rise from its stop, is given by the equation ai = W2>» tan /3/L — m tan 0. So that if, for example, a fishmonger uses such a machine to ascertain the weight of a piece of fish which he places in the goods- pan, and thereby depresses it down upon its stop, and then places weights in the weights-pan till the goods-pan rises, the customer is charged for more than the real weight of the fish. Secondly, in using them out of level, with the goods end of the machine lower than the weights end. If 6 be the angle of tilt of the machine, and the other symbols be as before, it may be shown that the additional weight, w FIG. 5. which is needed in the weights-pan to enable the goods-pan to rise off its stop, is given by the equation w= W 2m tan (/3— 0)/L — m tan 03— 8). When 8 is negative, as it is when the goods end of the machine is lower than the weights end, the value of w may be very appreciable. With " vibrating " machines the value of m is in general so extremely small that w is of no practical importance in either of the above cases. If a counter machine be made with a large flat goods-pan, as in fig. 4, an error may be caused by placing the goods eccentrically on the pan, as at D or E. Using the symbols of the diagram, it can be shown that the effect of placing the weight W at E instead of F is to cause the end of the beam to descend, as if under the action of an additional weight, w, at F such that The condition that must exist in order that the balance may weigh correctly for all positions of the weight W is w = o, or tan 8= —mlr*; that is, the stay KG must be adjusted parallel to the line joining the points A and C. From the equation for w, it is seen that the larger h is the smaller w will be. Therefore for the larger counter machines, where it is not convenient to have the scaje-pans raised high above the counter, and for " dead-weight " machines on the same principle, where it is not convenient to have the scale-pans raised high above the floor, there is an advantage in adopting the " inverted counter machine " arrangement (fig. 5)1 because the vertical leg can be produced upwards as high as is required. This arrangement is very common. As will be readily understood from the construction of the machines, there is more friction in counter machines than in scale-beams. The "sensitiveness " error allowed by the Board of Trade for counter machines is five times as great as that allowed for scale-beams. The torsion balance made by the United States Torsion Balance and Scale Company of New York is a counter machine made with- out knife-edges, and is very sensitive. It is constructed with two similar beams, one above the other, which are coupled together at the ends to form a parallel motion for carrying the pans up- right. The coupling is effected by firmly clamping the ends of the beams upon the top and bottom respectively of a loop of watch- spring, which is tightly stretched round the casting carrying the pan, as is shown in the end view in fig. 6. At their middles the beams are similarly clamped upon the top and ^_________^____ bottom of a loop of watch-spring which is tightly stretched round a casting which is bolted upon the bed-plate. When the case which holds the machine is adjusted hori- zontally by means of its foot- screws, and the weights in the pans are equal, the beams remain perfectly horizontal; but with the slightest difference of weight in the pans the beams are tilted, and the elastic resistance of the springs to torsion allows the beams to take up a definite position of equi- librium. The lower beam carries on a saddle a scale which is raised FIG. 6. nearly to the top of the glass case in which the machine is enclosed, and as the beams sway this scale plays past a scratch on the glass, which is so placed that when the zero point on the scale coincides with the scratch the beams are horizontal. With proper care this machine should be very per- manent in its action. Unequal-armed Balances. Steelyards are simple, trustworthy and durable, but unless special contrivances are introduced for ascertaining the position of the travelling poise with very great accuracy, there will be a little uncertainty as to the reading, and therefore steelyards are not in general so accurate as scale-beams. When carefully nicked they are well-adapted for weighing out definite quantities of goods, such as i Ib, 2 Ib, &c., as in such cases there is no question of estimation. The ordinary way of using a steelyard is to bring it into a horizontal position by means of movable weights, and to infer the amount of the load from the positions of these. But it is sometimes convenient to use a fixed weight on the long arm, and to infer the amount of the load from the position of the steelyard. The rule for graduation is very simple. The simplest form is that which has a single travelling poise. The more elaborate ones are made either with a heavy travelling poise to measure the bulk of the load with a. light travelling poise for the remainder, or else with a knife-edge at the end of the steel- yard, on which loose weights are hung to measure the bulk of the load, the remainder being measured with a light travelling poise. The advantage of the first arrangement is that the weights on the steelyard are always the same, and inconsistencies of indication are avoided, while in the second arrangement the loose weights are lighter and handier, though they must be very accurate and consistent among themselves, or the error will be considerable, by reason of the great leverage they exert. Steelyards, like other weighing machines, will be "accelerating," or " vibrating " according to the arrangement of the knife-edges. UNEQUAL-ARMED] WEIGHING MACHINES 47' In fig. 7 let Z be the fulcrum knife-edge, X the knife-edge on which the load R is hung, and H the centre of gravity of the weights to the right of Z, viz. the weight, VV, of the steelyard acting at its centre ofgravity; G, the travelling poise; P, acting at M ; and the weights, Q, hung on the knife-edge at V. Then if Z be below the line joining X and H, the steelyard will be " accelerating " ; i.e. with the smallest excess of moment on the left-hand side of the fulcrum, the end C of the steelyard will rise with accelerating velocity till it is brought up by a stop of some sort ; and with the smallest excess of moment on the right-hand side of the fulcrum, the end C of the steelyard will drop, and will descend with accelerating velocity till it is brought up by a similar stop. If Z be above the line XH, the steelyard is " vibrating "; i.e. it will sway or vibrate up and down, ultimately coming to rest in its position of equilibrium. Steelyards, again, are frequently arranged as counter machines, having a scoop or pan resting on a pair of knife-edges at the short end, which is prevented ? -V— ~H 1 _J^ 1 1 , W 1 • I FIG. 7. from tipping over by a stay arrangement similar to that of other counter machines. Steelyards are largely used in machines for the automatic weighing out of granular substances. The principle is as follows: The weighing is effected by a steelyard with a sliding poise which is set to weigh a definite weight of the material, say I ID. A pan is carried on the knife-edges at the short end, and is kept from tipping over by stays. A packet is placed on the pan to receive the material from the shoot of a hopper. A rod, connected at its lower end with the steelyard, carries at its upper end a horizontal dividing knife, which cuts off the flow from the shoot when the steelyard kicks. When the filled packet is removed, the steelyard resumes its original position, and the filling goes on automatically. The automatic personal weighing machine found at most railway stations operates by means of a steelyard carrying a fixed weight on its long arm, the load on the platform being inferred from the position of the steelyard. In fig. 8 the weight on the platform is transferred by levers to the vertical steel band, A, which is wrapped round an arbor on the axle of the disk- wheel, B, to which is rigidly attached the toothed segment, C. The weight, D, is rigidly attached to the axle of the wheel, B, and the counter- balance, E, is hung from the wheel, B, by means of a cord wrapped round it. When the pull of the band, A, comes upon the wheel, B, it revolves through a certain angle in the direc- tion of the arrow until the three forces, viz. the pull of A, the weight, D, and the counterbalance, E, are in equilibrium. The toothed segment, C, actuates the pinion, F, which carries the finger, G, and this finger remains fixed in position so long as the person is standing on the platform. If now a small weight, as a penny, be passed through the slot, H, it falls into the small box, I, and causes the lever, J, to FIG. 8. turn; the lever, J, which turns in friction wheels at K, and is counterbalanced at O, carries a toothed segment, L, which actuates a small pinion on the same axle as F, and is free to turn on that axle by a sleeve. This small pinion carries a finger, M, which is arranged to catch against the finger, G, when moved up to it. Consequently as the lever, J, turns, the finger, M, revolves, and is stopped when it reaches G. The sleeve of the pinion which carries M also carries the dial finger, and if the dial is properly graduated its finger will indicate the weight. The box, I, has a hinged bottom with a projecting click finger which, as the box de- scends, plays idly over the staves of a ladder arc. When the weight is removed from the platform, the counterbalance, E, causes the finger, G, to run back to its zero position, carrying with it the finger M, and causing the click finger of the box, I, to trip open the bottom of the box and let the penny fall out. The lever, J , regains its zero position, and all is ready for another weighing. Since so small a weight as a penny has to move the lever, J, together with the dial finger, &c., it is evident that the workmanship must be good and the friction kept very low by means of friction wheels. Some of thejargest and most accurate steelyards are those made for testing machines for tearing and crushing samples of metals and other materials. They are sometimes made with a sliding poise weighing I ton, which has a run of 200 in., and the steelyard can exert a pull of 100 tons. Balances are frequently used as counting machines, when the articles to be counted are allot the same weight or nearly so, and this method is both quick and accurate. They are also used as trade computing machines, as in the case of the machine made by the Computing Scale Company, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A. In this machine the goods to be priced are placed on the platform of a small platform machine whose steelyard is adjusted to balance exactly the weight of the platform, levers and connexions. The rod which transmits the pull of the long body lever of the platform machine to the knife- edge at the end of the short arm of the steelyard is continued up- wards, and by a simple mechanical arrangement transmits to an upper steelyard any additional pull of the long body lever due to the weight of goods placed on the platform. This upper steelyard is arranged as in fig 9, where A is the point where the pull of the long body lever due to the weight of the goods on the platform comes upon the steelyard; C is the fulcrum of the steelyard, which with the steelyard can be slid to and fro on the frame of the machine; and Q M-*-?.f- ' e o K> *f \ a • T t A « = *-'.C i FIG. 9. is a poise which can be slid along the upper bar of the steelyard. The steelyard is exactly in balance when there is no weight on the platform and Q is at the zero end of its run, at O. Suppose that the weight of the goods on the platform is (p) lb, and that -th n of this weight is transmitted by the long body lever to the point A, so that * ft is the pull at A. Let the lower bar of the steel- yard be graduated in equal divisions of length, d, each of which represents one penny, so that the distance CA = qXd represents q pence. Then the number PXq represents the total value of the goods on the platform. If Q lb be the weight of the poise Q, the position of Q when the steelyard is exactly in balance is given by the equation £xg.d = QXOQ, or OQ=pXqX-7)- If ^Q- therefore the upper bar be graduated in divisions, each of which is -QI the indication of the poise Q, viz. pXq graduations, gives correctly the value of the goods. Thus to ascertain the value of goods on the platform of unknown weight at a given price per lb, it is only necessary to slide the steelyard till the weight acts at the division which represents the price per lb, and then to move the poise Q till the steelyard is in balance; the number of the division which defines the position of the poise Q will indicate the sum to be paid for the goods. When the load on the platform is large, so that the value of the goods may be considerable, it is convenient to measure the larger part of the value by loose weights which, when hung at the end of the steelyard, represent each a certain money value, and the balance of the value is determined by the sliding poise Q. In the machines commonly used to weigh loads exceeding 2 cwt. the power is applied at the end of the long arm of the steelyard and multiplied by levers from 100 to 500 times, so that the weights used are small and handy. The load is received upon four knife-edges, so that on the average each knife-edge receives only one-fourth of the load, and, as will be seen, it is immaterial whether the load is received equally by the four knife-edges or not, which is essential to the useful application of these machines. In fig. 10 AB is the steelyard. The platform and the load upon it are carried on four knife-edges, two of which, Xi and Xi, are shown, and the load is transferred to the steelyard by thetwoleversshown, the upper one CD being known as the " long body," and the lower one EF as the " short body." If Zix1=ztx,, and £i/=z-y». tnen tne leverage of any portion of the load applied at x, will be the same as the leverage of any part of the load applied_at *i, and the pressure produced at y\ will be the same for equal portions of the load, whether they were originally applied at *i or x». Platform machines, like steelyards, may be arranged either on the " accelerating " principle or on the " vibrating " principle. If in fig. 10 fi be the centre of 472 WEIGHING MACHINES [UNEQUAL- ARMED gravity of the long body CD, and hi be the centre of gravity of the three vertical forces acting downwards at the points x\, t and gi, considered as weights collected at those points; then if hi be above the line z\yi it can be shown that this arrangement of the knife-edges of CD favours the " acceleration " principle, and is suited to act with and assist an " accelerating " steelyard, and similarly if the point ht be above the line Ziyi in the case of the short body EF. If the knife- edges be placed so that hi and fc are below the lines Xiy\ and x2yi respectively, the arrangement will favour the " vibration " principle, and is suited to act with and assist a " vibrating " steelyard. It is very important that platform machines should be truly level. With accelerating machines a small amount of tilt in any direction considerably affects the accuracy of the weighing, and when the amount of tilt is considerable the action may be changed, so that a machine which was intended to act as an accelerating machine acts like a vibrating one. Vibrating machines are only slightly affected by being out of level in comparison with accelerating machines, and in this matter they have a distinct advantage. When a platform machine is in true adjustment, and the loose weights which are intended to be hung at the end of the steelyard are correct and consistent among themselves, a good and new machine, whose capacity is 4 cwt., should not show a greater error than 4 oz. when fully loaded. Platform machines are slightly affected by changes of temperature. In some cases they are made " self-recording " by the following arrangement: The steelyard is provided with a large and a small travelling poise. Each of these poises carries a horizontal strip of metal, which is graduated and marked with raised figures corresponding to those on the steelyard itself. These strips pass FIG. 10. under a strong punching lever arranged on the frame of the machine. A card prepared for the purpose is introduced through a slit in the frame between the punch and the strips. When the poises have been adjusted to weigh a load on the platform the punch is operated by a strong pull, and the impression of the raised figures is left on the card. Thus the weight is recorded without reading the positions of the poises. In another arrangement the self-recording parts are entirely enclosed in the travelling poise itself. Fig. II shows the ordinary arrangement of the parts of a plat- form machine, but there are many types which differ greatly in detail though not in principle. When the goods to be weighed are very heavy, portable weigh- bridges or platform machines are inapplicable and it is necessary to erect the weighbridge on a solid foundation. Some weigh- bridges are arranged in a manner similar to that of the platform machines already described, but having the long body lever turned askew, so that the end of it projects considerably beyond the side of the weighbridge casing, and the pillar and steelyard which receive its pull are clear of the wagon on the platform. In another arrange- ment two similar triangular levers take bearing on opposite sides of an intermediate lever which communicates their pressures to the steelyard ; this is a very sound and simple arrangement for ordinary long weighbridges. Lastly, when the weighbridge is very long; — and they are sometimes made 40 ft. long, and are arranged to weigh up to I op tons or more — it is practically composed of two platform machines end to end, each having its four knife-edges to receive the load, and the two long bodies take bearing on the opposite sides of an intermediate horizontal lever, the end of which is connected with the steelyard. When skilfully made they are very accurate and durable. A useful application of weighbridges is to ascertain the exact weights on the separate wheels of locomotive engines, so that they may be properly adjusted. For this purpose a number of separate weighbridges of simple construction are erected, one for each wheel of the engine, with their running surfaces in exactly the same horizontal plane. The engine is moved on to them, and the pressures of all the wheels are taken simultaneously, each by its own weighbridge. There are many lands of weighing machines depending for their action on combinations of levers, and arranged to meet special requirements. Such are coal platform machines for weighing out coal in sacks, the levers of which are arranged as in the ordinary platform machines, but for the sake of compactness the steelyard is returned back over the long body, and when loaded with the proper weight indicates the correct weight of the coal in the sack by its end Elevation. Section on AB. Section on CD. FIG. ii. Section on EF. kicking up. Crane machines are used to weigh goods as they are hoisted by a crane; the lever arrangement is shown in fig. 12. A crane machine of peculiar construction, well adapted for weigh- ing heavy loads, and extremely simple and compact, which does not properly come under any of the heads under which the machines have been classified, is the hydrostatic weighing machine. This machine is constructed with an open top cylinder, a stirrup strap being provided by which it may be suspended from a crane. The SPRING BALANCES] WEIGHING MACHINES 473 cylinder, which is filled with oil or other liquid, is fitted with a piston having a piston-rod passing downwards and terminating in an attachment for the goods to be weighed. As the goods are lifted by the crane the whole of their weight is taken by the liquid in the FIG. 12. cylinder, and the pressure on the liquid, as indicated by a pressure gauge, gives the weight. The gauge has a plain dial, marked off to indications given by the application of standard tons and cwts. ; it could probably be read to about J % of the load weighed. Spring Balances. For many purposes spring balances are the most convenient of all weighing machines. They are rapid in action, the indica- tion is in general clear, and there is no need of loose weights except for testing the machine occasionally. Their action depends upon the extension of one or more spiral springs, and as the extension is proportionate to the weight which causes it the graduation is very simple. The accuracy of spring machines depends upon the accuracy of the springs and the workmanship of the machines. The springs in general are very accurate and uniform in their extension, and are very permanent when fairly well used; but their indications are apt to vary from fatigue of the springs if they are kept extended by a weight for a long time. Their in- dications also vary with the temperature, so that for good work it is advisable that spring balances should be frequently checked with standard weights. For the sake of compactness and con- venience of reading the extension of the springs, and conse- quently the load, is frequently indicated on a dial, by means of a small rack and pinion, which give motion to a finger on the dial-plate, but the regularity and correctness of the indications of the finger will depend upon the condition of the rackwork and upon the friction, and these will vary with the wear of the machine. For the above reasons spring balances are nbt in general so accurate as knife-edge rnachines. It is found that when a spiral spring is extended by a weight it has a tendency to turn a little round its axis. Therefore an index pointer attached to the bottom of the spring, and moving past a scale would rub slightly against the case. To correct this tendency the spring is usually made half with right-hand spiral and half with left- hand spiral. The extension of a spiral spring is given by the formula: — Extension = W4nRs/Er4, in which W = weight causing extension, in Ibs ; n — number of coils ; R = radius of spring, from centre of coil to centre of wire, in inches; r = radius of wire of which the spring is made, in inches; E =coefficient of elasticity of wire, in Ibs per square inch. The value of E depends upon the tempering of the wire and will vary accordingly: for the springs of trade balances E will usually be about 10,500,000. For the application of the above formula it is necessary to measure (R) and (r) very accurately, by reason of the high powers involved, but when this has been carefully done the formula may be relied upon. Thus in the case of a spring for which the values of the quantities were W = 7 ft, » = 5i, R = -3Oin., r = -038 in., £ = 10,500,000, the formula gives extension = 1-764 in., while direct experiment gave extension = 1-75 in. And with a very long and weak spring for which the values of the quantities were W = J oz., B = 233. R = '35 in-, r = -oo8s in., £ = 10,500,000, the formula gives extension = 22 -78 in., while direct experiment with the spring gave 23-5 in. Automatic Weighing Machines. of the During the last few years great efforts have been made to expedite the operation of weighing machines by the introduction of machinery, more or less complicated, which renders the machines to a great extent self-acting. The object aimed at varies very much with different machines. Sometimes the object is to weigh out parcels of goods in great numbers of the same definite weight. Sometimes the object is to weigh out parcels of goods, of unknown weight, as in ordinary retail dealing, and to give the exact value of each parcel at different rates per Ib. Sometimes the object is to weigh many loads in succes- sion, the loads being of varying weight, and to present the total weight at the end of a day's work; this is the case with machines for weighing coal and other minerals. Of course the introduction of automatic mechanism introduces friction and other complica- tions, and it is difficult to construct automatic machines that shall be as accurate in their weighing as the simpler weighing machines, but in many weighing operations a moderate degree of accuracy will suffice, and speed is of great importance. It is to meet such cases that the greater number of automatic weigh- ing machines have been invented. Some examples of these machines will now be .given. Automatic Computing Spring Weighing Machine for Retail Purposes (fig. 13). — A light and carefully balanced drum with its axis horizontal is enclosed within a cylindrical casing, and rotates freely in bearings formed in the ends of the casing. The casing is fixed in supports on the top of a strong frame, which also carries a small platform machine of ordinary construction on which the goods to be weighed are placed. The pull of the load is transmitted to a hook which hangs freely from the middle of a horizontal bar below the drum casing. At each end of the drum casing is attached a vertical spiral spring, and by the extension of these springs the weighing of the goods is effected. There are also two vertical racks, one at each end casing, in connexion with * the two springs, and these actuate pinions on the axle of the drum and cause it to revolve as the springs extend. The horizontal bar which receives the pull of the load is connected at its ends with the two spiral springs and pulls verti- cally upon them. Above the horizontal bar, and parallej with it, is a rod which is connected at its ends with the lower ends of the vertical racks, and at its middle with the horizontal bar. The con- nexion with the hori- zontal bar is through the medium of an adjustable cam. This cam can be turned by hand in a vertical plane by means of a worm and wheel movement, and by turn- ing the worm the vertical distance between the bar which is attached to the springs and the rod which is attached to the racks can be increased or diminished, and thus the racks can be moved rela- tively to the springs. By this means the zero of the scale on the drum can be adjusted to the fixed index on the casing when there are no goods on the platform. There is also a compensation arrange- ment for effecting automatically the same adjustment for changes of temperature. To deaden the vibration of the springs after a load has been placed on the platform, and thus to enable the weights and values of the goods to be read rapidly, the piston of a glycerin cylinder is attached to the end of the lever which pulls upon the hook of the horizontal bar and is worked by it in the glycerin. From the Notice issued by the Standards Depart- ment of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 13. — Price-computing Spring Weighing Machine. 474 WEIGHING MACHINES [AUTOMATIC On the outer surface of the drum are printed the weight of the goods in tb and oz., and the money value of the goods corresponding to the different rates per Ib. The side of the casing which is next to the seller is pierced centrally by two slots, one a vertical slot through which the weight is read on the drum, and the other a horizontal slot, half of it on each side of the vertical slot, through which the money values of the goods, corresponding to the different rates per tb, are read. The weight of the goods is recorded by means of an index pointer fixed to the casing on one side of the vertical slot, and the money values are opposite the figures defining the rates per Ib, which are marked on the edge of the casing below the hori- values are indicated on the chart by the toothed edge of the index arm. On the customer's side of the machine the weight of the goods is indicated on a pair of arcs by a separate index arm precisely in the same manner as on the seller's side. In weighing, the goods are placed in the pan of an ordinary lever machine (see fig. 14), and the end of the lever rests on the stirrup, end of a short vertical rod. The upper end of this rod is formed into a loop, and this loop pulls upon a knife-edge which is fixed to a short lateral arm rigidly attached to a vertical disk, and this disk turns in bearings formed in the frame of the machine. The same disk carries the index arm, which is rigidly fixed to it and indicates the weight and value of the goods, and also carries the pendulum, which is rigidly attached to it, and regulates the position of the index arm according to the position which it takes up and the leverage which it exerts when swayed out of the vertical position by the action of the lever of the lever machine. This lever is so counterbalanced that when there is no weight in the pan the pendulum is vertical, and the index arm should then stand at zero. The zero adjust- ment is effected by means of levelling screws in the base of the frame. In order to deaden the vibrations of the index arm when weighing goods a vertical rod is attached to the lever from the lever machine near its left-hand end, and this rod carries on its lower end a plunger which works in a closed cylindrical dash-pot containing oil or glycerin. Automatic Computing Weighing Machine (even balance and pendulum) for Retail Purposes (fig. 15). — This is an equal-armed inverted counter machine (see fig. 5) arranged to weigh up to 14 Ib with great accuracy. Up to 2 Ib the weight of theload is registered automatically on the chart in much the same manner as in the case of the automatic computing weighing machine already described. When the load exceeds 2 Ib one or more 2-lb weights are placed in the weights-pan, and the value of the portion of the goods corresponding to these 2-lb weights is computed, at the rate per Ib, in the ordinary manner; and the value of the balance of the weight of the goods is read off the chart, and the two are added together. The advantage of this is that a very open scale is obtained for reading the value of the balance of the load. Thus, for weighing up to the full load of 14 Ib, six 2-lb weights are required and no others. The manner in which the balance of the load is weighed is as follows: Near the bottom of the vertical leg from the goods-pan, a projecting piece is rigidly attached to it, and as the pan descends with the balance of the load this piece pulls by a hook on a thin band of steel, which From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office. FIG. 14. — Price-computing Weighing Machine. zontal slot. On the side of the casing which is next to the buyer there is a vertical slot through which the weight of the goods can be read on the drum. Automatic Computing Weighing Machine for Retail Purposes (fig. 14). — The action of the machine shown in fig. 14 depends upon the displacement of a loaded pendulum. And the machine is arranged to weigh goods up to 8 ft with the fixed weight only on the pendulum, and up to 16 Ib with an additional weight which can be readily slipped on to the pendulum rod. The weights and money values are arranged on a vertical chart, the sides of which converge towards the pivoting centre of an index arm which is actuated by the weighing mechanism. The two outer arcs of the chart are occupied by the scales for the weight of the goods in Ib and oz., and the_ rest of the chart is occupied by a series of 25 concentric arcs which show the money values of the goods for 25 rates per Ib. The rates per Ib are inscribed on the index arm at points corre- sponding to the values on the concentric arcs of the chart, and the is led upwards and wraps round the surface of a disk to which it is firmly secured. This disk rotates by rocking on a pair of knife-edges whose bearings are rigidly attached to the frame. The disk carries a weighted brass cylinder rigidly attached to it, which is pulled into an oblique position by the steel band until equilibrium is established. And the disk also carries the index arm which plays past the vertical face of the chart, and indicates the weight and price up to 2-lb weight. The disk also carries a second and corresponding index arm which indicates the weight on the purchaser's side of the machine. At the bottom of the vertical leg from the goods-pan there is also a projecting piece which is attached to the top of a vertical piston rod, the piston of which plays in a dash-pot of glycerin as the beam sways, and deadens the vibrations of the index arm. Automatic Tea Weighing Machine (fig. 16). — This machine is designed to weigh out tea in quantities of J Ib each, which are done up in separate packets by hand. A large number of movements AUTOMATIC] WEIGHING MACHINES 475 have to be provided for, and the machinery is complicated, so that a general description of the action of the machine is all that will be here given. The tea is fed into a hopper, which has a large opening at the urn, and this opening is entirely closed by two cylindrical brushes, which are mounted end to end on ,i horizontal shaft. As they revolve these brushes engage the tea in the hopper, draw it out by degrees, and drop it into' a compartment of a circular drum which hangs on one end of a scale-beam. The crushes have the same diameter, but one is much longer than the other, and they move independently of one another. For the bulk of the filling both brushes are in operation, but when the load is nearly complete the longer brush is stopped and the filling is completed by the shorter brush only. When the load is complete the shorter brush also is stopped while the compartment of the drum is emptied. And the action is then renewed. All these operations are effected automatically. The circular drum is divided into four equal compartments by radial diaphragms. And in a pan at the other end of the beam (which is counter- balanced for the weight of the drum) is a i-lb weight to weigh the tea. As the uppermost compartment fills, the weights end of the beam rises, and by means of a vertical rod suc- cessively operates on detents connected with the rotation of the two brushes, and stops them in turn. And when the short brush is stopped a rod from the shaft frees a spring detent which keeps the drum in position and tips it over. The tea is shot out and falls into a receptacle below, and the drum makes a quarter of a revolution, and is again held in position by the detent with an empty compartment at top ready for the next filling. The power is applied by a belt round a pulley, which is mounted on the end of the horizontal shaft which carries the brushes. The brushes are carried by sleeves which run loosely on the shaft, and to each sleeve is rigidly fixed a ratchet wheel. Next the ratchet wheel is a disk which is keyed on to the shaft. The ratchet wheel and the disk are automatically connected by clutch mechanism in order to effect the rotation of the brushes. The clutch mechanism is freed at the proper time by the action of the vertical rod at the end of the beam, and the brushes then is placed in the weights-pan of the balance, and is the only loose weight used with the machine. The pair of beams are hung centrally by rods and hooks from knife-edges in the forked end of a strong beam, which is carried at its fulcrum by the top plate of the frame of the machine. This beam is heavily counterbalanced at its further extremity. Underneath the top plate of the machine, and strongly framed to it, is a box, which contains the horizontal rods to the ends of which are attached the slides which regu- late the flow of sugar from the bottom of the hopper. The?e rods pass through holes in the front and back plates of the box, and are furnished with spiral springs, which (when the rods are forced back by hand) are in compression between the back plate of the box and shoulders on the rods. The rods are held in this position by detents which take hold of the shoulders of the rods, and are acted upon from the front end of the upper beam and the weights-pan end of the lower beam respectively, in order to release the rods at the proper times and reduce orcut off theflow of sugar from the hopper. The upper slide has the shape of a truncated cone, and it reduces the orifice of flow so as to render the flow of the sugar more manage- able. The lower slide is simply a cut-off slide. When it is desired to use the machine, a 4-lb bag is placed under the orifice of the hopper upon the goods-pan of the balance, and the slide rods are thrust back by hand till they are held by their detents, and the sugar flows rapidly into the bag. When the bag is nearly charged to the weight of 4 Ib, the weight of the bag of sugar over- comes the resistance of the counterbalance of the upper beam, and its front end drops a certain distance. In dropping it dislodges the detent of the reducing slide, and the slide springs forward and reduces the flow of the sugar. The dim- inished stream of sugar con- tinues to flow till the 4-R> weight in the weights-pan is lifted (the end of the upper beam being for the time brought up against the frame and unable to descend further), and in lifting it dis- f WT-r * fcw_l From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office. FIG. 15. — Price-computing Weighing Machine — even Balance and Pendulum. stand still while the load is discharged. The beam then recovers its original position and the action of the machine is renewed. Automatic Sugar Weighing Machine (fig. 17). — This machine is adapted for weighing out granulated white sugar in parcels of i-lb, 2-lb and 4-lb weight. The sugar is run into a conical hopper and is delivered into the open mouth of a bag which is placed on the goods- pan of a balance. The balance consists of a pair of equal-armed beams rigidly connected together and acting as a single beam. A 4-lb weight lodges the detent of the cut-off slide7 The slide springs forward and cuts off the flow. The filled bag is then removed and replaced by an empty bag and the action is renewed. In order to ensure the correct weight of the bag it is necessary to consider that when the cut-off slide acts, a certain quantity of sugar is in transitu and has not at that moment taken its place in the bag. This is allowed for by means of a rider weight, which is arranged so as automatically to add its weight to that of the sugar in the bag while WEIGHING MACHINES [AUTOMATIC the4-R> weight is being lifted. But at the same instant that the cut- off takes place the rider weight is lifted off the end of the balance by a From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 16. — Automatic Tea Weighing Machine. self-acting arrangement, and the sugar in transitu takes its place in the bag. And, if the rider weight has been correctly adjusted, the bag of sugar will be shown to weigh exactly 4 ft by the beam vibra- ting in equipoise. Automatic Coal Weighing Machine (fig. 18). — This machine weighs the coal de- livered into factories, &c., by charges up to 20 cwt. at a time, and records and sums up the weights of the charges so as to ex- hibit the total weight delivered. The whole of this work is effected automatically. The coal is dropped into a hopper by a grab. The hopper is carried on two knife- edges, one on each side, and is prevented from tipping over fore and aft by a pair of parallel motion bars on each side. The knife-edges I on which the hopper rests are on two hori- zontal levers, one on each side oi the hop- From the Notice issued by the Standards Department per. These levers are rrom tne INOUCC issued oy tne standards uepanment • „_• j L i, ;t i of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller carried by knife-edge fulcra in bearings on the frame of the ma- chine, and transmit the weight of the hopper intermediate lever and a vertical rod to the of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 17. — Automatic Sugar Weighing Machine. by means of an indicator lever. And the long arm of the indicator lever pulls vertically upon the spring of an ordinary spring balance, which registers the load, and with the addition of suitable counting mechanism sums up the weights of any number of successive loads. The charges of coal fall into the hopper with a heavy shock, and in order to save the knife-edges there is a strong pin in each side of the hopper below the knife-edge, which, before the charge of coal is dropped into the hopper, is acted on by a strong horizontal flitch- Elate, which heaves the hopper off the knife-edges and relieves them •om the shock. The heaving-up of the flitch-plate and hopper is effected by a cam on the end of a horizontal shaft which runs along the back of the machine behind the hopper. The flitch-plate rests at one end on the top of this cam, and at the other end is shackled to the horizontal arm of a bell-crank lever which is pivoted on the frame. When a charge of coal is dropped into the hopper, the bell-crank lever receives a violent jerk from the shackle of the flitch-plate, and this jerk by means of suitable mechanical arrangements throws a pinion on the cam shaft into gear with a wheel on a counter shaft From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 18. — Automatic Coal Weighing Machine. which is kept constantly running by means of a belt and pulley driven by an engine. The cam shaft and the cam then begin to revolve, and the flitch-plate is gradually lowered till the knife-edge bearings of the hopper are received on the knife-edges of the main measuring levers, and the load is then weighed by the levers and the spring-balance. Shortly after this is done the mechanism at the back of the hopper automatically opens the doors at the bottom of the hopper, and the coal drops out. The rotation of the cam shaft continues till the cam has again heaved up the flitch-plate, when the pinion on the cam shaft is thrown out of gear with the wheel on the counter shaft, and the cam remains steady till another charge of coal is dropped into the hopper and the action is renewed. The coal when dropped out of the hopper runs down a shoot into a receptacle, from whence it is lifted by a Jacob's Ladder and distributed to the boilers, &c., of the factory. Automatic Coal Weighing Machine (fig. 19). — This machine is designed to weigh and total up the weight of materials passed over it during a considerable course of operations. The trucks or other receptacles containing the coal, &c., are drawn upon the platform of the machine, and the pull of the load is transferred by a vertical rod at the left-hand end of the machine to the knife-edge on the short arm of the steelyard, whose fulcrum is carried on bearings in the frame. Behind the pulley at the top of the machine and on the same shaft is a spur wheel, which drives both of the spur wheels shown in the diagram. The small spur wheel is mounted on the steelyard, and this wheel and the one that drives it are so arranged that their line of WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 477 pressure shall exactly coincide with the line of the fulcrum knife- edge; the object of this is that the pressure may not influence the sway of the steelyard, which must depend entirely upon the poise. By means of a pair of mitre wheels the small spur wheel causes a screwed shaft, which runs along the middle of the steelyard, to clutch with a shaft in the same line, on which are keyed a sprocket wheel and a ratchet wheel. The sprocket wheel is connected by a chain with a similar sprocket wheel which is keyed on the same shaft as that of the left-hand pulley. The ratchet wheel is acted upon by a pawl which is shown on the diagram. When the poise is at the zero end, and there is no load on the platform, the end of the steelyard is down, and has locked the ratchet wheel by means of the pawl; the shaft being thus locked, the sprocket wheels are stopped, the drum-shall runs free by the friction clutch, and the two pulleys | which are connected by the crossed band are running idle. When the load to be weighed comes upon the platform, the end of the steelyard rises and unlocks the ratchet wheel through the pawl; the sprocket gearing is driven by the friction clutch, and drives the axle of the left-hand small pulley. The mitre wheels come into operation and the poise is carried along till the end of the steelyard drops, and locks the ratchet From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of wheel. By means of a horizontal rod the H.M. Stationery Office. ,„,-.• ,„ ,• same drop of the steelyard also locks FIG. 19.— Automatic Coal Weighing Machine. together by clutch gearing the left-hand revolve, and as it revolves it carries the large poise along the steel- yard. Thus, if the poise be at the zero end of the steelyard at the left-hand side of the machine, when the load comes upon the platform the screwed shaft carries the poise along the steelyard till equilibrium is established, and the end of the steelyard drops. By the first part of this drop the movement of the poise is suddenly stopped, as will be explained below, and the travel of the poise alone the steelyard, which measures the load on the platform, is recorded by the amount of rotation of the large spur wheel, and this is suitably shown on a dial in connexion with the wheel. By the second part of the drop the motion of the poise is reversed and the poise is run back to the zero /\J\ e'o' From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery OrBce. FIG. 20. — Automatic Luggage Weighing Machine. end in readiness for the next load. All of this is effected auto- matically as follows : — The machine is driven continuously by a belt from a motor which wraps round the large drum at the right-hand side of the machine. On the same axle as the drum and behind it is a small pulley which is keyed upon the axle and is connected with the small pulley (which runs idle on its shaft) at the left-hand side of the machine by a crossed belt. Thus these two small pulleys are always running, but in opposite directions. The drum-shaft is connected by a friction pulley and the adjacent sprocket wheel, and the pulley drives the sprocket wheel in the opposite direction to that which it had before. Consequently the motion of the mitre wheels is reversed and the poise is run back to zero. When the poise arrives at zero it frees the clutch which connects the pulley and the sprocket wheel, and the machine is then ready for the next load. The poise having arrived at the end of its run and unable to go further, the mitre wheels and the sprocket gearing are stopped, and the two pulleys and the cross belt run idle till the next load comes upon the platform. Automatic Luggage Weighing Machine (fig- 20). — This machine is intended for the weighing of personal luggage at railway stations. It consists ol a platform which is carried by levers arranged in the manner of an ordinary platform machine, which are connected with the registration mechanism by a vertical rod. This rod is continued upwards by a pair of thin nickel bands which are led right and left over two horizontal cylinders, round which they partly wrap,_and to which they are firmly 'attached. The diameter of the middle part of the cylinders is greater than that of the ends, and the bands from the vertical rod are led over the middle part. To each cylinder a pair of similar nickel bands are led downwards from the top of a casting which is bolted to the frame The lower ends of these bands pass round the under side of the end portions of the cylinders, wrapping close round them, and are firmly attached to them. To the bottom of each cylinder is rigidly attached a heavy solid cylinder of lead, and these are the regulators of the position of equilibrium of the cylinders when they rotate under the action of the load. When the load comes upon the platform the pull of the vertical rod is transmitted by the nickel bands to the cylinders around which they are wrapped, and causes them to revolve. As they rotate they roll themselves up the pairs of bands which are attached to the top of the casting, and at the same time cause the leaden weights attached to the bottoms of the cylinders to take up a lateral position, where they exercise a leverage opposing the_ motion of the cylinders, and bringing them up in a definite position corre- sponding to the pull of the vertical rod. By the rolling of the cylinders up the vertical bands from the casting the cylinders are raised vertically through a space defined by the position of the leaden regulators. By means of suitable and simple mechanism this vertical movement of the cylinders works plunger pistons in a pair of cylinders which contain glycerin, ana _these deaden the vibrations of the machinery while weighing is going on. The same vertical movement also actuates the index finger of a large dial, on which the weight of their luggage can be easily read by passengers standing near while their luggage is being weighed. AUTHORITIES. — Julius Weisbach, Mechanics of Machinery and Engineering (London, 1848); Ernest Brauer, Die Konstruktion der Waage (V ' (London, vol. cviii. ... Engineers, vol. for 1890. (W. AY.) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. This subject may be most conveniently considered under three aspects — I. Scientific; II. Historical; and III. Commercial. I. SCIENTIFIC ~i. Units. — In the United Kingdom two systems of weights and measures are now recognized — the imperial and the metric. The fundamental units of these systems are — of length, the yard and metre; and of mass, the pound and kilogram. The legal theory of the British system of weights and measures is — (a) the standard yard, with all lineal measures and their 478 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [SCIENTIFIC squares and cubes based upon that; (b) the standard pound of 7000 grains, with all weights based upon that, with the troy pound of 5760 grains for trade purposes; (c) the standard gallon (and multiples and fractions of it), declared to contain 10 Ib of water at 62° F., being in volume 277-274 cub. in., which contain each 252-724 grains of water in a vacuum at 62°, or 252-458 grains of water weighed with brass weights in air of 62° with the barometer at 30 in. Of the metric units international definitions have been stated as follows: — (a) The unit of volume for determinations of a high degree of accuracy is the volume occupied by the mass of I kilogram of pure water at its maximum density and under the normal atmospheric pressure; this volume is called litre. (b) In determinations of volume which do not admit of a high degree of accuracy the cubic decimetre can be taken as equivalent to the litre; and in these determinations expressions of volumes based on the cube of the unit of linear measure can be substituted for expressions based on the litre as denned above. (c) The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.1 (d) The term " weight " denotes a magnitude of the same nature as a force; the weight of a body is the oroduct of the mass of the body by the acceleration of gravity; in particular, the normal weight of a body is the product of the mass of the body by the normal acceleration of gravity. The number adopted for the value of the normal acceleration of gravity is 980-965 cm/sec2. 2. Standards, — The metre (melre-a-lraits) is represented by the distance marked by two fine lines on an iridio-platinum bar (l=o° C.) deposited with the Standards Department. This metre (m.) is the only unit of metric extension by which all other metric measures of extension — whether linear, superficial or solid — are ascertained. The kilogram (kg.) is represented by an iridio-platinum standard weight, of cylindrical form, by which all other metric weights, and all measures having reference to metric weight, are ascertained in the United Kingdom. From the above four units are derived all other weights and measures (W. and M.) of the two systems. The gallon is the standard measure of capacity in the imperial system as well for liquids as for dry goods. In the United Kingdom the metric standard of capacity is the litre, represented (Order in Council, igth May 1890) by the capacity of a hollow cylindrical brass measure whose internal diameter is equal to one-half its height, and which at o° C., when filled to the brim, contains one kg. of distilled water of the temperature of 4° C., under an atmospheric pressure equal to 760 millimetres at o° C. at sea-level and latitude 45°; the weighing being made in air, but reduced by calculation to a vacuum. In such definition an attempt has been made to avoid former confusion of expression as to capacity, cubic measure, and volume; the litre being recognized as a measure of capacity holding a given weight of water. For the equivalent of the litre in terms of the gallon, see below III. Commercial. In the measurement of the cubic inch it has been found that2 the specific mass of the cubic inch of distilled water freed from air, and weighed in air against brass weights (A = 8-i3), at the temperature of 62° F., and under an atmospheric pressure equal to 30 in. (at 32° F.), is equal to 252-297 grains weight of water at its maximum density (4° C.). Hence a cubic foot of water would weigh 62-281 Ib avoir., and not 62-321 Ib as at present legally taken. For the specific mass of the cubic decimetre of water at 4° C., under an atmospheric pressure equal to 760 mm., Guillaume and Chappuis of the Comite International des Poids et Mesures at Paris (C.I.P.M.) have obtained 0-9999707 kg.,3 which has been accepted by the committee. The two standards, the cubic inch and the cubic decimetre, may not be strictly comparable owing to a difference in the normal temperature (Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales) of the two units of extension, the metre and the yard. 1 Troisieme Conference Generate des Poids et Mesures (Paris, 1901). Metric Units Com. Roy. Soc. (1898). "Phil. Trans. (1892); and Proc. Roy. Soc. (1895), p. 143. _ ' Proc. Verb. Com. Intern, des Poids et Mesures (1900), p. 84. Congres International de Physique r6uni a Paris en 1900. For the weight of the cubic decimetre of water, as deduced from the experiments made in London in 1896 as to the weight of the cubic inch of water, D. Mendelfieff (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1895) has obtained the following results, which have been adopted in legislative enact- ments in the United Kingdom : — Temperature on the Hydrogen Thermometer Scale. Weight of Water in vacua. Of a Cubic Decimetre in Grammes. Of a Cubic I.ich in Grains. Of a Cubic Inch in Russian Dolis. C. F. 0° 4 15 i6§ 2O 32°-0 39-2 59-o 62-0 68-0 999-716 999-847 998-979 998-715 998-082 252-821 252-854 252-635 252-568 252-407 368-686 368-734 368-414 368-316 368-083 In this no account is taken of the compressibility of water — that is to say, it is supposed that the water is under a pressure of one atmosphere. The weight of a cubic decimetre of water reaches 1000 grammes under a pressure of four atmospheres; but in vacua, at all temperatures, the weight of water is less than a kilogram. 3. National Standards. — National standards of length are not legally now referred to natural standards or to physical con- S« T u ction of bar. Section at a a'. f lo o| FIG. I. — Present Imperial Standard Yard, 1844. Total length of bronze bar, 38 in.; distance a a', 36 in., or the imperial yard; a a', wells sunk to the mid-depth of the bar, at the bottom of each of which is inserted a gold stud, having the defining line of the yard engraved on it. slants,4 but it has been shown by A. A. Michelson that a standard of length might be restored, if necessary, by reference to the measurement of wave-lengths of light. Preliminary experiments have given results correct to ±o-5 micron, and it appears probable that by further experi- ments, results correct to *i-ojt may be obtained. That is to say, the metre might be redetermined or restored as to its length within one ten-millionth part, by reference to, e.g., 1553163-5 wave-lengths of the red ray of the spectrum of cad- mium, in air at 15° C. and 760 mm. In all countries the national standards of weights and measures j are in the custody of the state, or "r- of some authority administering the government of the country. The standards of the British Empire, so far as they relate to the imperial and metric systems, are in the custody of the Board of Trade. Scientific research is not, of course, bound by official standards. For the care of these national standards the Standards Department was developed, under the direction of a Royal Commission 5 (of which the "O. FIG. 2. — Imperial Standard Pound, 1844. Platinum pound avoirdu- late Henry Williams Chisholm was a pois, of cylindrical form, with leading member), to conduct all com- groove at a for lifting the parisons and other operations with weight, reference to weights and measures in aid of scientific research or otherwise, which it may be the duty of the state to undertake. Similar standardizing offices are established 4 Valeur du Metre, A. A. Michelson (Paris, 1894); Units, Everett, Illustrations of C.G.S. System; Unites et Etalons, Guillaume (Paris, 1890); Lupton's Numerical Tables, 1892; Metric Equivalent Cards, 1901; Dictionary of Metric Measures, L. Clark (1891); Glazebrook and Shaw's Physics (1901). 6 Report Standards Commission, 1870. SCIENTIFIC] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 479 in other countries (see STANDARDS). Verified " Parliamentary ( upies " of the imperial standard are placed at the Royal Mint, with the Royal Society, at the Royal Observatory, and in the Westminster Palace. The forms of the four primary standards representing the four units of extension and mass are shown in figs, i to 4. A secondary standard measure for dry goods is the bushel of 1824, containing 8 imperial gallons, represented by a hollow bronze cylinder having a plane base, its internal diameter being double its depth. The imperial standard measure of capacity is a hollow cylinder (fig. 5) made of brass, with a plane base, of equal height and diameter; which when filled to the brim, as determined by a plane glass disk, contains 10 Ib weight of water at 1=62° F.B. = 30 in., weighed in air against brass weights. 4. Atmospheric Pressure, and Materials. — In the verification of a precise standard of length there may be taken into account the influence of the variation of atmospheric pressure. Taking the range of the barometer in Great Britain from 28 to 31 in., giving a difference of 3 in. (76 millimetres), which denotes a variation of 103 grammes per square centimetre in flic pressure of the atmosphere, the change caused thereby in the length of a standard of linear measurement would appear to be as follows: — For the yard measure of the form shown in fig. I a difference of length equal to 0-000002 in. is caused by the variation of atmo- spheric pressure from 28 to 31 in. For the metre of the form shown in fig. 3 the difference in length for a variation of 76 mm. in the barometer would be 0-000048 mm. on the metre. With reference to the materials of which standards of length are made, it appears that the Matthey alloy iridip-platinum (90% platinum, 10% iridium) is probably of all substances the least affected by time or circum- stance, and of this costly alloy, therefore, a new copy of the im- perial yard has been made. There appears, however, to be some Iridio-platinum bar of Tresca objection to the use of iridio- section as shown at A. The two platinum for weights, as, owing microscopic lines are engraved to its great density (£ = 21-57), on the measuring axis of the bar the slightest abrasion will make an at b, one near to each end of the appreciable difference in a weight ; bar. The standard metre (mktre- sometimes, therefore, quartz or a-traits) was supplemented by rock-crystal is used ; but to this the delivery to Great Britain, also there is some objection, as in 1898, of an end standard owing to its low density (A = 2-65) metre (mktre-a-bouts) also made there is a large exposed surface of iridio-platinum, and also of the mass. For small standard verifiedbytheC.I.P.M. Acorn- weights platinum (£ = 21-45) a"d parison of the yard with the aluminium (£ = 2-67) are used, and metrewasmadebytheC.I.P.M. also an alloy of palladium (60%) in 1896, and of the pound and and silver (40%) (A = n-oo). kilogram in 1883-1885 (see III. For ordinary standards of Commercial). length Guillaume's alloy (invar) of FIG. 3. — National Standard Metre, 1897. is used, as it is a metal that can of receiving fine graduations. Its coefficient ot linear expansion is only 0-0000008 for 1° C.1 5. Electrical Standards. — Authoritative standards and instru- ments for the measurement of electricity, based on the funda- mental units of the metric system, have been placed in the Electrical Laboratory of the Board of Trade.2 These include Current measuring J The standard ampere, and sub-standards instruments. ( from I to 2500 amperes. Potential measuring instruments. Resistance measuring instruments. The standard volt, and sub-standards for the measurement of pressure from 25 to 3000 volts. The standard ohm, sub-standards up to 100,000 ohms, and below i ohm to T^T ohm. Rapport du Yard, Dr Benoit (1896). 'Orders in Council (1894). 6. Temperature. — In the measurement of temperature the Fahrenheit scale is still followed for imperial standards, and the Centigrade scale for metric standards. At the time of the con- struction of the imperial standards in 1844, Sheepshanks's Fahrenheit thermometers were used; but it is difficult to say now what the true temperature then, of 62° F., may have been as compared with 62° F., or 16-667° C., of the present normal hydrogen scale. For metrological purposes the C.I. P.M. have adopted as a normal thermometric scale the Centigrade scale of the hydrogen thermometer, having for fixed points the tempera- ture of pure melting ice (o°) and that of the vapour of boiling dis- tilled water (100°), under a normal atmospheric pressure; hydrogen being taken under an initial mano- metric pressure of i metre, that is to say, at VW = 1-3158 times the normal atmospheric pressure. This latter is represented by the weight of a column of mercury 760 mm. in height; the specific gravity of mercury being now taken as I3'59S°» after Volkmann and Marek, and at the normal in- tensity followed under this pres- sure. The value of this intensity is l 'IG' 4:— National Standard equal to that of the force of gravity Kilogram, 1897. at the Bureau International, Paris (at the level of the Bureau), divided by 1-000332; a co-efficient which allows for theoretical reduction to the latitude 45° and to the level of the sea. The length of the metre is independent of the thermometer so far that it has its length at a definite physical point, the temperature of melting ice (o° C.), but there is the practical difficulty that for ordinary purposes measurements cannot be always carried out at o° C. The International Geodetic Committee have adopted the metre as their unit of measurement. In geodetic measurements the dimensions of the triangles vary with the temperature of the earth, but these variations in the same region of the earth are smaller than the variations of the temperature of the air, less than 10° C. Adopting as a co-efficient of dilatation of the earth's crust 0-000002, the variations of the distances are smaller than the errors of measurement (see GEODESY). 7. Standardizing Institutions. — Besides the State departments dealing with weights and measures, there are other standardizing institutions of recent date. In Germany, e.g. there is at Charlottenburg ( Berlin) a technical institute (Physikalisch - technische- Reichsanstalt) established under Dr W. Forster in 1887, which undertakes researches with reference to physics and mechanics, particularly as applied to technical industries.* In England a National Physical Laboratory FIG. 5 — Present Imperial Standard Gallon, 1824 (N.P.L.) has been established, based on the German institute, and has its principal laboratory at Bushey House, near Hampton, Middlesex. Here is carried out the work of standardizing measuring instruments of various sorts in use 1 WisienschafUiche Abhandlungen der physikalischen Reiehsan- stalt, Band ii. (Berlin, 1000); Denkschrift betreffend die Tdtigkeit der K. Norm.-Aichungs Kommn. (1869-1900). 480 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [ANCIENT HISTORICAL by manufacturers, the determination of physical constants and the testing of materials. The work of the Kew Observa- tory, at the Old Deer Park, Richmond, has also been placed under the direction of the N.P.L. (see III. Commercial).1 The C.I. P.M. at Paris, the first metrological institution, also undertakes verifications for purely scientific purposes. A descriptive list of the verifying instruments of the Standards Department, London, has been published.2 In the measurement of woollen and other textile fabrics, as to quality, strength, number of threads, &c., there exists at Bradford a voluntary standardizing institution known as the Conditioning House (Bradford Corporation Act 1887), the work of which has been extended to a chemical analysis of fabrics. 8. Ancient Standards of England and Scotland. — A " troy pound " and a new standard yard, as well as secondary standards, were constructed by direction of parliament in '1758-1760, and were deposited with the Clerk of the House of Commons. When the Houses of Parliament were burned down in 1834, the pound was lost and the yard was injured. It may here be mentioned that the expression " imperial " first occurs in the Weights and Measures Act of 1824. The injured standard was then lost sight of, but it was in 1891 brought to light by the Clerk of the Journals, and has now been placed in the lobby of the residence of the Clerk of the House, together with a standard " stone " of 14 Ib.3 In the measurement of liquids the old " wine gallon " (231 cub. in.) was in use in England until 1824, when the present imperial gallon (fig. 5) was legalized; and the wine gallon of 1707 is still referred to as a standard in the United States. Together with the more ancient standard of Henry VII. and of Queen Elizabeth, this standard is deposited in the Jewel Tower at Westminster. They are probably of the Norman period, and were kept in the Pyx Chapel at Westminster, now in the custody of the Commissioners of Works. A sketch of these measures is given in fig. 6.4 Besides these ancient standards of England (1495, 1588, 1601) there are at the council chambers of Edinburgh and chant's pound of 7200 grains, from France and Germany, also super- seded. (" Avoirdepois " occurs in 1336, and has been thence con- tinued: the Elizabethan standard was probably 7002 grains.) Ale gallon of 1601 =282 cub. in., and wine gallon of 1707=231 cub. in., both abolished in 1824. Winchester corn bushel of 8X268.8 cub. in. and gallon of 274j are the oldest examples known (Henry FIG. 7. — The Scots Choppin or Half-Pint, 1555. FIG. 8. — Lanark Stone Troy Weight, 1618. VII.), gradually modified until fixed in 1826 at 277.274, or 10 pounds of water. French Weights and Measures Abolished. — Often needed in reading older works. lignc, •08883 in. grain, •8197 gr. 12 pouce, 1-0658 72=gros, 59-021 12= pied, 12-7892 8 = once, 472-17 6 = toise, 76-735 o=marc, 3777-33 20oo=lieue de poste. 2-42219 miles. 2=poids de marc. 1-0792 Ib. Rhineland foot, much used in Germany, = 12-357 in. =the foot of the Scotch or English cloth ell of 37-06 in., or 3 X 12-353. (H. J. C.) II. ANCIENT HISTORICAL Though no line can be drawn between ancient and modern metrology, yet, owing to neglect, and partly to the scarcity of materials, there is a gap of more than a thousand years over which the connexion of units6 of measure is mostly guess-work. Hence, except in a few cases, we shall not here consider any units of the middle ages. A constant difficulty in studying works on metrology is the need of distin- guishing the absolute facts of the case from the web of theory into which each writer has woven them — often the names used, and sometimes the very existence of the units in question, being entirely an assumption of the writer. Again, each writer has his own leaning: A. Bockh, to the study of water-volumes and weights, even deriving linear measures therefrom; V. Queipo, FIG. 6— A, Winchester Bushel of Henry VII.; B, Standard Hundred- to the connexion with Arabic and Spanish measures; weight (112 Ib) of Elizabeth; C, Ale Gallon of Henry VII.; D, the old Wine J. . Brandis, to the basis of Assyrian standards; Gallon. Mommsen, to coin weights; and P. Bortolotti to Linlithgow some of the interesting standards of Scotland, as Egyptian units; but F. Hultsch is more general, and appears the Stirling jug or Scots pint, 1618; the choppin or half-pint, to give a more equal representation of all sides than do other JSSS (fig- 7); the Lanark troy and tron weights of the same periods (fig. 8).6 English Weights and Measures Abolished. — The yard and handful, or 40 in. ell, abolished in 1439. The yard and inch, or 37 in. ell (cloth measure), abolished after 1553; known later as the Scotch ell = 37-06. Cloth ell of 45 in., used till 1600. The yard of Henry VII. = 35'963 in. Saxon moneyers pound, or Tower pound, 5400 grains, abolished in 1527. Mark, f pound =3600 grains. Troy pound in use in 1415, established as monetary pound 1527. Troy weight was abolished, from the 1st of January 1879, by the Weights and Measures Act 1878, with the exception only of the Troy ounce, its decimal parts and multiples, legalized in 1853, 16 Viet. c. 29, to be used for the sale of gold and silver articles, platinum and precious stones. Merchant's pound, in 1270 established for all except gold, silver and medicines = 675O grains, generally superseded by avoirdupois in 1303. Mer- 1 Treasury Committee on National Physical Laboratory, Parlia- mentary Paper, 1898. 1 Descriptive List of Standards and Instruments, Parliamentary Paper, 1892. * Report on Standards deposited in House of Commons, 1st November 1891. •S. Fisher, The Art Journal, August 1900. * Buchanan, Ancient Scotch Standards. authors. In this article the tendency will be to trust far more to actual measures and weights than to the statements of ancient writers; and this position seems to be justified by the great in- crease in materials, and their more accurate means of study. The usual arrangement by countries has been mainly abandoned in favour of following out each unit as a whole, without recurring to it separately for every locality. The materials for study are of three kinds, (i) Literary, both in direct statements in works on measures (e.g. Eliasof Nisibis), medicine (Galen) and cosmetics (Cleopatra), in ready-reckoners (Didymus), clerk's (katib's) guides, and like handbooks, and in indirect explanations of the equivalents of measures mentioned by authors (e.g. Josephus). But all such sources are liable to the most confounding errors, and some passages relied on have in any case to submit to conjectural emendation. These author are of great value for connecting the monumental information * In the absence of the actual standards of ancient times the unit of measure and of weight have to be inferred from the other remains; hence unit in this division is used for any more or less closely define amount of length or weight in terms of which matter was measur ANCIENT HISTORICAL] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 481 but must yield more and more to the increasing evidence of actual weights and measures. Besides this, all their evidence is but approximate, often only stating quantities to a half or quarter of the amount, and seldom nearer than 5 or 10%; hence they are entirely worthless for all the closer questions of the approximation or original identity of standards in different countries; and it is just in this line that the imagination of writers has led them into the greatest speculations, unchecked by accurate evidence of the original standards. (2) Weights and measures actually remaining. These are the prime sources, and as they increase and are more fully studied, so the subject will be cleared and obtain a fixed basis. A difficulty has been in the paucity of examples, more due to the neglect of collectors than the rarity of specimens. The number of published weights did not exceed 600 of all standards in 1880; but the collections from Naucratis (28) ,' Defenneh (29) and Memphis (44) have supplied over six times this quantity, and of an earlier age than most other examples, while existing collections have been more thoroughly examined. It is above all desirable to make allow- ances for the changes which weights have undergone; and, as this has only been done for the above Egyptian collections and that of the British Museum, conclusions as to the accurate values of different standards will here be drawn from these rather than continental sources. (3) Objects which have been made by measure or weight, and from which the unit of construc- tion can be deduced. Buildings will generally yield up their builder's foot or cubit when examined (Inductive Metrology, p. 9). Vases may also be found bearing such relations to one another as to show their unit of volume. And coins have long been recognized as one of the great sources of metrology — valu- able for their wide and detailed range of information, though most unsatisfactory on account of the constant temptation to diminish their weight, a weakness which seldom allows us to reckon them as of the full standard. Another defect in the evidence of coins is that, when one variety of the unit of weight was once fixed on for the coinage, there was (barring the deprecia- tion) no departure from it, because of the need of a fixed value, and hence coins do not show the range and character of the real variations of units as do buildings, or vases, or the actual commercial weights. PRINCIPLE or STUDY. — i. Limits of Variation in Different Copies, Places and Times. — Unfortunately, so very little is known of the ages of weights and measures that this datum — most essential in considering their history — has been scarcely considered. In measure, Egyptians of Dynasty IV. at Gizeh on an average varied i in 350 between different buildings (27). Buildings at Persepolis, all of nearly the same age, vary in unit i in 450 (25). Including a greater range of time and place, the Roman foot in Italy varied during two or three centuries on an average -j-J-jj from the mean. Covering a longer time, we find an average variation of -5-^ in the Attic foot (25), y^ in the English foot (25), Y^TS m tne English itinerary foot (25). Se we may say that an average variation of f^ by toleration, extending to double that by change of place and time, is usual in ancient measures. In weights of the same place and age there is a far wider range; at Defenneh (29), within a century probably, the average variation of different units is fa, fa, and fa, the range being just the same as in all times and places taken together. Even in a set of weights all found together, the average variation is only reduced to fa, in place of fa (29). Taking a wider range of place and time, the Roman libra has an average variation of fa in the examples of better period (43) , and in those of Byzantine a(5e fa (**)• Altogether, we see that weights have descended from original varieties with so little intercomparison that no rectification of their values has been made, and hence there is as much variety in any one place and time as in all together. Average variation may be said to range from fa to fa in different units, doubtless greatly due to defective balances. 2. Rate of Variation. — Though large differences may exist, the rate of general variation is but slow — excluding, of course, all monetary standards. In Egypt the cubit lengthened -j-Jj-^ in 1 These figures refer to the authorities at the end of this section. XXVIH. 16 some thousands of years (25, 44) . The Italian mile has lengthened •pj ff since Roman times (2) ; the English mile lengthened about gjiy in four centuries (31). The English foot has not appreciably varied in several centuries (26). Of weights there are scarce any dated, excepting coins, which nearly all decrease; the Attic tetradrachm, however, increased fa in three centuries (28), owing probably to its being below the average trade weight to begin with. Roughly dividing the Roman weights, there appears a decrease of fa from imperial to Byzantine times (43). 3. Tendency of Variation. — This is. in the above cases of lengths, to an increase in course of time. The Roman foot is also probably jJu larger than the earlier form of it, and the later form in Britain and Africa perhaps another yfa larger (25) . Prob- ably measures tend to increase and weights to decrease in trans- mission from time to time or place to place. 4. Details of Variation. — Having noticed variation in the gross, we must next observe its details. The only way of examining these is by drawing curves (28, 29), representing the frequency of occur- rence of all the variations of a unit ; for instance, in the Egyptian unit — the kat — counting in a large number how many occur between 140 and 141 grains, 141 and 142, and so on; such numbers represented by curves show at once where any particular varieties of the unit lie (see Naukratis, i. 83). This method is only applicable where .there is a large number of examples; but there is no other way of studying the details. The results from such a study — of the Egyptian kat, for example — show that there are several distinct families or types of a unit, which originated in early times, have been perpetuated by copying, and reappear alike in each locality (see Tanis, ii. pi. 1.). Hence we see that if one unit is derived from another it may be possible, by the similarity or difference of the forms of the curves, to discern whether it was derived by general consent and recognition from a standard in the same condition of distribution as that in which we know it, or whether it was derived from it in earlier times before it became so varied, or by some one action forming it from an individual example of the other standard without any varia- tion being transmitted. As our knowledge of the age and locality of weights increases these criteria in curves will prove of greater value; but even now no consideration of the connexion of different units should be made without a graphic representation to compare their relative extent and nature of variation. 5. Transfer of Units. — The transfer of units from one people to another takes place almost always by trade. Hence the value of such evidence in pointing out the ancient course of trade and commercial connexions (17). The great spread of the Phoenician weight on the Mediterranean, of the Persian in Asia Minor and of the Assyrian in Egypt are evident cases; and that the decimal weights of the laws of Manu (43) are decidedly not Assyrian or Persian, but on exactly the Phoenician standard, is a curious evidence of trade by water and not overland. If, as seems probable, units of length may be traced in prehistoric remains, they are of great value; at Stonehenge, for instance, the earlier parts are laid out by the Phoenician foot, and the later by the Pelasgo-Roman foot (26). The earlier foot is continually to be traced in other megalithic remains, whereas the later very seldom occurs (25). This bears strongly on the Phoenician origin of our prehistoric civilization. Again, the Belgic foot of the Tungri is the basis of the present English land measures, which we thus see are neither Roman nor British in origin, but Belgic. Generally a unit is transferred from a higher to a less civilized people; but the near resemblance of measures in different countries should always be corroborated by historical considera- tions of a probable connexion by commerce or origin (Head, Historia Numorum, xxxvii.). It should be borne in mind that in early times the larger values, such as minae, would be trans- mitted by commerce, while after the introduction of coinage the lesser values of shekels and drachmae would be the units; and this needs notice, because usually a borrowed unit was multiplied or divided according to the ideas of the borrowers, and strange modifications thus arose. 5 482 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [ANCIENT HISTORIC/ 6. Connexions of Lengths, Volumes and Weights. — This is the most difficult branch of metrology, owing to the variety of con- nexions which can be suggested, to the vague information we have, especially on volumes, and to the liability of writers to ration- alize connexions which were never intended. To illustrate how easy it is to go astray in this line, observe the continual reference in modern handbooks to the cubic foot as 1000 oz. of water; also the cubic inch is very nearly 250 grains, while the gallon has actu- ally been fixed at 10 Ib of water; the first two are certainly mere coincidences, as may very probably be the last also, and yet they offer quite as tempting a base for theorizing as any connexions in ancient metrology. No such theories can be counted as more than coincidences which have been adopted, unless we find a very exact connexion, or some positive state- ment of origination. The idea of connecting volume and weight has received an immense impetus through the metric system, but it is not very prominent in ancient times. The Egyptians report the weight of a measure of various articles, amongst others water (6), but lay no special stress on it; and the fact that there is no measure of water equal to a direct decimal multiple of the weight-unit, except very high in the scale, does not seem as if the volume was directly based upon weight. Again, there are many theories of the equivalence of different cubic cubits of water with various multiples of talents (2, 3, 18, 24, 33) ; but connexion by lesser units would be far more probable, as the primary use of weights is not to weigh large cubical vessels of liquid, but rather small portions of precious metals. The Roman amphora being equal to the cubic foot, and containing 80 librae of water, is one of the strongest cases of such relations, being often men- tioned by ancient writers. Yet it appears to be only an approxi- mate relation, and therefore probably accidental, as the volume by the examples is too large to agree to the cube of the length or to the weight, differing -fa, or sometimes even iV1 Another idea which has haunted the older metrologists, but is still less likely, is the connexion of various measures with degrees on the earth's surface. The lameness of the Greeks in angular measurement would alone show that they could not derive itinerary measures from long and accurately determined distances on the earth. 7. Connexions with Coinage. — From the 7th century B.C. onward, the relations of units of weight have been complicated by the need of the interrelations of gold, silver and copper coinage; and various standards have been derived theoretically from others through the weight of one metal equal in value to a unit of another. That this mode of originating standards was greatly promoted, if not started, by the use of coinage we may see by the rarity of the Persian silver weight (derived 1 Relative to the uncertain connexion of length, capacity and weight in the ancient metrological systems of the East, Sir Charles Warren, R.E., has obtained by deductive analysis a new equivalent of the original cubit (Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly, April, July, October 1899). He shows that the length of the cubit arose through the weights; that is to say, the original cubit of Egypt was based on the cubic double — cubit of water — and from this the several nations branched off with their measures and weights. For the length of the building cubit Sir C. Warren has deduced a length equivalent to 20-6169 English inches, which compares with a mean Pyramid cubit of 20-6015 m- as hitherto found. By taking all the ancient cubits, there appears to be a remarkable coincidence through- out with 20-6109 m. Sir C. Warren has derived a primitive unit from a proportion of the human body, by ascertaining the probable mean height of the ancient people in Egypt, and so thereby has derived a standard from the stature of man. The human body has furnished the earliest measure for many races (H. O. Arnold-Forster, The Coming of the Kilogram, 1898), as the foot, palm, hand, digit, nail, pace, ell (ulna), &c. It seems probable, therefore, that a royal cubit may have been derived from some kingly stature, and its length perpetuated in the ancient buildings of Egypt, as the Great Pyramid, &c. So far this later research appears to confirm the opinion of Bockh (2) that fundamental units of measure were at one time derived from weights and capacities. It is curious, however, to find that an ancient nation of the East, so wise in geometrical proportions, should have followed what by modern experience may be regarded as an inverse method, that of obtaining a unit of length by deducing it through weights and cubic measure, rather than by deriving cubic measure through the unit of length. ne \ from the Assyrian standard), soon after the introduction of coinage, as shown in the weights of Defenneh (29). The relative value of gold and silver (17, 21) in Asia is agreed generally to have been 13! to i in the early ages of coinage; at Athen in 434 B.C. it was 14:1; in Macedon, 350 B.C., I2§:i; Sicily, 400 B.C., 15:1, and 300 B.C., 12:1; in Italy in ist century, it was 12:1, in the later empire 13-9:1, and under Justinian 14-4:1. Silver stood to copper in Egypt 80:1 (Brugsch), or 120:1 (Revillout); in early Italy and Sicily as 250:1 (Mommsen),or 120:1 (Soutzo), under the empire 120:1, and under Justinian 100:1. The distinction of the us of standards for trade in general, or for silver or gold in particular, should be noted. The early observance of the relative values may be inferred from Num. vii. 13, 14, where silver offerings are 13 and 7 times the weight of the gold, or of equal value and one-half value. 8. Legal Regulations of Measures. — Most states have preserved official standards, usually in temples under priestly custody. The Hebrew "shekel of the sanctuary" is familiar; the standard volume of the apet was secured in the dromus of Anubis at Memphis (35); in Athens, besides the standard weight, twelve copies for public comparison were kept in the city; also standard volume measures in several places (2); at Pompeii the block with standard volumes cut in it was found in the portico of the forum (33); other such standards are known in Greek cities (Gythium, Panidum and Trajanopolis) (11, 33); at Rome the standards were kept in the Capitol, and weights also in the temple of Hercules (2); the standard cubit of the Nilometer was before Constantine in the Serapaeum, but was removed by him to the church (2). In England the Saxon standards were kept at Winchester before A.D. 950 and copies were legally compared and stamped; the Normans removed them to West- minster to the custody of the king's chamberlains at the ex- chequer; and they were preserved in the crypt of Edward the Confessor, while remaining royal property (9). The oldest English standards remaining are those of Henry VII. Many weights have been found in the temenos of Demeter at Cnidus, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and in a temple of Aphrodite at Byblus (44); and the making or sale of weights may have been a business of the custodians of the temple standards. 9. Names of Units. — It is needful to observe that most names of measures are generic and not specific, and cover a great variety of units. Thus foot, digit, palm, cubit, stadium, mile, talent, mina, stater, drachm, obol, pound, ounce, grain, metretes, medimnus, modius, bin and many others mean nothing exact unless qualified by the name of their country or city. Also, it should be noted that some ethnic qualifications have been applied to different systems, and such names as Babylonian and Euboic are ambiguous; the normal value, of a standard will therefore be used here rather than its name, in order to avoid confusion, unless specific names exist, such as kat and ulrii. All quantities stated in this article without distinguishing names are in British units of inch, cubic inch or grain. Standards of Length. — Most ancient measures have been derived from one of two great systems, that of the cubit of 20-63 '"•• °r the digit of -729 in.; and both these systems are found in the earliest remains. 20-63 in. — First known in Dynasty IV. in Egypt, most accurately 20-620 in the Great Pyramid, varying 20-51 to 20-71 in Dyn. IV. to VI. (27). Divided decimally in locths; but usually marked in Egypt into 7 palms of 28 digits, approximately; a mere juxtaposition (for convenience) of two incommensurate systems (25, 27). The average of several cubit rods remaining is 20-65, aSe m general about icoo B.C. (33). At Philae, &c., in Roman times 20-76 on the Nilometers (44). This unit is also recorded by cubit lengths scratched on a tomb at Beni Hasan (44), and by dimensions of the tomb of Ramessu IV. and of Edfu temple (5) in papyri. From this cubit, mahi, was formed the xylon of 3 cubits, the usual length of a walking- staff ; fathom, nent, of 4 cubits, and the khet of 40 cubits (18); also the schoenus of 12 ,000 cubits, actually found marked onthe Memphis- Faium road (44). Babylonia had this unit nearly as early as Egypt. The divide plotting scales lying on the drawing boards of the statues of Gude (Nature, xxviii. 341) are of \ 20-89, or a span of 10-44, which i divided in 16 digits of -653, a fraction of the cubit also found in Egypt 01 . h: ANCIENT HISTORICAL] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 483 Buildings in Assyria and Babylonia show 20-5 to 20-6. The Baby- lonian system was sexagesimal, thus (18) — uban. 5 = qat, 6-ammat. 6-qanu, 6o = sos, 3o-parasang, 3-kaspu. •69 inch 3'44 20-6 114 74J° 3J3,ooo 446,000 Asia Minor had this unit in early times — in the temples of Ephesus 20-55, Samos 20-62 ; Hultsch also claims Priene 20-90, and the stadia ol Yphrodisias 20-67 and Laodicea 20-94. Ten buildings in all give 20-6} mean (18, 25) ; but in Armenia it arose to 20-76 in late Roman times, like the late rise in Egypt (25). It was specially divided into {th, the foot of fths being as important as the cubit. 12-45 in This was especially the Greek derivative of the 20-63 \ cubit. It originated in Babylonia as the foot of that [2075. System (24), in accordance with the sexary system applied to the early decimal division of the cubit. In Greece it is the most usual unit, occurring in the Propylaea at Athens 12-44, temple at Aegina 12-40, Miletus 12-51, the Olympic course 12-62, &c. (18); thirteen buildings giving an average of 12-45, mean lion -06 (25), =| of 20-75, rn. vac. -10. The digit = l palaeste, -i foot of 12-4; then the system is — font J I J -cubit, 4-orguia ..................... . . . . ....... I09~ I gtadion. °°*' 1 10 ........................ -acaena, lo-plethron, 6- J I3'4 in. 187 747 «4'S "45 747O In Etruria it probably appears in tombs as 12-45 (25); perhaps in Roman Britain; and in medieval England as 12-47 (25). 1VR in This foot is scarcely known monumentally. On three ; Egyptian cubits there is a prominent mark at the 19th !o 7" digit or 14 in., which shows the existence of such a measure (33). It became prominent when adopted by Philetaerus about 280 B.C. as the standard of Pergamum (42), and probably it had been shortly before adopted by the Ptolemies for Egypt. From that time it is one of the principal units in the literature (Didymus, &c.), and is said to occur in the temple of Augustus at Pergamum as 13-8 (18). Fixed by the Romans at 16 digits (13$ = Roman foot), or its cubit at ij Roman feet, it was legally =13-94 at 123 B.C. t42); and 7j Philetaerean stadia were = Roman mile (18). The multiples of the 20-63 cubit are in late times generally reckoned in these feet of f cubit. The name " Babylonian foot " used by |{ same is found in Asia Minor as 17-25 or | of 20-70. On the Egyptian cubits a small cubit is marked as about 17 in., which may well be this unit, as f of 20-6 is 17-2 ; and, as these marks are placed before the 23rd digit or 17-0, they cannot refer to 6 palms, or 17-7, which is the 24th digit, though they are usually attributed to that (33). We now turn to the second great family based on the digit. This has been so usually confounded with the 20-63 family, owing to the juxtaposition of 28 digits with that cubit in Egypt, that it should be observed how the difficulty of their incommensurability .has been felt. For instance, Lepsius (3) supposed two primitive cubits of 13-2 and 20-63, to account for 28 digits being only 20-4 when free from the cubit of 20-63 — the first 24 digits being in some cases made shorter on the cubits to agree with the true digit standard, while the remaining 4 are lengthened to fill up to 20-6. In the •727 in Dynasties IV. and V. in Egypt the digit is found in tomb sculptures as -727 (27); while from a dozen examples in the later remains we find the mean -728 (25). A length of 10 digits is marked on all the inscribed Egyptian cubits as the lesser span " (33). In Assyria the same digit appears as -730, particularly at Nimrud (25); and in Persia buildings show the lo-digit length of 7-34 (25). In Syria it was about -728, but variable; in eastern Asia Minor mere like the Persian, being -732 (25). In these cases the digit itself, or decimal multiples, seem to have been used. 18'23 The pre-Greek examples of this cubit in Egypt, men- ... tioned by Bockh (2), give 18-23 as a mean, which is 729- 25 digits of -729, and has no rejation to the 20-63 cubit. This cubit, or one nearly equal, was used in Judaea in the times of the kings, as the Siloam inscription names a distance of 1758 ft. as roundly 1200 cubits, showing a cubit of about 17-6 in. This is also evidently the Olympic cubit; and, in pursuance of the decimal multiple of the digit found in Egypt and Persia, the cubit of 25 digits was } of the orguia of 100 digits, the series being — old digit, 2;^Cut- 4^foixuia, io=amma, lo-stadion. •729 inch l8'2 73-9 729 7296. Then, taking J of the cubit, or J of the orguia. as a foot, the Greeks arrived at their foot of 12-14; tn's- though very well known in literature, is but rarely found, and then generally in the form of the cubit, in monumental measures. The Parthenon step, cele- brated as 100 ft. wide, and apparently 225 ft. long, gives by Stuart 12-137, by Penrose 12-165, °y Paccard 12-148, differences due to scale and not to slips in measuring. Probably 12-16 is the nearest value. There are but few buildings wrought on this foot in Asia Minor, Greece or Roman remains. The Greek system, however, adopted this foot as a basis for decimal multiplication, forming foot, I2'i6 inches io=- acaena, 121 0 10— plcthron, 1216 which stand as Jth of the other decimal series based on the dijnt. This is the agrarian system, in contrast to the orguia system, which was the itinerary series (33). Then a further modification took place, to avoid the inconveni- ence of dividing the foot in i6| digits, and a new digit was formed — longer than any value of the old digit — of -fa of the foot, or -760, so that the series ran .... ( io»lichas C9O ....... "»orguia, lo^a 76 inch 76 - 72-9 729 10— stadion. 7296. This formation of the Greek system (25) is only an inference from the facts yet known, for we have not sufficient information to prove it, though it seems much the simplest and most likely history. 11'62 Seeing the good reasons for this digit having been ex- , - ported to the West from Egypt — from the presence of the ioX'2t>. 18-23 cubit in Egypt, and from the -729 digit being the decimal base of the Greek long measures — it is not surprising to find it in use in Italy as a digit, and multiplied by 16 as a foot. The more so as the half of this foot, or 8 digits, is marked off as a measure on the Egyptian cubit rods (33). Though Queipp has opposed this con- nexion (not noticing the Greek link of the digit), he agrees that it is supported by the Egyptian square measure of the plethron, being equal to the Roman actus (33). The foot of n-6 appears probably first in the prehistoric and early Greek remains, and is certainly found in Etrurian tomb dimensions as 11-59 (25). Dorpfeld con- siders this as the Attic foot, and states the foot of the Greek metro- logical relief at Oxford as 11-65 (°r n-6i, Hultsch). Hence we see that it probably passed from the East through Greece to Etruria, and thence became the standard foot of Rome; there, though divided by the Italian duodecimal system into 12 unciae, it always maintained its original 16 digits, which are found marked on some of the foot-measures. The well-known ratio of 25:24 between the 12-16 foot and this we see to have arisen through one being i of ipo and the other 16 digits — 16§ : 16 being as 25 : 24, the legal ratio. The mean of a dozen foot-measures (1) gives 11-616^-ooS, and of long lengths and buildings u-6o7=t-oi. In Britain and Africa, however, the Romans used a rather longer form (25) of about n-68, or a digit of -730. Their series of measures was — also digitals, 4 = palmus, 4 = pes, -726 inch 2 go u'62 passus, 125— stadium, 58*1 7262 railliare; 58,100 uncia -968= ,', pes, palmipes I4'52 = s palmi, cubitus I7'43 — 6 palmi. Either from its Pelasgic or Etrurian use or from Romans, this foot appears to have come into prehistoric remains, as the circle of Stonehenge (26) is loo ft. of n-68 across, and the same is found in one or two other cases. 11-60 also appears as the foot of some medieval English buildings (25). We now pass to units between which we cannot state any con- nexion. 25' 1. — The earliest sign of this cubit is in a chamber at Abydos (44) about 1400 B.C.; there, below the sculptures, the plain wall is marked out by red designing lines in spaces of 25- 13 ±-03 in., which have no relation to the size of the chamber or to the sculpture. They must therefore have been marked by a workman using a cubit of 25-13. Apart from • medieval and other very uncertain data, such as the Sabbath day's journey being 2000 middling paces for 2000 cubits, it appears that Josephus, using the Greek or Roman cubit, gives' half as many more to each dimension of the temple than does the Talmud; this shows the cubit used in the Talmud for temple measures to be certainly not under 25 in. Evidence of the early period is given, moreover, by the statement in I Kings (vii. 26) that the brazen sea held 2000 baths; the bath being about 2300 cub. in., this would show a cubic of 25 in. The corrupt text in Chronicles of 3000 baths would need a still longer cubit; and, if a lesser cubit of 21-6 or 18 in be taken, the result for the size of the bath would be impossibly small. For other Jewish cubits see 18-2 and 21-6. Oppert (24) concludes from inscriptions that there was in Assyria a royal cubit of J the U cubit, or 25-20; and four monu- ments show (25) a cubit averaging 25-28. For Persia Queipo (33) relies on, and develops, an Arab statement that the Arab hashama cubit was the royal Persian, thus fixing it at about 25 in. ; and the Persian guerze at present is 25, the royal guerze being I J times this, or 37 J in. As a unit of 1-013, decimally multiplied, is most com- monly to be deduced from the ancient Persian buildings, we may take 25-34 as the nearest approach to the ancient Persian unit. 2T6. — The circuit of the city wall of Khorsabad (24) is minutely stated on a tablet as 24,740 ft. (U), and from the actual size the 0 is therefore 10-806 in. Hence the recorded series of measures on the Senkereh tablet are valued (Oppert) as — j^. <20-(palm), 3-U. 6 = qanu, »-sm, s-(»), n-us, jo-kmsbu. •iSinch ""y6 lo'to 64-8 129-6 648 7778 123,280 Other units are the suklum or JU-5-4, and cubit of 2U = 2i-9.- WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [ANCIENT HISTORIC/ which are not named in this tablet. In Persia (24) the series on the same base was — vitasti, 2=arasni, 36o=asparasa, 3o=parathafiha, 2=g5v; 10-7 inches 21-4 77°4 231,120 462,240 probably yava, 6=angusta io = vitasti; and gama = g arasni; also b5zu = 2 arasni. •iSioch 1-07 10-7 12-8 21-4 428 21-4 The values here given are from some Persian buildings (25), which indicate 21-4, or slightly less; Oppert's value, on less certain data, is 21-52. The Egyptian cubits have an arm at 15 digits or about 10-9 marked on them, which seems like this same unit (33). This cubit was also much used by the Jews (33), and is so often referred to that it has eclipsed the 25-1 cubit in most writers. The Gemara names 3 Jewish cubits (2) of 5, 6 and 7 palms; and, as Oppert (24) shows that 25-2 was reckoned 7 palms, 21-6 being 6 palms, we may reasonably apply this scale to the Gemara list, and read it as 18, 21-6 and 25-2 in. There is also a great amount of medieval and other data showing this cubit of 21-6 to have been familiar to the Jews after their captivity ; but there is no evidence for its earlier date, as there is for the 25-in. cubit (from the brazen sea) and for the i8-in. cubit from the Siloam inscription. From Assyria also it passed into Asia Minor, being found on the city standard of Ushak in Phrygia (33), engraved as 21-8, divided into the Assyrian foot of 10-8, and half and quarter, 5-4 and 2-7. Apparently the same unit is found (18) at Heraclea in Lucania, 21-86; and, as the general foot of the South Italians, or Oscan foot (18), best defined by the 100 feet square being ^ of the jugerum, and therefore = 10-80 or half of 21-60. A cubit of_2i -5 seems certainly to be indicated in prehistoric remains in Britain, and also in early Christian buildings in Ireland (25). 22-2. — Another unit not far different, but yet distinct, is found apparently in Punic remains at Carthage (25), about 11-16 (22-32), and probably also in Sardinia as 11-07 (22-14), where it would naturally be of Punic origin. In the Hauran 22-16 is shown by a basalt door (British Museum), and perhaps elsewhere in Syria (25). It is of some value to trace this measure, since it is indicated by some prehistoric English remains as 22-4. 20-0. — This unit may be that of the pre-Semitic Mesopotamians, as it is found at the early temple of Mujfayyir (Ur) ; and, with a few other cases (25), it averages 19-97. It is described by Oppert (24), from literary sources, as the great U of 222 susi or 39-96, double of 19-98; from which was formed a reed of 4 great U or 159-8. The same measure decimally divided is also indicated by buildings in Asia Minor and Syria (25). 19-2. — In Persia some buildings at Persepolis and other places (25) are constructed on a foot of 9-6, or cubit of 19-2; while the modern Persian arish is 38-27 or 2X19-13. The same is found very clearly in Asia Minor (25), averaging 19-3; and it is known in literature as the Pythic foot (18, 33) of 9-75, or J of 19-5, if Cen- sorinus is rightly understood. It may be shown by a mark (33) on the 26th digit of Sharpe's Egyptian cubit = 19-2 in. 13-3. — This measure does not seem to belong to very early times, and it may probably have originated in Asia Minor. It is found there as 13-35 in buildings. Hultsch gives it rather less, at 13-1, as the " small Asiatic foot." Thence it passed to Greece, where it is found (25) as 13-36. In Romano-African remains it is often found, rather higher, or 13-45 average (25). It lasted in Asia apparently till the building of the palace at Mashita (A.D. 620), where it is 13-22, according to the rough measures we have (25). And it may well be the origin of the dira* Stambuli of 26-6, twice I3'3- Found in Asia Minor and northern Greece, it does not appear unreasonable to connect it, as Hultsch does, with the Belgic foot of the Tungri, which was legalized (or perhaps introduced) by Drusus when governor, as | longer than the Roman foot, or 13-07; this statement was evidently an approximation _by an increase of 2 digits, so that the small difference from 13-3 is not worth notice. Further, the pertica was 12 ft. of 18 digits, i.e. Drusian feet. Turning now to England, we find (25) the commonest building foot up to the 1 5th century averaged 13-22. Here we see the Belgic foot passed over to England, and we can fill the gap to a considerable extent from the itinerary measures. It has been shown (31) that the old English mile, at least as far back as the 1 3th century, was of 10 and not 8 furlongs. It was therefore equal to 79,200 in., and divided decimally into 10 furlongs 100 chains, or looo fathoms. For the existence of this fathom (half the Belgic pertica) we have the proof of its half, or yard, needing to be suppressed by statute (9) in 1439, as " the yard and full hand," or about 40 in.,— ^evidently the yard of the most usual old English foot of 13-22, which would be 39-66. We can restore then the old English system of long measure from the buildings, the statute-prohibition, the surviving chain and furlong, and the old English mile shown by maps and itineraries, thus: — foot, 3=yard, 2 = fathom, io=chain, io=furlong, io=mile. 13-22 39-66 7932 793 7932 79,320 Such a regular and extensive system could not have been put into use throughout the whole country suddenly in 1250, especially as it must have had to resist the legal foot now in use, which was enforced (9) as early as 950. We cannot suppose that such a system would be invented and become general in face of the laws enforcing the 12-in. foot. Therefore it must be dated some time before th loth century, and this brings it as near as we can now hope to th_ Belgic foot, which lasted certainly to the 3rd or 4th century, and is exactly in the line of migration of the Belgic tribes into Britain. It js remarkable how near this early decimal system of Germany and Britain is the double of the modern decimal metric system. Had it not been unhappily driven out by the 12-in. foot, and repressed by statutes both against its yard and mile, we should need but a small change to place our measures in accord with the metre. The Gallic leuga, or league, is a different unit, being 1-59 British miles by the very concordant itinerary of the Bordeaux pilgrim. This appears to be the great Celtic measure, as opposed to the old English, or Germanic, mile. In the north-west of England and in Wales this mile lasted as 1-56 British miles till 1500; and the percl of those parts was correspondingly longer till this century (31) The " old London mile " was 5000 ft., and probably this was th mile which was modified to 5280 ft., or 8 furlongs, and so became th British statute mile. STANDARDS OF AREA. — We cannot here describe these in detail. Usually they were formed in each country on the squares of the Ion measures. The Greek system was — foot, 36 = hexapodes 100= acaena, 25=aroura, 4=plethron. 1.027 sq. ft. 36-06 102.68 2567 10,268 The Roman system was — pes, ioo=decempeda, 36=clima, 4=actus, 2 = jugerum, •94 sq.ft. 94 3384 13,536 27,072 jugerum, 2 = heredium, ioo=centuna, 4=saltus. •6205 acre 1-241 124-1 496-4 STANDARDS OF VOLUME. — There is great uncertainty as to th exact values of all ancient standards of volume — the only precis data being those resulting from the theories of volumes derive from the cubes of feet and cubits. Such theories, as we have notice) are extremely likely to be only approximations in ancient time even if recognized then; and our data are quite inadequate fo clearing the subject. If certain equivalences between volumes different countries are stated here, it must be plainly understo that they are only known to be approximate results, and not give a certain basis for any theories of derivation. All the actua monumental data that we have are alluded to here, with the amounts. The impossibility of safe correlation of units necessitate a division by countries. Egypt. — The hon was the usual small standard ; by 8 vases whic have contents stated in hons (8, 12, 20, 22, 33, 40) the mean is 29-: cub. in. =*= -6; by 9 unmarked pottery measures (30) 29-1 =*=-i6, ar divided by 20; by 18 vases, supposed multiples of hon (1), 32-1 ="=• These last are probably only rough, and we may take 29-2 cub. ir ="= -5. This was reckoned (6) to hold 5 utens of water (uten.-. 1471 grains), which agrees well to the weight; but this was probably an approximation, and not derivative, as there is (14) a weight callec' shet of 4-70 or 4-95 uten, and this was perhaps the actual weight of ; hon. The variations of hon and uten, however, cover one anpthe completely. From ratios stated before Greek times (35) the series < multiples was — ro, 8=hon, 4— honnu, io=apet ( 10= (Theban) , io=sa. or besha ( 4=tama 3-65 cub. in. 29-2 116-8 1168 4672 11,680 116,800 (Theban) is the " great Theban measure." In Ptolemaic times the artaba (2336-), modified from the Persian was general in Egypt, a working equivalent to the Attic metretes- value 2 apet or J tama; medimnus = tama or 2 artabas, and fraction down to rJjj artaba (35). In Roman times the artaba remainei (Didymus), but $ was the usual unit (name unknown), and this was divided down to ^ or Ttt artaba (35) — thus producing by *' artaba a working equivalent to the xestes and sextarius (35). Ali a new Roman artaba (Didymus) of 1540- was brought in. Besid the equivalence of the hon to 5 utens weight of water, the mathe- matical papyrus (35) gives 5 besha = | cubic cubit (Revillout'r interpretation of this as I cubit8 is impossible geometrically; se Rev. Eg., 1881, for data); this is very concordant, but it is ver unlikely for 3 to be introduced in an Egyptian derivation, and probably therefore only a working equivalent. The other ratio ol Revillout and Hultsch, 320 hons = cubit3, is certainly approximate. _ Syria, Palestine ana Babylonia. — Here there are no monuments' data known; and the literary information does not distinguish tb closely connected, perhaps identical, units of these lands. Mon over, none of the writers are before the Roman period, and many relied on are medieval rabbis. A large number of their statement? are rough (2, 18, 33), being based on the working equivalence o the bath or epha with the Attic metretes, from which are sometime drawn fractional statements which seem more accurate than they ar< This, however, shows the bath to be about 2500 cub. in. There ar two better data (2) of Epiphanius and Theodoret — Attic medimnu = 1 1 baths, and saton (J bath) = I f modii ; these give about 2240 an 2260 cub. in. The best datum is in Josephus (Ant. iii. 15, 3), when 10 baths = 41 Attic or 31 Sicilian medimni, for which it is agreed w must read modii (33); hence the bath = 2300 cub. in. Thus thea three different reckonings agree closely, but all equally depend on the Greek and Roman standards, which are not well fixed. The Sicilian modius here is ^, or slightly under J, of the bath, and so probably : ANCIENT HISTORICAL] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 485 Punic variant of the J bath or saton of Phoenicia. One close datum, if trustworthy, would be log of water = Assyrian mina .-. bath about 2200 cub. in. The rabbinical statement of cub. cubit of 21-5 holding 320 logs puts the bath at about 2250 cub. in.; their log-measure, holding six hen's eggs, shows it to be over rather than under this amount ; but their reckoning of bath = J cubit cubed is but approxi- mate; by 21-5 it is 1240, by 25-1 it is 1990 cubic in. The earliest Hebrew system was — (log. kab) .......... 3-Un, 6 ) _ < bath, or > < homer— wet. •issaron ........... iof I epha ) Jorkor— dry. 128 330 31 cub. in. 128 330 283 2300 33,ooo Usuron (" tenth-deal ") is also called gomer. The log and kab are not found till the later writings; but the ratio of hin to 'issaron is practically fixed in early times by the proportions in Num. xv. 4-9. Eptpbanius stating great hin = 18 xestes, and holy hin = 9, must refer to Syrian xestes, equal to 24 and 12 Roman; this makes holy hin as above, and great hin a double hin, i.e. seah or saton. His other statements of saton = 56 or 50 sextaria remain unexplained, unless this be an error for bath =56 or 50 Syr. sext. and .-. =2290 or 2560 cub. in. The wholesale theory of Revillout (35) that all Hebrew and Syri.m measures were doubled by the Ptolemaic revision, while retaining the same names, rests entirely on the resemblance of the names apet and epha, and of log to the Coptic and late measure lok. But there are other reasons against accepting this, besides the im- probability of such a change. The Phoenician and old Carthaginian system was (18) — log, 4—kab, 6— saton, 30— corus, 31 cub. in. 113 740 22,200 valuing them by 31 Sicilian =41 Attic modii (Josephus, above). The old Syrian system was (18) — cotyle, 2 — Syr. xestes, 18— sabitha or saton, ij— collathon, 2 = bath-artaba; jl cub. in. 41 740 mo 2220 also Syr. xestes, 45 =• man's, 2 — metretesor artaba. 41 1850 3700 The later or Scleucidan system was (18) — cotyle, 2 — Syr. xestes, go— Syr. metretes, 12 44 4000 the Syrian being I J Roman sextarii. The Babylonian system was very similar (18) — (1), 4-capitha,|||^manscphat I0_homer, 6 -achane. 33 cub. in. 132 1980 2380 23,800 142,800 The approximate value from capitha = 2 Attic choenices (Xenophon) warrants us in taking the achane as fixed in the following system, which places it closely in accord with the preceding. In Persia Hultsch states — 74'4 cub. id. 1983 3570 142,800 the absolute values being fixed by artaba = 51 Attic choenices (Herod, i. 192). The maris of the Pontic system is J of the above, and the Macedonian and Naxian maris fa of the Pontic (18). By the theory of maris = i of 2O-63 it is 1755-; by maris = Assyrian talent, 1850, in place of 1850 or 1980 stated above; hence the more likely theory of weight, rather than cubit, connexion is nearer to the facts. Aeginetan System. — This is so called from according with the Aeginetan weight. The absolute data are all dependent on the Attic and Roman systems, as there are no monumental data. The series of names is the same as in the Attic system (18). The values are I J Xthe Attic (Athenaeus, Theophrastus, &c.) (2, 18), or more closely II to 12 times i of Attic. Hence, the Attic cotyle being i7-5cub. in., the Aeginetan is about 25-7. The Boeotian system (18) included the achane; if this = Persian, then cotyle = 24-7. Or, separately through the Roman system, the mnasis of Cyprus (18) = 170 sextarii; then the cotyle = 24-8. By the theory of the metretes being ij talents Aeginetan, the cotyle would be 23-3 to 24-7 cub. in. by the actual weights, which have tended to decrease. Probably then 25-0 is the best approximation. By the theory (18) of 2 metretes = cube of the 18-67 cubit from the 12-45 foot, the cotyle would be about 25-4. within -4; but then such a cubit is unknown among measures, and not likely to be formed, as 12-4 is f of 20-6. The Aeginetan system then was — cotyle, 4=choenix. as cub. in. 100 300 800 3200 4800 This was the system of Sparta, of Boeotia (where, the aporryma = 4 choenices, the cophinus = 6 choenices, and saites or saton or hecteus = 2 apprrymae, while 30 medimni= achane, evidently Asiatic connexions throughout), and of Cyprus (where 2 choes = Cyprian medimnus, of which 5 = medimnus of Salamis, of which 2 = mnasis (18) Attic or Usual Greek System. — The absolute value of this system is far from certain. The best data are three stone slabs, each with several standard volumes cut in them (11, 18), and two named vases. The value of the cotyle from the Naxian slab is 15-4 (best, others 14-6-19-6); from a vase about 16-6; from the Panidum slab 17-1 (var. 16-2-18-2); from a Capuan vase 17-8; from the Ganus slab 17-8 (var. 17—18-). From these we may take 17-5 as a fair approxi- mation. It is supposed that the Panathenaic vases were intended as metretes; this would show a cotyle of 14-4-17-1. The theories of connexion give, for the value of the cotyle, metretes = Aeginetan talent, .-. 15-4-16-6; metres J of 12-16 cubed, . -.16-6; metretes = 1} of 12-16 cubed, .-. 16-8; medimnus = 2 Attic talents, hecteus=2O minae, choenix = 2j minae, .-. 16-75; metretes = 3 cub. spithami (J cubit=9-i2), .-. 17-5; 6 metretes = 2 ft. of 12-45 cubed, .'. 17-8 cub. in. for cotyle. But probably as good theories could be found for any other amount; and certainly the facts should not be set aside, as almost every author has done, in favour of some one of half a dozen theories. The system of multiples was for liquids — cyathus, il-oxybapbon, 4-cotyle, 12-cnous, u-metretes, 3-9 cub. in. 4'4 I7'5 "o 2520 with the tetarton (8-8), 2=cotyle, 2=xestes (35-), introduced from the Roman system. For dry measure — cyathus, 6-cotyle, 4-choenu, 8-hecteu3, 6-medimnus, 2'9 cub. in. I7'5 70 560 3360 with the xestes, and amphoreus (1680) = J medimnus, from the Roman system. The various late provincial systems of division are beyond our present scope (18). System of Gythium. — A system differing widely both in units and names from the preceding is found on the standard slab of Gythium in the southern Peloponnesus (Rev. Arch., 1872). Writers have unified it with the Attic, but it is decidedly larger in its uiiit, giving 19-4 (var. 19-1-19-8) for the supposed cotyle. Its system :' 4— hemihecton, 4— chous, 3— (•). 232 932 2706 cotyle, 58 cub. in. And with this agrees a pottery cylindrical vessel, with official stamp on it (AHMOSION, &c.), and having a fine black line traced round the inside, near the top, to show its limit; this seems to be probably very accurate, and contains 58-5 cub. in., closely agreeing with the cotyle of Gythium. It has been described (Rev. Arch., 1872) as an Attic choenix. Gythium being the southern port of Greece, it seems not too far to connect this 58 cub. in. with the double of the Egyptian n = 58-4, as it is different from every other Greek system. Roman System. — The celebrated Farnesian standard congius of bronze of Vespasian, " mensurae exactae in Capitolio P. X., " con- tains 206-7 cub. in. (2), and hence the amphora 1654. By the sextarius of Dresden (2) the amphora is 1695; by the congius of Ste Genevieve (2) 1700 cub. in.; and by the ponderarium measures at Pompeii (33) 1540 to 1840, or about 1620 for a mean. So the Farnesian congius, or about 1650, may best be adopted. The system for liquid was — quart anus, £'6 cub. in. 4 -sextarius, 344 6 = congius, 206 4>=urna, 825 2= amphora, 1630 for dry measure 16 sextarii = modius, 550 cub. in.; and to both systems were added from the Attic the cyathus (2-87), acetabulum (4-3) and hemina (17-2 cub. in.). The Roman theory of the amphora being the cubic foot makes it 1569 cub. in., or decidedly less than the actual measures; the other theory of its containing 80 librae of water would make it 1575 by the commercial or 1605 by the monetary libra — again too low for the measures. Both of these theories there- fore are rather working equivalents than original derivations; or at least the interrelation was allowed to become far from exact. Indian and Chinese Systems. — On the ancient Indian system see Numismata Orientalia, new ed., i. 24; on the ancient Chinese, Nature, xxx. 565, and xxxv. 318. STANDARDS OF WEIGHT. — For these we have far more complete data than for volumes or even lengths, and can ascertain in many cases the nature of the variations, and their type in each place. The main series on which we shall rely here are those — (i) from Assyria (38) about 800 B.C.; (2) from the eastern Delta of Egypt (29) (Defenneh) ; (3) from western Delta (28) (Naucratis) ; (4) from Memphis (44) — all these about the 6th century B.C., and therefore before much interference from the decreasing coin standards; (5) from Cnidus; (6) from Athens; (7) from Corfu; and (8) from Italy (British Museum) (44). As other collections are but a fraction of the whole of these, and are much less completely examined, little if any good would be done by including them in the combined results, though for special types or inscriptions they will be mentioned. 146 grains. — The Egyptian unit was the kat, which varied between 138 and 155 grains (28,29). There were several families or varieties within this range, at least in the Delta, probably five or six in all (29). The original places and dates of these cannot yet be fixed, except for the lowest type of 138-140 grains; this belonged to Heliopolis (7), as two weights (35) inscribed of " the treasury of An " show 139-9 and 140-4, while a plain one from there gives 138-8; the variety 147-149 may belong to Hermopolis (35), according to an inscribed weight. The names of the kat and tema are fixed by being found on weights, the uten by inscriptions; the series was — (*). I0-kat, 14 6 grs. 146 o = uten, 1460 10 m tema. 14.600. The tema is the same name as the large wheat measure (35), which was worth 30,000 to 19,000 grains of copper, according to Ptolemaic receipts and accounts (Rev. Eg., 1881, 150), and therefore very likely worth 10 utens of copper in earlier times when metals were scarcer. The kat was regularly divided into 10 ; but another division, for the sake of interrelation with another system, was in i andi, 486 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [ANCIENT HISTORICAL scarcely found except in the eastern Delta, where it is common (29); and it is known from a papyrus (38) to be a Syrian weight. The uten is found -5-6=245, in Upper Egypt (rare) (44). Another division (in a papyrus) (38) is a silver weight of ^ kat = about 88 — perhaps the Babylonian siglus of 86. The uten was also binarily divided into 128 peks of gold in Ethiopia; this may refer to another standard (see 129) (33). The Ptolemaic copper coinage is on two bases — the uten, binarily divided- and the Ptolemaic five shekels (1050), also binarily divided. (This result is from a larger number than other students have used, and study by diagrams.) The theory (3) of the derivation of the uten from j^n, cubic cubit of water would fix it at 1472, which is accordant; but there seems no authority either in volumes or weights for taking 1500 utens. Another theory (3) derives the uten from I5Vo of the cubic cubit of 24 digits, or better ? of 20-63 1 that, however, will only fit the very lowest variety of the uten, while there is no evidence of the existence of such a cubit. The kat is not unusual in Syria (44), and among the haematite weights of Troy (44) are nine examples, average 144, but not of ex- treme varieties. 129 ers • 258 ers "^ne f»reat standard of Babylonia became the 77«r i=; soo- Parent °f several other systems; and itself >5S ££* ' and its derivatives became more widely spread than any other standard. It was known in two forms — one system (24) of — um, 6o=sikhir, 6=shekel, io=stone, 6 — maneh, 6o=talent; •36 grs. 21-5 129 1290 7750 465,000 and the other system double of this in each stage except the talent. These two systems are distinctly named on the weights, and are known now as the light and heavy Assyrian systems (19, 24). (It is better to avoid the name Babylonian, as it has other meanings also.) There are no weights dated before the Assyrian bronze lion weights (9, 17, 19, 38) of the nth to 8th centuries B.C. Thirteen of this class average 127-2 for the shekel; 9 haematite barrel-shaped weights (38) give 128-2; 16 stone duck-weights (38), 126-5. A heavier value is shown by the precious metals — the gold plates from Khorsabad (18) giving 129, and the gold daric coinage (21, 35) of Persia 129-2. Nine weights from Syria (44) average 128-8. This is the system of the " Babylonian " talent, by Herodotus = 70 minae Euboic, by Pollux = 70 minae Attic, by Aelian = 72 minae Attic, and, therefore, about 470,000 grains. In Egypt this is found largely at Naucratis (28, _29), and less commonly at Defenneh (29). In both places the distribution, a high type of 129 and a lower of 127, is like the monetary and trade varieties above noticed; while a smaller number of examples are found, fewer and fewer, down to 118 grains. At Memphis (44) the shekel is scarcely known, and a J mina weight was there converted into another standard (of 200). A few barrel weights are found at Karnak, and several egg-shaped shekel weights at Gebelen (44) ; also two cuboid weights from there (44) of I and 10 utens are marked as 6 and 60, which can hardly refer to any unit but the heavy shekel, giving 245. Hultsch refers to Egyptian gold rings of Dynasty XVI 1 1. of 125 grains. That this unit penetrated far to the south in early times is shown by the tribute of Kush (34) in Dynasty XVIII.; this is of 801, 1443 and 23,741 kats, or 15 and 27 manehs and 7} talents when reduced to this system. And the later Ethiopic gold unit of the pek (7), or T J8 of the uten, was 10-8 or more, and may therefore be the J sikhir or obolos of 21-5. But the fraction j^ff, or a continued binary division repeated seven times, is such a likely mode of rude subdivision that little stress can be laid on this. In later times in Egypt a class of large glass scarabs for funerary purposes seem to be adjusted to the shekel (30). Whether this system or the Phoenician of 224 grains was that of the Hebrews is uncertain. There is no doubt but that in the Maccabean times and onward 218 was the shekel; but the use of the word darkemon by Ezra and Nehemiah, and the probabilities of their case, point to the darag- maneh, J"B maneh or shekel of Assyria; and the mention of $ shekel by Nehemiah as poll tax nearly proves that the 129 and not 218 grains is intended, as 218 is not divisible by 3. But the Maccabean use of 218 may have been a reversion to the older shekel; and this is strongly shown by the fraction J shekel (i Sam. ix. 8), the continual mention of large decimal numbers of shekels in the earlier books, and the certain fact of 100 shekels being = mina. This would all be against the 129 or 258 shekel, and for the 218 or 224. There is, however, one good datum if it can be trusted : 300 talents of silver (2 Kings xviii. 14) are 800 talents on Sennacherib's cylinder (34), while the 30 talents of gold is the same in both accounts. Eight hundred talents on the Assyrian silver standard would be 267— or roundly 300 — talents on the heavy trade or gold system, which is therefore probably the Hebrew. Probably the 129 and 224 systems coexisted in the country ; but on the whole it seems more likely that 129 or rather 258 grains was the Hebrew shekel before the Ptolemaic times^-especially as the loo shekels to the mina is paralleled by the following Persian system (Hultsch) — t . . 5 so=mina 6o=talent of gold •*• ( 60= mina 6o=talent of trade, 129 grs. 64507750 387,000 465.000 the Hebrew system being gerah, 20— shekel, ioo = manch, so-talent, 12-9 grs. 258? 25.800 774,000 and, considering that the two Hebrew cubits are the Babylonian and Persian units, and the volumes are also Babylonian, it is the more likely that the weights should have come with these. From the east this unit passed to Asia Minor; and six multiples of 2 to 20 shekels (av. 127) are found among the haematite weights of Troy (44), including the oldest of them. On the Aegean coast it often occurs in early coinage (17) — at Lampsacus 131-129, Phocaea 256- 254, Cyzicus 252-247, Methymna 124-6, &c. In later times it was a main unit of North Syria, and also on the Euxine, leaden weights of Antioch (3), Callatia and Tomis being known (38). The mean of these eastern weights is 7700 for the mina, or 128. But the leaden weights of the west (44) from Corfu, &c., average 7580, or 126-3 ; this standard was kept up at Cyzicus in trade long after it was lost in coinage. At Corinth the unit was evidently the Assyrian and not the Attic, being 129-6 at the earliest (17) (though modified to double Attic, or 133, later) and being -=-3, and not into 2 drachms. And this agrees with the mina being repeatedly found at Cprcyra, and with the same standard passing to the Italian coinage (17) similar in weight, and in division into 3 — the heaviest coinages (17) down to 400 B.C. (Terina, Velia, Sybaris, Posidonia, Metapontum, Tarentum, &c.) being none over 126, while later on many were adjusted to the Attic, and rose to 134. Six disk weights from Carthage (44) show 126. It is usually the case that a unit lasts later in trade than in coinage; and the promin- ence of this standard in Italy may show how it is that this mina (18 unciae = 7400) was known as the " Italic " in the days of Galen and Dioscorides (2). 126 ers ^ variation on the main system was made by forming a 6 wo ' m'na °f 5° shekels. This is one of the Persian series (gold), •> and the i of the Hebrew series noted above. But it is most striking when it is found in the mina form which distinguishes it. Eleven weights from Syria and Cnidus (44) (of the curious type with two breasts on a rectangular block) show a. mina of 6250 (125-0); and it is singular that this class is exactly like weights of the 224 system found with it, but yet quite distinct in standard. The same passed into Italy and Corfu (44), averaging 6000 — divided in Italy into unciae (^), and scripulae Osij), and called litra (in Corfu?). It is known in the coinage of Hatria (18) as 6320. And a strange division of the shekel in 10 (probably therefore connected with this decimal mina) is shown by a series of bronze weights (44) with four curved sides and marked with circles (British Museum, place unknown), which may be Romano-Gallic, averaging 125-7-10. This whole class seems to cling to sites of Phoenician trade, and to keep clear of Greece and the north — perhaps a Phoenician form of the 129 system, avoiding the sexagesimal multiples. If this unit have any connexion with the kat, it is that a kat of gold is worth 15 shekels or i mina of silver; this agrees well with the range of both units, only it must be remembered that 129 was used as gold unit, and another silver unit deduced from it. More likely then the 147 and 129 units originated independently in Egypt and Babylonia. -- From 129 grains of gold was adopted an equal value 1 of silver = 1720, on the proportion of 1:131, and this was divided in 10 = 172 — which was used either in }- this form, or its half, 86, best known as the siglus (17). Such a proportion is indicated in Num. vii., where the gold spoon of 10 shekels is equal in value to the bowl of 130 shekels, or double that of 70, i.e. the silver vessels were 200 and 100 sigli. The silver plates at Khorsabad (18) we find to be 80 sigli of 84-6. The Persian silver coinage shows about 86-0; the danak was j of this or 28-7, Xeno- phon and others state it at about 84. As a monetary weight it seems to have spread, perhaps entirely, in consequence of the Persian dominion; it varies from 174- downwards, usually 167, in Aradus, Cilicia and on to the Aegean coast, in Lydia and in Macedonia (17). The silver bars found at Troy averaging 2744, or J mina of 8232, have been attributed to this unit (17) ; but no division of the mina in J is to be expected , and the average is rather low. Two haematite weights from Troy (44) show 86 and 87-2. The mean from leaden weights of Chios, Tenedos (44), &c., is 8430. A duck-weight of Camirus, probably early, gives 8480; the same passed on to Greece and Italy (17), averaging 8610; but in Italy it was divided, like all other units, into unciae and scripulae (44). It is perhaps found in Etrurian coin- age as 175-1 72 (17). By the Romans it was used on the Danube (18), two weights of the first legion there showing 8610; and this is the mina of 20 unciae (8400) named by 'Roman writers. The system obnl, 6=siglus, ioo=mina, 6o=talent. 14-3 grs. 86 8600 516,000 A derivation from this was the J of 172, or 57-3, the so-called Phocaean drachma, equal in silver value to the J0 of the gold 258 grains. It was used at Phocaea as 58-5, and passed to the colonies of Posidonia and Velia as 59 or 1 18. The colony of Massilia brought it into Gaul as 58-2-54-9. 224 That this unit (commonly called Phoenician) is derived i 200*' *rom *ne I29 svstein can nardly be doubted, both being fi-M nnn so intimately associated in Syria and Asia Minor. The 072,000. reiat;on is 258 :229 ::9:8; but the exact form in which the descent took place is not settled: s"j or 129 of gold is worth 57 of silver or a drachm, J of 230 (or by trade weights 127 and 226) ; otherwise, deriving it from the silver weight of 86 already formed, the drachm is J ofthe stater, 172, or double of the Persian danak of 28-7, and the sacred unit of Didyma in Ionia was this half-drachm, 27; or thirdly, what is indicated by the Lydian coinage (17), 86 of ANCIENT HISTORICAL] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 487 gold was equal to 1150 of silver, 5 shekels or -}$ mina. Other pro- posed derivations from the kat or pek are not satisfactory. In actual use this unit varied greatly: at Naucratis (29) there are groups of it at 231, 223 and others down to 208; this is the earliest form in which we can study it, and the corresponding values to these are 130 and 1 26, or the gold and trade varief.es of the Babylonian, while the lower tail down to 208 corresponds to the shekel down to 1 18, which is just what is found. Hence the 224 unit seems to have been formed from the 129, after the main families or types of that had arisen. It is scarcer at Defenneh (29) and rare at Memphis (44). Under the Ptolemies, however, it became the great unit of Egypt, and is very prominent in the later literature in consequence (18, 35). The average of coins (21) of Ptolemy I. gives 219-6, and thence they gradually diminish to 210, the average (33) of the whole series of Ptolemies being 218. The "argenteus" (as Revillout transcribes a sign in the papyri) (35) was of 5 shekels, or 1090; it arose about 440 B.C., and became after 160 B.C. a weight unit for copper. In Syria, as early as the I5th century B.C., the tribute of the Kutennu, of Naha- raina, Megiddo, Anaukasa, &c. (34), is on a basis of 454-484 kats, or 300 shekels (j^ talent) of 226 grains. The commonest weight at Troy (44) is the shekel, averaging 224. In coinage it is one of the commonest units in early times; from Phoenicia, round the coast to Macedonia, it is predominant (17) ; at a maximum of 230 (lalysus), it is in Macedonia 224, but seldom exceeds 220 elsewhere, the earliest Lydian of the yth century being 219, and the general average of coins 218. The system was — 7grs. 8 =dr;iclirn, 56 4= shekel, 224 25 -mina, 5600 1 20 "talent. 672,000 From the Phoenician coinage it was adopted for the Maccabean. It is needless to give the continual evidences of this being the later Jewish shekel, both from coins (max. 223) and writers (2, 18, 33); the question of the early shekel we have noticed already under 129. In Phoenicia and Asia Minor the mina was specially made in the form with two breasts (44), 19 such weights averaging 5600 ( =224) ; and thence it passed into Greece, more in a double value of 11,200 ( = 224). From Phoenicia this naturally became the main Punic unit; a bronze weight from lol (18), marked 100, gives a drachma of 56 or 57 (224-228) ; and a Punic inscription (18) names 28 drachmae = 25 Attic, and .-. 57 to 59 grains (228-236); while a probably later series of 8 marble disks from Carthage (44) show 208, but vary from 197 to 234. In Spain it was 236 to 216 in different series (17), and it is a question whether the Massiliote drachmae of 58-55 are not Phoenician rather than Phocaic. In Italy this mina became naturalized, and formed the " Italic mina " of Hero, Priscian, &c.; also its double, the mina of 26 unciae or 10,800, = 50 shekels of 216; the average of 42 weights gives 5390 ( = 215-6), and it was divided both into 100 drachmae, and also in the Italic mode of 12 unciae and 288 scripulae (44). The talent was of 120 minae of 5400, or 3000 shekels, shown by the talent from Herculaneum, TA, 660,000 and by the weight inscribed PONDO cxxv. (i.e. 125 librae) TALENTUM SICLORVM. iii., i.e. talent of 3000 shekels (2) (the M being omitted; just_as Epiphanius describes this talent as 125 librae, or 6 ( = 9) nomismata, for 9000). This gives the same approximate ratio 96: loo to the libra as the usual drachma reckoning. The Alexandrian talent of Festus, 12,000 denarii, is the same talent again. It is believed that this mina -r 12 unciae by the Romans is the origin of the Arabic ratl of 12 uklyas, or 5500 grains (33), which is said to have been sent by Harun al-Rashid to Charlemagne, and so to have originated the French monetary pound of 5666 grains. But, as this is probably the same as the English monetary pound, or tower pound of 5400, which was in use earlier (see Saxon coins), it seems more likely that this pound (which is common in Roman weights) was directly inherited from the Roman civilization, go __ Another unit, which has scarcely been recognized in 4000 •" metr°l°8y hitherto, is prominent in the weights from 400000 ^8ypt — some 50 weights from Naucratis and 15 from Defenneh plainly agreeing on this and on no other basis. Its value varies between 76-5 and 81-5 — mean 79 at Naucratis (29) or 8 1 at Defenneh (29). It has been connected theoretically with a binary division of the 10 shekels or " stone " of the Assyrian systems (28), 1290-1-16 being 80-6; this is suggested by the most usual multiples being 40 and 80 = 25 aru* 5° shekels of 129; it is thus akin to the mina of 50 shekels previousjy noticed. The tribute of the Asi, Rutennu, Khita, Assaru, &c., to Thothmes III. (34), though in un- even numbere of kats, comes out in round thousands of units when reduced to this standard. That this u'nit is quite distinct from the Persian 86 grains is clear in the Egyptian weights, which maintain a wide gap between the two systems. Next, in Syria three inscribed weights of Antioch and Berytus (18) show a mina of .about 16,400, or 200X82. Then at Abydus, or more probably from Babylonia, there is the large bronze lion-weight, stated to have been originally 400,500 grains; this has been continually •*• 60 by different writers, regardless of the fact (Rev. arch., 1862, 30) that it bears the numeral loo; tlm therefore is certainly a talent of 100 minae of 4005; and as the mina is generally 50 shekels in Greek systems it points to a weight of 80- 1. Farther west the same unit occurs in several Greek weights (44) which show a mina of 7800 to 8310, mean 8050-5-100 = 80-5. Turning to coinage, we find this often, but usually overlooked as a degraded form of the Persian 86 grains siglos. But the earliest coinage in Cilicia, before the general Persian coinage (17) about 380 B.C., is Tarsus, 164 grains; Soli, 169, 163, 158; Nagidus, 158, 161-153 later; Issus, 166; Mallus, 163-154 — all of which can only by straining be classed as Persian; but they agree to this standard, which, as we have seen, was used in Syria in earlier times by the Khita, &c. The Milesian or " native " system of Asia Minor (18) is fixed by Hultsch at 163 and 81-6 grains — the coins of Miletus (17) showing 160, 80 and 39. Coming down to literary evidence, this is abundant. Bockh decides that the "Alexandrian drachma" was J of the Solonic 67, or= 80-5, and shows that it was not Ptolemaic, or Rhodian, or Acginetan, being distinguished from these in in- scriptions (2). Then the " Alexandrian mina " of Dioscorides and Galen (2) is 20 unciae = 8250; in the " Analecta " (2) it is 150 or 158 drachmae = 8ioo. Then Attic: Euboic or Aeginetan:: 18:25 in the metrologists (2), and the Eubo?c talent = 7000 Alexandrian drachmae; the drachma therefore is 80-0. The "Alexandrian" wood talent: Attic talent : :6:s (Hero, Didymus), and. -.480,000, which is 60 minae of 8000. Pliny states the Egyptian talent at 80 librae = 396,000 ; evidently =the Abydus lion talent, which is -MOO, and the mina is. -.3960, or 50X79-2. The largest weight is the "wood" talent of Syria (18) =6 Roman talents, or 1,860,000, evidently 120 Antioch minae of 15,500 or 2X7750. This evidence is too distinct to be set aside; and, exactly confirming as it does the Egyptian weights and coin weights, and agreeing with the early Asiatic tribute, it cannot be overlooked in future. The system was drachm, Sogrs. 2= stater, 1 60 5O = mma, 8000 3-taIent. oo-Greek talent. 400,000 480.000 •>nt „, ^ ion This system, the Aeginetan, one of the most im- o6«> • portant to the Greek world, has been thought to 57Q cob ? Degradation of the Phoenician (17, 21), sup- posing 220 grains to have been reduced in primitive Greek usage to 194. But we are now able to prove that it was an independent system — (i) by its not ranging usually over 200 grains in Egypt before it passed to Greece; (2) by its earliest example, perhaps before the 224 unit existed, not being over 208; and (3) by there being no intermediate linking on of this to the Phoenician unit in the large number of Egyptian weights, nor in the Ptolemaic coinage, in which both standards are used. The first example (30) is one with the name of Amenhotep I. (l7th century B.C.) marked as " gold 5," which is 5X207-6. Two other marked weights are from Memphis (44), showing 201 -8 and 196-4, and another Egyptian 191-4. The range of the (34) Naucratis weights is 186 to 190, divided in two groups averaging 190 and 196, equal to the Greek monetary and trade varieties. Ptolemy I. and II. also struck a series of coins (32) averaging 199. In Syria haematite weights are found (30) averaging 198-5, divided into 99-2, 49-6 and 24-8; and the same division is shown by gold rings from Egypt (38) of 24-9. In the medical papyrus (38) a weight of J kat is used, which is thought to be Syrian; now i kat =92 to 101 grains, or just this weight which we have found in Syria; and the weights of J and $ kat are very rare in Egypt except at Defenneh (29), on the Syrian road, where they abound. So we have thus a weight of 207-191 in Egypt on marked weights, joining therefore completely with the Aeginetan unit in Egypt of 199 to 1 86, and coinage of 199, and strongly connected with Syria, where a double mina of Sidon (18) is 10,460 or 5oX 209-2. Probably before any Greek coinage we find this among the haematite weights of Troy (44), ranging from 208 to 193-2 (or 104- 96-6), i.e. just covering the range from the earliest Egyptian down to the early Aeginetan coinage. Turning now to the early coinage, we see the fuller weight kept up (17) at Samos (202), Miletus (201), Calymna (too, 50), Methymna and Scepsis (99, 49),' Ionia (197); while the coinage of Aegina, (17, 12), which by its wide diffusion made this unit best known, though a few of its earliest staters go up even to 207, yet is characteristically on the lower of the two groups which we recognize in Egypt, and thus started what has been considered the standard value of 194, or usually 190, decreasing afterwards to 184. In later times, in Asia, however, the fuller weight, or higher Egyptian group, which we have just noticed in the coinage, was kept up (17) into the series of cistopnori (196-191), as in the Ptolemaic series of 199. At Athens the old mina was fixed by Solon at 150 of his drachmae (18) or 9800 grains, according to the earliest drachmae, showing a stater of 196; and this continued to be the trade mina in Athens, at least until 160 B.C., but in a reduced form, in which it equalled only 138 Attic drachmae, or 9200. The Greek mina weights show (44), on an average of 37,9650 ( = stater of 193). varying from 186 to 199. In the Hellenic coinage it varies (18) from a maximum of 200 at Pharae to 192, usual full weight; this unit occupied (17) all central Greece, Peloponnesus and most of the islands. The system was — obol, 16 grs. 6— drachm, 06 3— stater, 192 50— mina, 0600 60 -talent. 576,000 1 That this unit was used for gold in Egypt, one thousand years before becoming a silver coin weight in Asia Minor, need not be dwelt on, when we see in the coinage of Lydia (17) gold pieces and silver on the same standard, which was expressly formed for silver alone, i.e. 84 grains. The Attic and Assyrian standards were used indifferently for either gold or silver. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [COMMERCIAL It also passed into Italy, but in a smaller multiple of 35 drachmae, or J of the Greek mina; 12 Italian weights (44) bearing value marks (which cannot therefore be differently attributed) show a libra of 2400 or J of 9600, which was divided in unciae and sextulae, and the full-sized mina is known as the 24 uncia mina, or talent of 120 librae of Vitruvius and Isidore (18) =9900. Hultsch states this to be the old Etruscan pound. .., With the trade mina of 9650 in Greece, and recognized in Italy, we can hardly doubt that the Roman libra is 495° g"- the half of this mina. At Athens it was 2X4900, and on the average of all the Greek weights it is 2X4825, so that 4950 — the libra — is as close as we need expect. The division by 12 does not affect the question, as every standard that came into Italy was similarly divided. In the libra, as in most other standards, the value which happened to be first at hand for the coinage was not the mean of the whole of the weights in the country ; the Phoenician coin weight is below the trade average, the Assyrian is above, the Aeginetan is below, but the Roman coinage is above the average of trade weights, or the mean standard. Rejecting all weights of the lower empire, the average (44) of about 100 is 4956; while 42 later Greek weights (nomisma, &c.) average 4857, and 16 later Latin ones (solidus, &c.) show 4819. The coinage standard, however, was always higher (18); the oldest gold shows 5056, the Campanian Roman 5054, the consular gold 5037, the aurei 5037, the Constantine solidi 5053 and the Justinian gold 4996. Thus, though it fell in the later empire, like the trade weight, yet it was always above that. Though it has no exact relation to the congius or amphora, yet it is closely =49/7 grains, the 5*0 of the cubic foot of water. If, however, the weight in a degraded form, and the foot in an undegraded form, come from the East, it is needless to look for an exact relation be- tween them, but rather for a mere working equivalent, like the loco ounces to the cubit foot in England. Bockh has remarked the great diversity between weights of the same age — those marked " Ad August! Temp " ranging 4971 to 5535, those tested by the fussy praefect Q. Junius Rusticus vary 4362 to 5625, and a set in the British Museum (44) belonging together vary 4700 to 5168. The series was — siliqui, 6=scr!pulum, 4— seitula, 6 = uncia, I2 = libra, 2-87 grs. 17-2 68-7 412 4950 the greater weight being the centumpondium of 495,000. Other weights were added to these from the Greek system — obolus, 6 = drachma, 2— sicilicus, 4— uncia; 8 6 grs. • 51-5 103 411 y ,and the sextula after Constantine had the name of solidus as a coin weight, or nomisma in Greek, marked N on the weights. A beautiful set of multiples of the scripulum was found near Lyons (38), from I to 10X17-28 grains, showing a libra of 4976. In Bryzantine times in Egypt glass was used for coin- weights (30), averaging 68-0 for the solidus = 4896 for the libra. The Saxon and Norman ounce is said to average 416-5 (Num. Chron., 1871, 42), apparently the Roman uncia inherited. ,- , The system which is perhaps the best known, through "7 *>r*- its adoption by Solon in Athens, and is thence called 0700; Attic or Solonic, is nevertheless far older than its intro- 402,000. jugtion into Greece, being found in full vigour in Egypt in the 6th century B.C. It has been usually reckoned as a rather heavier form of the 129 shekel, increased to 134 on its adoption by Solon. But the Egyptian weights render this view impossible. Among them (29) the two contiguous groups can be discriminated by the 129 being multiplied by 30 and 60, while the 67 or 134 is differently X25, 40, 50 and 100. Hence, although the two groups overlap owing to their nearness, it is impossible to regard them as all one unit. The 129 range is up to 131-8, while the Attic range is 130 to 138 (65-69). Hultsch reckons on a ratio of 24:25 between them, and this is very near the true values; the full Attic being 67-3, the Assyrian should be 129-2, and this is just the full gold coinage weight. We may perhaps see the sense of this ratio through another system. The 8o-grain system, as we have seen, was prob- ably formed by binarily dividing the 10 shekels, or " stone "; and it had a talent (Abydus lion) of 5000 drachmae; this is practically identical with the talent of 6000 Attic drachmae. So the talent of the 8o-grain system was sexagesimally divided for the mina which was afterwards adopted by Solon. Such seems the most likely history of it, and this is in exact accord with the full original weight of each system. In Egypt the mean value at Naucratis (29) was 66-7, while at Defenneh (29) and Memphis (44)— probably rather earlier-— it was 67-0. The type of the grouping is not alike in different places, showing that no distinct families had arisen before the diffusion of this unit in Egypt; but the usual range is 65-5 to 69-0. Next it is found at Troy (44) in three cases, all high examples of 68-2 to 68-7; and these are very important, since they cannot be dissociated from the Greek Attic unit, and yet they are cf a variety as far removed as may be from the half of the Assyrian, which ranges there from 123-5 to I3I : thus the difference of unit between Assyrian and Attic in these earliest of all Greek weights is very strongly marked. At Athens a low variety of the unit was adopted for the coinage, true to the object of Solon in depreciating debts; and the ' first coinage is of only 65-2, or scarcely within the range of the trade weights (28) ; this seems to have been felt, as, contrary to all other I states, Athens slowly increased its coin weight up to 66-6, or but little under the trade average. It gradually supplanted the Aeginetan standard in Greece and Italy as the power of Athens rose; and it was adopted by Philip and Alexander (17) for their great gold coinage of 133 and 66-5. This system is of ten known as the " Euboic," owing to its early use in Euboea, and its diffusion by trade from thence. The series was — chalcous, 8=obolus, 6="drachma, Ioo=mina, 6o = talanton. 1-4 grs. 11-17 67 6700 402,000 Turning now to its usual trade values in Greece (44), the mean of 113 gives 67-15; but they vary more than the Egyptian examples, having a sub-variety both above and below the main body, which itself exactly coincides with the Egyptian weights. The greater part of those weights which bear names indicate a mina of double the usual reckoning, so that there was a light and a heavy system, a mina of the drachma and a mina of the stater, as in the Phoenician and Assyrian weights. In trade both the minae were divided in J, J, i, i, and f , regardless of the drachmae. This unit passed also into Italy, the libra of Picenum and the double of the Etrurian and Sicilian libra (17) ; it was there divided in unciae and scripulae (44), the mean of 6 from Italy and Sicily being 6600; one weight (bought in Smyrna) has the name " Leitra " on it. In literature it is constantly referred to; but we may notice the " general mina " (Cleopatra), in Egypt, 16 unciae = 6600; the Ptolemaic talent, equal to the Attic in weight and divisions (Hero, Didymus) ; the Antiochian talent, equal to the Attic (Hero) ; the treaty of the Romans with Antiochus, naming talents of 80 librae, i.e. mina of 16 unciae; the Roman mina in Egypt, of 15 unciae, probably the same diminished; and the Italic mina of 16 unciae. It seems even to have lasted in Egypt till the middle ages, as Jabarti and the " katib's guide " both name the ratl misri (of Cairo) as 144 dirhems = 67&o. AUTHORITIES.— (1) A. Aures, Metrologie egyptienne (1880); (2) A. Bockh, Metrologische Untersuchungen (1838) (general); (3) P. Bortolotti, Del primitive cubito egizio (1883); (4) J. Brandis, Munz-, Mass-, und Gewicht-Wesen (1866) (specially Assyrian); (5) H. Brugsch, in Zeits. dg. Sp. (1870) (Edfu); (6) M. F. Chabas, Determination metrique (1867) (Egyptian volumes); (7) Id., Re- cherches sur les poids, mesures, et monnaies des anciens Egyptiens ; (8) Id., Ztschr.f. dgypt. Sprache (1867, p. 57; 1870, p. 122) (Egyptian volumes); (9) H. W. Chisholm, Weighing and Measuring (1877) (history of English measures); (10) Id., Ninth Rep. of Warden of Standards (1875) (Assyrian); (11) A. Dumont, Mission en Thrace (Greek volumes); (12) Eisenlohr, Ztschr. dg. Sp. (1875) (Egyptian hon); (13) W. Golcnischeff, in Rev. egypt. (1881), 177 (Egyptian weights) ; (14) C. W. Goodwin, in Ztschr. dg. Sp. (1873), P- 16 fchet) ; (IS) B. V. Head, in Num. Chron. (1875); (16) Id., Jour. Inst. of Bankers (1879) (systems of weight); (17) Id., Historia numorum (1887) (essential for coin weights and history of systems); (18) F. Hultsch, Griechische und romische Metrologie (1882) (essential for literary and monumental facts); (19) Ledrain, in Rev. egypt. (1881), p. 173 (Assyrian); (20) Leemans, Monumens egyptiens (1838) (Egyptian hon) ; (21) T. Mommsen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine; (22) Id., Monuments divers (Egyptian weights); (23) Sir Isaac Newton, Dissertation upon the Sacred Cubit (1737); (24) J. Oppert, Elalon des mesures assyriennes (1875); (25) W. M. F. Petrie, Inductive Metrology (1877) (principles and tentative results); (26) Id., Stonehenge (1880); (27) Id., Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh (1883); (28) Id., Naukratis, i. (1886) (principles, lists, and curves of weights); (29) Id., Tanis, ii. (1887) (lists and curves); (30) Id., Arch. Jour. (1883), 419 (weights, Egyptian, &c.); (31) Id., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. (1883-1884), 254 (mile); (32) R. S. Poole, Brit. Mus. Cat. of Coins, Egypt; (33) Vazquez Queipo, Essai sur les systemes metriques (1859) (general, and specially Arab and coins); (34) Records of the Past, vols. i., ii., vi. (Egyptian tributes, &c.); (35) E. Revillout, in Rev. eg. (1881) (many papers on Egyptian weights, measures, and coins); (36) E. T. Rogers, Num. Chron. (1873) (Arab glass weights); (37) M. H. Sauvaire, in Jour. As. Soc. (1877), translation of Elias of Nisibis, with notes (remarkable for history of balance) ;Schillbach (lists of weights, all in next) ; (38) M. C. Soutzo, Etalons ponderaux primitifs (1884) (lists of all weights published to date) ; (39) Id., Systbmes monetaires primitifs (1884) (derivation of units); (40) G. Smith, in Zeits. dg. Sp. (1875); (41) L. Stern, in Rev. eg. (1881), 171 (Egyptian weights); (42) P. Tannery, Rev. arch. xli. 152; (43) E. Thomas, Numismata orientalia, pt. i. (Indian weights); (44) a great amount of material of weighings of weights of Troy (supplied through Dr Schliemann's kindness), Memphis.atthe British Museum, Turin? &c. (W. M. F. P.) III. COMMERCIAL i. Denominations. — The denominations of trade weights and measures at present used in the United Kingdom are represented by " Board of Trade standards," by which are regulated the accuracy of the common weights and measures handled in shops, &C.:1 Imperial Measures of Length. — 100 feet, 66 feet or a chain of 100 links, rod, pole, or perch, measures from 10 feet to I foot; 1 Board of Trade Model Regulations, 1892; Weights and Measures Acts, 1878. 1889, 1-892, 1893. COMMERCIAL] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 489 18 inches; yard of 36 inches, J, }, J, -fc yard, nail, inch, and duodeci- mal, decimal and binary parts of the inch. Imperial Measures of Capacity. — Liquid measures from 32 gallons to i gallon, quart, pint, J pint, gill, i gill, 1 gill. Dry measures of bushel, \ bushel, peck, gallon, quart, pint, J pint. Apothecaries' Measures. — 40 fluid ounces to J fl. oz., 16 fluid drachms to i fl. dr., 60 minims to I minim. Avoirdupois Weights. — Cental (100 Ib), 56 Ib (i cwt.), 28 Ib, 14 Ib (stone), 7, 4, 2, I ft; 8, 4, 2, I, J ounce (8 drams); 4, 2, i, J drams. Troy Weights. — The ounce (480 gr.) and multiples and decimal parts of the ounce troy from 500 ounces to o-ooi oz. Apothecaries' Weights. — 10 oz. to I oz. (480 gr.); 4 drachms to !oz.; 2, i drachms; 2 scruples to J scruple; and 6 grains to grain. Pennyweights. — 20 dwt. (480 grains), 10, 5, 3, 2, i dwts. Grain Weights. — 4000, 2000, looo gr. (making 7000 gr. or i Ib), 500 to o-oi gr. 2. The international trade metric weights and measures (1897) handled in shops, &c., of which there are also Board of Trade standards, are set out as follows: — IMPERIAL TO METRIC i yard i square yard I cubic inch I gallon1 i pound (7000 grains) I ounce troy (480 gr.) i fluid drachm i fluid ounce i metre (m.) at o° C. i square metre (m2.) i cubic decimetre (c.d.) or looo cubic centimetres (c.c.) i litre (1.) I kilogram (kg.) i gramme (g.) 0-9I4399 m. 0-836126 m*. 16-387 c.c. 4-545963I I- 0-45359243 kg. 3' ''035 grammes. = 3-552 millilitres (ml.). = 2-84123 centilitres (cl.). METRIC TO IMPERIAL = 39-370H3inchesat62<>P. 10-7639 square feet. 61-024 cubic inches. '•7598 pints. 2-2046223 Ib avoir. 15-4323564 grains or 0-7716 scruple. METRE DIVIDED INTO DECIMETRES, CENTIMETRES. AND MILLIMETRES. w- TnrtMiilimTimlmin-rrr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' DRAWN t SCALE M ' I I I I I ' mil rr Mill DECIMETRE DOUBLE DECIMETRE * Add CD © © FIG. 9.— International Metric Trade Weights and Measures, 1897. A, linear; B, capacity; C, and D, weights. Length. — Decametre or 10 metres; doubte metre; metre or 1000 millimetres; decimetre or o-l metre; centimetre or o-oi metre; millimetre. Capacity. — 20 litres; 10 litres or decalitre; 5, 2, i, 0-5, 0-2, o-i (decilitre); 0-05, 0-02, o-oi (centilitre); 0-005, 0-002, o-ooi (millilitre) litres. Cubic Measures. — 1000 (litre), 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 cubic centimetres, i c.c. or looo cubic millimetres. Weights. — 20, 10, 5, 2, i kilograms; 500 to I gramme; 5 to i decigram; 5 to i centigram; 5 to i milligram. (Series 5, 2, 2,1 i, i.e. with a duplicate weight of " 2.") 3. Equivalents. — The metric equivalents of the units of the metric system in terms of the imperial system, as recalculated in 1897, are as follows: — * 1 Metric Equivalents, King's Printers (1898). 2 The equivalent of the litre in gallons may also be derived as follows: — Let f(i—pfd)=Pl(l-p/d'), where P is the weight of the water contained in the gallon when weighed in London — g. London =g. Paris (45°) Xi -000577. The correction For temperature, 62° F., is —0-0906 in.; hence 29-9094 inches. One inch = 25-4 mm.; also 29-9094X25-4 = 759-69876; and 759-6o876i-Xi-ooo577 = 76o-i37 mm. Pl is the weight of the brass weights (10 Ib) A = 8-I43. P, the density (o-ooi 2 1 8738) of dry air, containing 4 vols. of carbonic acid in 10,000 vols.; / = 16-667° C. ; 8 = 760-137 mm. of mercury at o°, lat. 45°, and at sea-level. Coefficient of expansion of air =0-00367; A mercury at o° C. = 13-595. <* 's the density of water at 62° F. (16-667° C.) =0-9988611. d1, the density of the brass as above. 10 Jb = 4-5359243 kg. From the above it follows that P = 4-5407857 kg. Therefore — i gallon = P/o-99886i I =4-5459631 litres. 490 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES [COMMERCE The equivalents of the Russian weights and measures, in terms also of the imperial and metric weights and measures, were re- calculated in 1897.' The following are the leading equivalents: f 0-025 pood. i Russian pound = •> 96 zolotniks. [ 9216 dolis. = 0-40951240 kg. =0-90282018 ft avoir. { 0-00066 yerst. 0-3| sagene. 1 6 vercnoks. 280 liniias. =0-711200 metre. = 0777778 yard. , ,, f 10 schtoffs ivedro ={ = iootcharkas = 12-299 litres = 2-7056 gallons. I tchetverte =8 tchetveriks = 2-0991 hectolitres = 5m77i9 bushels. 4. Local Control. — The necessary local inspection and verifica- tion of weights and measures in use for trade (as distinct from the verbal and written use of weights and measures) is in the United Kingdom undertaken by inspectors of weights and measures, who are appointed by the local authorities, as the county and borough councils. An inspector is required to hold a certificate of qualification, and for his guidance general regula- tions are made by his local authority as to modes of testing weights, measures and weighing instruments.2 In Europe the local inspection is generally carried out through the State, and a uniform system of local verification is thereby maintained. 5. Errors. — In the verification of weights and measures a margin of error is permitted to manufacturers and scale-makers, as it is found to be impossible to make two weights, or two measures, so identical that between them some difference may not be found either by the balance or the microscope. For common weights and measures this margin (tolerance, remedy or allowance, as it is also called) has been set out by the Board of Trade for all the various kinds of weights and measures in use for commercial purposes in the United Kingdom, and similar margins of error are recognized in other countries. For instance, on I Ib avoir, weight made of brass, 2 grains in excess are allowed; on I oz. troy or apothecaries' weight, +0-2 grain is allowed ; on I pint pot, 4 fluid drachms is permitted ; on i brass yard, 0-05 inch in excess or 0-02 inch in deficiency in length is allowed for ordinary trade purposes. 6. Foreign Weights and Measures. — Throughout the British Empire the imperial system of weights and measures is legal. In Russia, as in the United Kingdom and the United States, the national weights and measures are followed (§3 above), although the use of metric weights and measures is permissive. In India the native weights, &c., ancient and arbitrary, are still followed. In 1889 the British yard was adopted for the whole of India (Measures of Length Act) at a normal tempera- ture of 85° F. as standardized to the imperial yard at 62° F. The metric system was also introduced, mainly for railway purposes, in 1870 and 1871 (Indian Acts). Certified measures of the yard, foot and inch are kept by the Commissioners of Police at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. In standardizing a weight for use in India, correction has to be made for the weight of air displaced by the material standard, and for such purpose the normal temperature of 85°, atmospheric pressure 29-8 inches, latitude 22° 35' 6-5' (Calcutta), g = {?5<> 0-9982515! are taken. _ The " tola " (180 grains) is properly the Government unit of weight for currency; and 80 tolas make the " Government seer." 7. Customary Weights and Measures. — In some districts of the United Kingdom, as well as in provincial districts of other countries, old local and customary denominations of weights and measures are still found to be in use, although their use may have been prohibited by law. So powerful is custom with the people.* 8. Legislation. — In everyday transactions with reference to weights and measures, the British legislature also exercises 1 C.I.P.M. Proces-verbaux (1897), p. 155. 1 Regulations, Birmingham, Glasgow, London, Manchester, &c. 1 Report Select Committee (1892); Merchant's Handbook, W. A. Browne (1892); Reports H.M. Representatives Abroad, Foreign Office, 1900-1901. control in industrial pursuits. For instance, in weighing li\_ cattle, owners of markets are now required to provide adequat accommodation.4 Useful statutes have also been passed to pro- tect the working class, as in checking the weighing instruments used in mines in Great Britain, over which instruments wages are paid, and in the inspection of similar instruments used in factories and workshops. The Merchandise Marks Act 1887 makes it an offence also to apply in trade a false description, as to the number, quantity, measure, gauge or weight of sold; and this Act appears to reach offences that the Weigh and Measures Acts may perhaps not reach. 9. Pharmaceutical Weights and Measures. — By the Medical Act of 1858, and the Act of 1862, the General Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom are authorized to issue a " Pharmacopoeia " with reference to the weights and measures used in the preparation and dispensing of drugs, &c. The British Pharmacopoeia issued by the Council in 1898 makes no alteration in the imperial weights and measures required to be used by the Pharmacopoeia of 1864. For all pharmaceutical purposes, however, the use of the metric system alone is employed in all paragraphs relating to analysis, whether gravimetric or volumetric. For measures of capacity the Pharmacopoeia continues to use imperial measuring vessels graduated at the legal temperature of 62° F. The official names of the metric capacity units are defined at 4° C., as generally on the Continent. The new Pharmacopoeia also follows foreign practice, and employs metric measures of capacity and volumetric vessels graduated at 15-5 C., or 60° F. Specific gravity bottles are, also adjusted at 60° F., the figures indicating specific gravities being quotients obtained by dividing in each instance the weight of the solid or liquid by the weight of an equal bulk of water, both taken at 60° F.6 10. Gauges. — " Gauges,''' as understood at one time, included only those used in the measurement of barrels, casks, &c., and hence the term " gauger." For engineering and manufacturing purposes the more important linear gauges are, however, now used, adjusted to some fundamental unit of measure as the inch; although in certain trades, as for wires and flat metals, gauges continue to be used of arbitrary scales and of merely numerical sizes, having no • reference to a legal unit cf measure; and such are rarely accurate. A standard gauge, however, exists (Order in Council, August 1883), based on the inch, but having numbered sizes from 7/0 (0-5 inch) to No. 50 (o-ooi inch) to meet the convenience of certain trades.6 11. Screws. — The screw is an important productive measuring instrument, whether used as a micrometer-screw of less than an inch in length, or as a master-screw of 20 feet in length. The probable errors and eccentricities of small micrometer-screws have been care- fully investigated to =0-00001 inch; but the accuracy cf leading screws used in workshops has not been sufficiently verified. For some engineering purposes it would appear to be desirable to produce master-screws to an accuracy of siiV0 of an inch to the foot of screw, so as to serve indirectly for the verification of " guiding screws for general use in workshops.7 Attempts in this direction were originally made by Whitworth, Clement, Donkin, Rogers, Bond and others, but we still need a higher accuracy in screw-threads. 12. Educational. — Ordinary arithmetic books often contain refer- ences to local and customary weights and measures and to obsolete terms of no practical use to children. It appears to be desirable, as the Committee of Council on Education have done, to recognize only the legal systems of weights and measures — the imperial and metric. The Education Code of Regulations for 1900 prescribes that the tables of weights and measures to be learned include those only which are in ordinary use, viz. in all classes or forms above the third the tables of ( Weight — ton, cwt, stone, ft, oz. and dr., -j Length — mile, furlong, rod or pole, chain, yd., ft. and inch, [Capacity — quarter, bushel, pk., gall., cjt. and pt. In Code standards above the fifth, in addition to the foregoing, th tables of ("Area — sq. mile, acre, rood, pole, yd., ft. and inch, I Volume — cubic yard, foot and inch. Instruction in the principles of the metric system, and in the ad vantages to be gained from uniformity in the method of formin multiples and sub-multiples of the unit, are, under this Code, to b 4 Markets and Fairs (Cattle) Acts 1887, 1891 ; Coal Mines Regula tion Act 1887; Factory and Workshop Act 1878. 6 Pharmacopoeia (1901); Calendar Pharmaceutical Society, 1902 6 Order in Council, 26th August 1881. * Systematique des vis horlogeres, Thury (Geneva, 1878). Bulletin 3oc. d'Encouragement pour 1'Industrie Nationale, Paris, 1894 Report of British Association on Screw-threads, 1900. COMMERCIAL] WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 491 given to the scholars in Standards IV., V., VI. and VII. Asaprepara- tion for this it is stated in the Code that it will be useful to give in Standard III. (arithmetic) elementary lessons on the notation of decimal fractions. (See ARITHMETIC.) Table of the Principal Foreign Weights and Measures now in use, and of their Equivalents in Imperial or in Metric Weights and Measures. Almude . . . Portugal Anoman (Ammo- Ceylon mam, Amomam) Ara .... Italy . Archin, or Ar- Turkey shin Archin . Bulgaria . • Archine, or Ar- Russia chinne Ardeb . . . Egypt . Are .... Area .... Arpent . Spain France . if Canada . ;{ Arroba . . . Portugal . Spain , Artaba . Persia Aune . . . Belgium . France Barilo . . . Jersey Rome Bat, or Tical . Siam . Batman . Persia m Turkey . Behar . . . Arabia Berri Turkey . Boisseau . Belgium . f Boutylka . . Russia Braca Braccio . Portugal . Spain Rome t Brasse . France . Braza Argentina Bu, or tsubo Bushel . Japan U. States 1 r Canada . J Bunder Cabot Candy Netherlands. Jersey . . Bombay . Madras . Turkey . Italy . . Persia China N. Borneo Siam . Madras . U. States Canada . Centigramme . Centilitre Centimetre Centimetre, cubic (c.c.) . Centimetre, square Cantar . Cantara piccolo Capicha . Catty . . . Cawnie Cental Centner Chain . . . Chang . Chapah . Chee. See Tahil. Chek . . . Chenica . Ch'ien . Ch'ih Austria . Denmark Switzerland Canada . Cyprus . China Siam . N. Borneo Hong Kong Persia China China 16-8 litres. 0-699 quarter (dry measure), 5-60 bushels. i metric are, 119.6 sq. yds. I new archin (Law 1881) = I metre (39-37 inches) = 10 par- maks (decimetres) — 100 knats (centimetres), i mill = 1000 ar- chins (kilometre). Pharoagh = 10 mil's. Another pharoagh = 2 hours' journey. 0-758 metre (masons). 0-680 metre (tailors). 28 inches, or 0-7112 metre. 5-447 bushels (Customs). 5 bushels (old measure). = loo sq. metres = 1 19-6 sq. yds. i metric are. Legal arpent was.equal to 100 sq. perches = 51 -07 metric ares. in Quebec = 180 French feet. 14-68 to 15 kilogrammes. Mayor = 3-55gallons,or i cantara. 1-809 bushel. Menor = 2-7& gallons (liquids). i metre. Formerly 1-312 yard. 1-885 metre (1812). 4 feet. 12-834 gallons. 234 grains. 6J lb av. ; varies locally. = 10 ocks. 439-45 lb av., nearly. 1-084 mile (old measure). 15 litres. 1-353 P>nt (wine bottle). 2-22 metres. 0-670 metre (commercial). Braccio-d'ara =29-528 inches. 5-328 feet. 5-682 feet. 3-0306 square metres. 2150-42 cubic inches, about 0-96944 imperial bushel. I bushel = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 64 pints. 2-471 acres (old hectare). IO pots, or $ gallons, I quart 3 gills imperial measure. 560 lb av. 493-7 lb av. 124-7 ft av- (°'d weight). 74-771 ft av. 0-58 gallon, i i ft av. See Tad. i J ft av. 2-675 ft av., or s'0 hap. 1-322 acre. 100 ft av. (As in Great Britain.) = Tis grin. =0-1 54 grain. = !$(, litre = o-07 gill. = 0-394 inch = ,i0 m. = 0-061 cubic inch, or i c.c. = 0-155 square inch. 50 kilogrammes = 110-231 ft. av. 50 kilogrammes = 110-231 ft. av. 50 kilogrammes = 110-231 ft. 66 feet. 0-33 pic. 10 ch ih = 1 1 ft. 9 inches (Treaty). 2-675 ft- i * ft av. 14! inches. 0-289 gallon. S8J grains (silver weight). Varies throughout China from 1 1 to 15-8 inches. For Customs purposes the Treaty ch'ih = 14-1 inches, and 5 ch'ih = I pu. Ch'ih Peking . ( PUD''C wor^s- Chilogramme Chin or Catty Ching . . Ch'ing . Chittack. . Ch'ok . . Chtto . . Chupah Chupak . . . Collothun . . Coss . . . . Covado . Covid, or Cubit Covido . Covidp (Great) Cuartillo = 12-4 statistics. = 12-6 architects. = 12-7 common. = 13-1 tribunal of mathematics. Shanghai . = 13-2 Board of Revenue. = 14- 1 Customs. Italy ... I kilogramme. China . . I J ft av. (Treaty). China . . 121 sq. feet (Treaty). China . . 72,600 sq. feet (Treaty). Bengal . . 5 tolas, or 900 grains. Corea . . 7! in. (linear); I2j in. (build- ing). China . . 1815 sq. feet (Treaty). Singapore . 1-66 Ibav. of water at 62° F., as a measure of capacity. Malacca . . 144 oz. av. of water. Straits Settle- i quart. ments Persia . . 1-809 gallon. Bengal . . 1-136 metre. Portugal . . 0-66 metre. Madras . . 18 to 21 inches. Bombay . . 18 inches. Siam . . .18 inches. Arabia . . 1 8 inches approximately. 27 inches. Spain . . 1-16 litre (dry); 0-504 litre liquid. Daktylon (Royal) Greece Daribah . . Egypt Decagramme .... Decalitre Decametre D6c.'iatina . . Russia Decigramme .... Decilitre Decimetre Decimetre, cubic Decimetre, square Denaro . . . Rome Deunam . . Turkey Diraa^orDraa, j £gypt Turkey Dirhem . . . Egypt i Djerib . . . Turkey . . Doha, or Dola . Russia . . ] Drachma . . Netherlands. Turkey . Drachm6 (Royal) Greece Constantinople Dram. See Oke. Ducat . . . Vienna . Duim Netherlands. Eimer El . . . Ell . . . Ella . . . Elle . . . Endaseh, or Hindazi Faltche . . Fanega . Pass . Feddan Fen . Fjerdingkar. Fod . Foglietto Foot . . . Austria . Netherlands. Jersey N. Borneo Switzerland Egypt . Moldavia Argentina Portugal . Spain Peru . . Germany Egypt • China Denmark Denmark Norway . Rome U. States Canada . Amsterdam . South Africa Old Rhenish I centimetre. 43-58 bushels (Customs). = 10 grms. = 5-64 drams av. = 10 litres = 2-2 gallons. = 10-936 yards. = 2400 square sagenes=z 7 acres. = i"j grm. =1-54 grain. = J10 litre =0-176 pint. = 3-937 inches = 0-1 metre. = looo c.c. =61-024 cub. in. = 100 sq. centm. = 15-5 sq. in 18-17 grains (old weighty. I metric are. 27 inches usually. 21-3 inches Nile measure. 27 inches (old measure of pike). 1-761 dram av. (Customs). 3-0884 grammes (Cairo). i hectare. 0-686 grain. 96 doli = i zolotnick. 3-906 grammes. 154-324 grains. i gramme (gold weight). = 57-871 grains. See Oct. 53'873 grains. I centimetre. 12-448 gallons. i metre. (Old ell =27-08 inches). 4 feet. i yard. 0-6561 yard. Usually 25 inches. i hectare, 43 ares, 22 centiares. 3-773 bushels. 55-364 litres. 1-526 bushel. I 1 bushel. 1-615 acre, but varies locally. I hectolitre. 1-038 acre (Masri). Also 1-127 acre locally. 1.266 acre (old). 5-83 grains (silver weight). 0-9564 bushel. 1-0297 foot- 0-3137 metre. 0-8 pint. 12 inches. French foot = 12-8 inches. Jll-I47in.|old 12-356 in.J measure. 492 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Fot .... Sweden . . 1 1 -689 in. to fot = i stong. i ref Korn-tonde. . Sweden . = 10 stanger. i mil = 360 ref. Korn-top Maal Norway . Founte, or Funt Russia 0-90282 ft av. Korrel . . . Netherlands . or Livre Kotyle (Royal) . Greece Foute, or Pied . Russia i English foot. Kouza . Cyprus . Frasco . Argentina 2| litres. Koyan . Straits Setts . Fuss .... Vienna . 12 zolls = 1-037 foot. Krina Bulgaria . Switzerland 3$ fuss = I metre. Kung . . China SeeSto&. Kup .... Siam . Gallon . U. States '231 cubic inches = 8-3389 ft av. Kwan or Kuwan Kyat Japan Burma Canada . . • of water at t. 39-8 Fahr. At 1 62° Fahr. =0-8325 imp. gallon. Lak't . . . Bulgaria . Gantang . . Straits Settle- 32 gallons. Last .... Netherlands . ments Leang China N. Borneo 144 oz. av. weight of water as LekhS . . . Bulgaria . measure of capacity. Li .... China Garnetz . Russia 0-3607 peck. Gin. See Kali. Gisla . . . Zanzibar . Measure of 360 ft av. of rice. Liang China . . Go .... Japan 180-39 cubic centimetres. Libbra . Italy . . . Grain Russia 0-960 grain (apothecaries). Libra Argentina Gramme (gr.) . = i5-4323564 grains av. troy. Libra (Castilian) Spain, Mexico = 0-2572 drachm, or 0-7716 Libra, or Arratel Portugal . scruple. Line or Ligne . Paris . . . = 0-03215 oz. troy. Liniia Russia Gramme^ (Royal) Greece i millimetre. Litra (Royal) . Greece Gramo . Spain i gramme. Litre . . -. Cyprus . Grano Rome 0-757 grain. Litre (metric) . Grao Portugal . 0-768 grain; also measure o- 1 8 in. Litro. Spain Grein Netherlands . = 0-065 gramme. Italy . . . Guz, or Gudge . India: Bengal 36 inches. Livre (ft) Russia ,, Bombay 27 inches. ,, Madras . 33 inches, Government Survey. Belgium Persia The guz, gueza or zer varies from Livre-poids . France 24 to 44 inches. A guz of 40-95 inches (Guz, Azerbaijan)is com- Loth. . . . Germany mon. Government standard Switzerland guz = 3&J inches. There is a Vienna . Arabia guz for retail trade of 25 inches. 25 inches to 37 inches (Bassorah). Maass . . . Austria . Switzerland . Hat'h, or Moo- J Bengal . 1 8 inches. Maatze . Netherlands . lum, or Cubit \ Bombay . 1 8 inches, or cubit. Mace China . . Hectare = 100 ares, or 2-471 acres. N Borneo loo grm.= 3-53 oz. av. 100 litres = 2 -75 bushels. Mahud . Maik . . . Arabia Burmah . Hectolitre . . Hectometre . = 109-36 yards. Marc, or Mark . France Hiyaka-me . . Japan . 5797-198 grains. Sweden . Hiyak-kin . . . Japan . 1325 ft av. Vienna . Hoon. See Tahil. Marco . . . Portugal . Hu . . . . China 12 i gallons, nearly. Spain Immi Switzerland 1-5 litre. Maund . India Joch . . . . Austria-Hun- 1-422 acre. gary (. Kaima . Sweden . 0-576 gallon. Kan . . . Netherlands i litre. Hong Kong ij ft av. Kanne or Kanna Germany i litre, or formerly 1-762 pint. Megametre (as- .... Sweden . 0-576 pint. tronomy) Kantar, or Can- Egypt . . 99-0492 ft av. = 100 rotls (Cus- Metre (m.) . U. States . taro toms). 45 kilogrammes of Great Britain cotton. 44-5 kilogrammes other Metre, cubic produce. Metre, square . Karwar . . Persia 100 batman. Kassabah Kati, Catty or } Egypt . . China, Straits 3-8824 yards (Customs). 1 _ i »v Metro . . . Spain Italy . . . Gin \ Settlements > IJ ID av. Metz. . . . Austria . Kcili or Pishi Zanzibar Measure of 6 ft av. of rice. Ken ' . . . Kerat . . . Japan Turkey . . 5-965 ft., 1-81 metre, ij inch measure (old). 3-09 grains weight (old) Miglio . Miile . . . Mil, or Mill . . Rome Netherlands . Turkey . Kette, or Chain Germany 14-994 ellen, or 10-936 yards. Denmark Keu ... Siam . 40 inches. Mile .... France . Khat (New) . Turkey . . i centimetre. Germany Kile .... Cyprus . 8 gallons. Mile (postal) Austria . Killow . . . Turkey . . 0-97 bushel. Milha . . . Portugal . Kilogramme = 1000 grm. =2-2046223 ft av. Miile . . . France . Kilometre = 0-6214 mile. Milligramme .... Kin Tanan f^hina 0-601 kilogramme = i -325 ft- Millilitre . Ivlll . * . • K'after Austriti = 2 -0740 yards. Switzerland 1-9685 yard. Miscal . Persia Koddi . . . Arabia 1-67 gallon. Mkono . East Africa . Koilon (Royal) . Greece i hectolitre. Old koilon = 33-i6 Mna .... Greece litra. Momme . Japan Koku Japan . . = 39-7033 galls. =4-9629 bushels. Morgen . Denmark. Kon . . . Corea ij ft av. Norway . Korn-tonde . Norway . 138-97 litres. Prussia . [COMMERCIAL 3-821 bushels. 1 60 litres. i decigramme. I decilitre. 9 quarts. 5333 i ft av. 12-8 litres. 78-96 inches (Treaty). 10 inches. 8-281 ft = 3>75652 kilogrammes, zoo kyats = 3-652 ft av. 0-650 metre. 30 hectolitres. 583! grains (silver weight). 229-83 sq. metres. about $ mile = 360 pu. Varies with length of ch'ih. A small weight 0-583 grain. i$ oz. 1 6 Hang = i chin = ij Ibav. 0-7477 ft av. 1-0127 ft av. 1-014 ft- 1-012 ft av. -fa point, or 0-089 inch, o-l inch. I archine = 28o liniias. i litre = 100 mystra. 2| quarts. = 1-7598 pint | i litre. 0-90282 ft av. Apoth. livre = 11-5204 oz. troy. Kilogramme. 0-4895 kilogramme. New loth = i decagramme. Old loth, nearly 5 oz. av. 15-625 grammes. 270-1 grains. Postal loth, 257-2 grains. 1-245 quart. 2-64 gallons. I decilitre. 58$ grains. 93! ft av. 2-04 ft av. 3 maik = cubit = 19! inches. 0-2448 kilogramme (old weight) 0-4645 ft ay. 4331-37 grains = 24 karato. = 8 oncas = 229-5 grammes. 3550-54 grains. 82-286 ft av., Government. 72^ ft (old bazaar). 74-67 ft av., factory. 28 ft nearly, Bombay. 25 ft nearly, Madras. 37 to 44 ft, Juggerat. Local maunds vary on either side of 80 ft. 1,000,000 metres. 39-37 inches. 39-370113 inches = I m. = 1000 c.d. =35-315 cubic feet. = 100 square decimetres = 10-764 cjiiiafd (ctfti- square feet. i metre. 1-691 bushel. = ns1B5 millimetre. 0-925 mile. I kilometre. 1000 archins (new mil). 4-680 miles. Nautical mile = 1852 metres. 4-714 miles. 1-296 mile. 1-949 kilometre. = HsVii gramme = o-oi5 grain. = Tt1imes, or 129} Ibav, 100 libras, or 101-27 "' av- = 100 kilogrammes = I -968 cwt. i metric quintal. 1-014 ft av- I -02 ft av., nearly (dry measure). 17-219 lb av. weight. 2-440 miles (itinerary). 2-118 miles (natural). 3-762 metres. i dekametre. 0-9905 ft av. (Customs). 0-9805 ft av. (Govt.). 2-206 ft great rottolo. 0-715 ft less rottolo. 2-124 ft great rottolo. Rottolo mina = f oka. 2-513 pints (old measure). 1-012 quarter (dry measure). 7 feet. 50 litres, formerly 14-56 metzen (Prussia). I decalitre. J litre, formerly o-ll gallon. 0-375 litre. 118-615 square yards (-9918 are). Government seer = 2^ ID av. Bengal, 80 tolas weight of rice (heaped measure), about 60 cubic inches (struck measure). Southern 1 ndia = weight of 24 current rupees. Madras, 25 ft nearly. Juggerat, weight of 40 local rupees. Bombay, old seer, about 28 lb. Measure of 1-86 pint. 16 miscals, or 1136 grains weight (Sihr). 0-6224 P'nt- 44-4 miles, nearly. i litre (Indian Law, 1871). 0-30 metre, also 9-18273 square decimetres; also 18-039 cubic centimetres. 1-813 pint. 160 ft. i -804 litre. 435-076 grammes, or 0-959 lb av. 0-4981 kilogramme, or officially i kilogramme. 17-39 Ijtres. 17-37 litres. metre, or 3- i old fuss, but varied. kilometre. cubic metre. metric stere. millimetre. metric are. 238-1 square pecheus (Constantinople). I millimetre. 3! strich = i millimetre. Old itinerary measure, 2-3 to 3-4 miles. 494 Stunde Sultchek Sung Tael . Tahil . Tarn . . Tan . . Tang . Tang-sun Tank . Tcharka Tchetverte Teng . WEIGHT-THROWING— WEI-HAI- WEI Switzerland . Turkey . Corea . . Siam . Hong Kong . China Japan (No current Straits Settle ments Hong Kong China Burma China Bombay Russia Russia Burma . Thanan Siam . Thangsat Siam . To . Japan Toise France . Tola. India Tomand Arabia Ton . U. States Tonde Denmark Tonne, or Millier France . Germany Tonne (metric) Tonnelada . Portugal . Tonos Greece . Tou . China Tovar Bulgaria . T'sun China . . Tu . China . . 4- 8 kilometres. Stunder = 5 stu n- den, or 24 kilometres. Cubic measure (1881) whose sides equal a parmak (decimetre). 4 Ib av., nearly. 936^ grains. i i oz. av. Silver weight, 1 3 oz. av. 10 momme. coin of the tael.) 1 J oz. av. = 10 chee = 100 hoon. 133 \ Ibav. = 25 gallons. Also 1 33i Ib weight. 2 miles, nearly. About 3| miles = 10 li. 17^8 grains, or 72 tanks = 30 pice. 0-866 gill =0-218 pint. 5-772 bushels = 8 tchetveriks, or 2-099 hectolitres. Burmese measures of capacity de- pend on the teng or basket. Officially a basket is 2218-2 cubic inches, but the teng varies locally : — Akyab = 23 Ib of rice. Bassein = 51 Ib of rice. Moulmein =48 Ib of rice. Rangoon =48 to 50 Ib of rice. 1-5 pint. 4-688 gallons. 18-0391 litres =3-9703 galls. = 1-98 pecks. 2-1315 yards. 1 80 grains. Legal weight of rupee. 187-17 Ibav. of rice. 2240 ro av., also a net tonof 2000 Ib. 131-392 litres (liquid measure). 139-121 litres (dry measure). looo kilogrammes. 1000 kilogrammes =0-9842 ton. 793-15 kilogrammes. 29-526 cwt. 1 8 pints approximately. 128-2 kilogrammes. 1-41 inch (Treaty measure). 100-142 miles = 25 li, based on the ch'ih of 14-1 inches. Vara ... Peru . . . 33 inches. Spain 2-782 feet. Argentina 2-841 feet. Portugal . I'll metre. Vat . Holland . . i hectolitre. Vedro . . . Russia 2-7°56 gallons = io schtoffs, or 12-3 litres. Bulgaria . 12-8 litres. Verchok . , . Russia I -75 inch. Versta, or Verst . Russia 0-66288 mile. Vierkanteroede . Holland . . i metric are. Viertel . . . Denmark 1-7 gallon. Switzerland . 15 litres. Viss . .• . . Rangoon 3^ Ibav. Wa . . . . Siam . 80 inches. Wigtje . . . Netherlands . i gramme. Wisse .... Netherlands . i metric stere. Yard . . . U. States 36 inches. Mexico . 838 centimetres. Zac . Netherlands. . I hectolitre. Zer (Persia). See Guz. Zoll . . . . Switzerland . 3 j zoll = i decimetre. Old zoll Zolotnik . . Russia nearly one inch. Pfund.) 65-8306 grains, or 96 doli. (H.J.C.) WEIGHT-THROWING, the athletic sport of hurling heavy weights either for distance or height. Lifting and throwing weights of different kinds have always been popular in Great Britain, especially Scotland and Ireland, and on the continent of Europe, particularly in Germany, Switzerland and Austria- Hungary. No form of throwing weights is included in the British athletic championship programme, although " putting the shot " (q.v.) and " hammer-throwing " (q.v.) are recognized championship events. In America throwing the 56-lb weight for distance belongs to the championship programme. It was once a common event in Great Britain at all important athletic meetings, the ordinary slightly conical half-hundredweight being used and thrown by the ring attached to the top; the ring, however, was awkward to grip, and a triangular handle was afterwards substituted. In America the s6-lb weight is a ball of iron or lead with a triangular or pear-shaped handle. The weight used to be thrown standing, but since 1888 it has been thrown from a 7-ft. circle with a raised edge, like that used for the hammer and shot in America. In throwing the athlete stands slightly stooping, with his feet about 18 in. apart and grasping the handle with both hands opposite his thighs. The weight is swung round and back past the right leg as far as possible, then up, over and round the head, as in the hammer-throw. One complete swing round the head is usually enough, as too much momentum is apt to throw the athlete off his balance. The weight is then swung round together with the whole body as rapidly as possible, as in hammer-throwing. The athlete works himself to the front of the circle just before the moment of delivery and begins the final heave with his back towards the direction in which he wishes to throw the weight. This heave is accomplished by completing the final spin cf the body, giving the legs, back and arms a vigorous upward movement at the same time, and following the weight through with the uplifted arms as it leaves the hands, but taking care not to overstep the circle. With one hand a smoother swing can be made but much less power applied. In throwing for height the athlete stands beside the nigh-jump uprights and casts the weight over the cross-piece, making the swing and spin in a more vertical direction with a heave upward at the moment of delivery. Throwing for height and with one hand were formerly events in the American championship programme, but have been discontinued. The record for throwing the 56-lb weight for height is 15 ft. 6| in., made by the American-Irishman J. S. Mitchell. The record for distance, 38 ft. 8 in., was made in 1907 by the American-Irishman John Flanagan. In throwing weights large and heavy men have an advantage over small, brute strength being the chief requisite, while a heavy body makes a better fulcrum while revolving than a light one. WEI-HAI-WEI, a British naval and coaling station, on the N.E. coast of the Shan-tung peninsula, China, about 40 m. E. of the treaty port of Chi-fu and 115 m. from Port Arthur. It was formerly a Chinese naval station strongly fortified, but was captured by the Japanese in February 1895, and occupied by their troops until May 1898, pending the payment of the indemnity. Port Arthur having in the spring of that year been acquired by the Russian government under a lease from China, a similar lease was granted of Wei-hai-wei to the British government, and on the withdrawal of the Japanese troops the British fleet took possession, the flag being hoisted on the 24th of May 1898. No period was fixed for the termination of the lease, but it was stipulated that it should continue so long as Russia continued to hold Port Arthur. The lease of Port Arthur having been ceded to Japan in September 1905, the British lease of Wei-hai- wei was made to run for as long as Japan held Port Arthur. The harbour is formed by an island named Liu-kung-tao running east and west across the mouth of a small bay, leaving an entrance at each end. Towards the mainland the water shoals, and the best anchorage is under the lee of the island. The native city is walled, and has a population of about 2000. The chief port is named Port Edward; it has good anchorage with a depth of 45 ft. of water. The leased area comprises, besides the harbour and island, a belt of the mainland, 10 English miles wide, skirting the whole length of the bay. The coast line of the bay is some 10 m., and the area thus leased extends to 285 sq. m. Within -this area Great Britain has exclu- sive jurisdiction, and is represented by a commissioner under the colonial office; and has, besides, the right to erect fortifica- tions, station troops and take any other measures necessary for defensive purposes at any points on or near the coast in that part of the peninsula east of 121° 40' E. Within that zone, which covers 1505 sq. m., Chinese administration is not interfered with, but no troops other than Chinese and British are allowed there. The territory consists of rugged hills rising to 1600 ft. and well-cultivated valleys. The hills also, as far as possible, WEILBURG— WEIMAR 495 are terraced for cultivation and in some instances are planted with dwarf pine and scrub oak. It contains some 310 villages and a population of about 150,0x30. Chinese war-vessels are at liberty to use the anchorage, notwithstanding the lease; and Chinese jurisdiction may continue to be exercised within the w:illcd city of Wei-hai-wei, so far as not inconsistent with military requirements. Wei-hai-wei was made the headquarters of a n;it ive Chinese regiment in the pay of Great Britain, and organized and led by British officers; but this regiment was disbanded in 1902. Wei-hai-wei is used by the China squadron as a sana- torium and exercising ground. Its excellent climate attracts many visitors. Wei-hai-wei being a free port no duties of any kind are collected there. The import trade consists of timber, maize, paper, crockery, sugar, tobacco, kerosene oil, &c. Gold has been found in the territory, and silver, tin, lead and iron are said to exist. In each of the years 1903-1909 the expenditure exceeded the revenue (about $70,000 in 1909-1910), deficits being made good by grants from the British parliament. WEILBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, picturesquely situated on the Lahn, just above the confluence of the Weil, 50 m. N.E. from Coblenz by the rail- way to Giessen. Pop. (1905) 3828. The old town, built on and around a rocky hill almost encircled by the river, contains a castle of the i6th century, formerly the residence of the dukes of Nassau- Weilburg, and later of the grand-dukes of Luxemburg. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, the former, the Stadtkirche, containing the burial vaults of the princes of Nassau, a gymnasium and an agricultural college. Its industries include wool-spinning, mining, tanning and dyeing. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Merenberg and Freienfels. Weilburg was in the nth century the property of the bishops of Worms, from whom it passed to the house of Nassau. From 1355 to 1816 it was the residence of the princes of Nassau- Weilburg, a branch of this house. See C. C. Sp:clmann, Fuhrer durch Weilburg und Umgebung (Weilburg, 1804); and Geschichte der Stadt und Herrschaft Weilburg (Weilburg, 1896). WEIMAR, a city of Germany, the capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. It is situated in a fertile valley on the Ilm, a small tributary of the Saale, 50 m. S.W. of Leipzig and 141 m. S.W. of Berlin, on the main line of railway to Bebra and Frankfort-on-Main, and at the junction of three lines to Jena, Gera and Berka and Rastenberg. Pop. (1885) 21,565, (1905) 31,121. Weimar owes its importance not toany industrial development, which the grand-dukes discourage within the limits of their Residenz, but to its intimate association with the classical period of German literature, which earned for it the title of the " poets' city " and " the German Athens." The golden age of Weimar, covered by the reign of Charles Augustus (q.n.) from- 1775 to 1828, has left an indelible impress on the character of the town. In spite of its classical associations and of modern improve- ments, Weimar still retains much of its medieval character. The walls survive, indeed, only in isolated fragments, but the narrow winding streets of the older part of the town, and the market-place surrounded by houses with high-pitched gables and roofs are very picturesque. Of the churches the Stadtkirche (parish church), of which Herder became pastor in 1776, is a Gothic building dating from about 1400, but much altered in detail under " classical " influences. It contains the tombs of the princes of the house of Saxe- Weimar, including those of the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous and his wife, and of Duke Bernhard of Weimar, a hero of the Thirty Years' War. The altar-piece is a triptych, the centre-piece representing the Crucifixion; beside the cross Luther is represented, with t%open Bible in his hand, while the blood from the pierced side of the Saviour pours on to his head. The picture is regarded as the masterpiece of Lucas Cranach (q.v.), who lived for a time at Weimar, in the Bruck'sckes Hauson the market-place. In front of the church is a statue of Herder, whose house still serves as the parsonage. The other church, the Jakabs- or Hofkirche (court church) is also ancient; its disused churchyard contains the graves of Lucas Cranach and Musaeus. The most important building in Weimar is the palace, a huge structure forming three sides of a quadrangle, erected (1789-1803) under the super- intendence of Goethe, on the site of one burned down in 1774. A remnant of the old palace, with a tower, survives. The interior is very fine, and in one of the wings is a series of rooms dedicated to the poets Goethe, Schiller, Herder and Wieland, with appro- priate mural paintings. Of more interest, however, is the house in which Goethe himself lived from 1782 to 1832. It was built by the duke as a surprise present for the poet on his return from his Italian tour, and was regarded at the time as a palace of art and luxury. It has therefore a double interest, as the home of the poet, and as a complete example of a German nobleman's house at the beginning of the igth century, the furniture and fittings (in Goethe's study and bedroom down to the smallest details) remaining as they were when the poet died.1 The house is built round a quadrangle, in which is the coach-house with Goethe's coach, and has a beautiful, old-fashioned garden. The interior, apart from the scientific and art collections made by Goethe, is mainly remarkable for the extreme simplicity of its furnishing. The Goethe-Schiller Museum, as it is now called, stands isolated, the adjoining houses having been pulled down to avoid risk of fire. Of more pathetic interest is the Schillerhaus, in the SchUler- strasse, containing the humble rooms in which Schiller lived and died. The atmosphere of the whole town is, indeed, dominated by the memory of Goethe and Schiller, whose bronze statues, by Rietschel, grouped on one pedestal (unveiled in 1857) stand in front of the theatre. The theatre, built under Goethe's super- intendence in 1825, memorable in the history of art not only for its associations with the golden age of German drama, but as having witnessed the first performances of many of Wagner's operas and other notable stage pieces, was pulled down and replaced by a new building in 1007. The most beautiful monu- ment of Goethe's genius in the town is, however, the park, laid out in the informal " English " style, without enclosure of any kind. Of Goethe's classic " conceits " which it contains, the stone altar round which a serpent climbs to eat the votive bread upon it, inscribed to the " genius hujus loci," is the most famous. Just outside the borders of the park, beyond the Ilm, is the " garden house," a simple wooden cottage with a high-pitched roof, in which Goethe used to pass the greater part of the summer. Finally, in the cemetery is the grand ducal family vault, in which Goethe and Schiller also lie, side by side. Wieland, who came to Weimar in 1772 as the duke's tutor, is also commemorated by a statue (1857), and his house is indicated by a tablet. The town has been embellished by several other statues, including those of Charles Augustus (1875); Lucas Cranach (i8£6J; Marie Seibach (1889); the composer Hummel (1895) and Franz Liszt (1904). Among the other prominent buildings in Weimar are the Grunes Schloss (i8th century), containing a library of 200,000 volumes and a valuable collection of portraits, busts and literary and other curiosities; the old ducal dower-house (Wittumspalais); the museum, built in 1863-1868 in the Renaissance style with some old masters and Preller's famous mural paintings illustrating the Odyssey. In 1896 the Goethe-Schiller Arcniy, an imposing building on the wooded height above the Ilm, containing MSS. by Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Wieland, Immermann, Fritz Reuter, Morike, Otto Ludwig and others, was opened. Weimar possesses also archaeo- logical, ethnographical and natural science collections and the Liszt Museum (in the gardener's house in the park, for many years the musician's hcme). Among the educational establishments are a gymnasium, and Rcalschule, the Sophienstift (a large school for girls of the better class, founded by the grand-duchess Sophia), the grand-ducal school of art, geographical institutes, a technical school, commercial school, music school, teachers' seminaries, and deaf and dumb and blind asylums. An English church was opened in 1899. There are a few industries, printing, tanning and cloth- weaving. Various points in the environs of Weimar are also interesting from their associations. A broad avenue of chestnuts, about 2 m. in length, leads southwards from the town to the grand-ducal chateau 1 To be strictly accurate, they thus remained until the death of Goethe's last descendant in 1884. The house, which had been left to the grand-duke for the nation, was then found to be so structurally rotten that the interior had to be largely reconstructed. Everything was, however, replaced in the exact position it had previously occupied. 496 WEINHEIM— WEIR of Belvedere, in the gardens of which the open-air theatre, used in Goethe's day, still exists. To the north-east, at about the same distance from the town, are the tiny chateau and park of Tiefurt, on the banks of the Ilm, the scene of many pastoral court revels in the past. To the north-west is the Ettersberg, with the Ettersburg, a chateau which was another favourite resort of Charles Augustus and his friends. The history of Weimar, apart from its association with Charles Augustus and his court, is of little general interest. The town is said to have existed so early as the 9th century. Till 1140 it belonged to the counts of Orlamimde; it then fell to Albert the Bear and the descendants of his second son. In 1247 Otto III. founded a separate Weimar line of counts. In 1345 it became a fief of the landgraves of Thuringia, to whom it escheated in 1385 with the extinction of the line of Otto III. At the partition of Saxony in 1485 Weimar, with Thuringia, fell to the elder, Ernestine, branch of the Saxon house of Wettin, and has been the continuous residence of the senior branch of the dukes of this line since 1572. Under Charles Augustus Weimar became a centre of Liberalism as well as of art. It had previously narrowly escaped absorption by Napoleon, who passed through the town during the pursuit of the Prussians after the battle of Jena in 1806, and was only dissuaded from abolishing the duchy by the tact and courage of the duchess Louisa. The traditions of Charles Augustus were well maintained by his grandson, the grand-duke Charles Alexander (1818-1901), whose statue now stands in the Karlsplatz. The grand-duke's connexion with the courts of Russia and Holland — his mother was a Russian grand-duchess and his wife, Sophia Louisa (1824- 1897), a princess of the Netherlands — tended to give the Weimar society a cosmopolitan character, and the grand-duke devoted himself largely to encouraging men of intellect, whether Germans or foreigners, who came to visit or to settle in the town. The art school, founded by him in 1848, has had a notable series _ of eminent painters among its professors, including Preller, Bocklin, Kalckreuth, Max Schmidt, Pauwels, Heumann, Verlat and Thedy. Under the patronage of Charles Alexander, also, Weimar became a famous musical centre, principally owing to the presence of Franz Liszt, who from 1848 to 1886 made Weimar his principal place of residence. Other notable con- ductors of the Weimar theatre orchestra were Eduard Lassen and Richard Strauss. See Scholl, Weimar's Merkwiirdigkeiten einst und jetzt (Weimar, 1857); Springer, Weimar's klassische Statten (Berlin, 1868); Ruland, Die Schdtze des Goethe National-Museums in Weimar (Weimar and Leipzig, 1887) ; Francke, Weimar und Umgebungen (3rd ed., Weimar, 1900); Kuhn, Weimar in Wort und BtW(4thed., Jena, 1905). WEINHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, pleasantly situated on the Bergstrasse at the foot of the Odenwald, ii m. N. of Heidelberg by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 12,560. It is still in part surrounded by the ruins of its ancient walls. The Gothic town hall; the ruins of the castle of Windeck and the modern castle of the counts of Berck- heim; the house of the Teutonic Order; and three churches are the principal buildings. The town has various manufactures, notably leather, machinery and soap, and cultivates fruit and wine. It is a favourite climatic health resort and a great tourist centre for excursions in the Odenwald range. Weinheim is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 8th century, when it was a fief of the abbey of Lorsch, and it was fortified in the I4th century. In the Thirty Years' War it was several times taken and plundered, and its fortifications dismantled. See Hegewald, Der Luftkurort Weinheim an der Bergstrasse (Wein- heim, 1895); Ackermann, Fuhrer durch Weinheim und Umgebung (Weinheim, 1895); and Zinkgraf, Bilder aus der Geschichte der Stadt Weinheim (Weinheim, 1904). WEINSBERG, a small town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, pleasantly situated on the Sulm, 5 m. E. from Heilbronn by the railway to Crailsheim. Pop. (1905) 3097. It has an ancient Romanesque church, a monument to the re- former Oecolampadius (q.v.), and a school of viticulture, which is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. On the Schlossberg above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Weibertreu, and at its foot is the house once inhabited by Justinus Kerner (?.».), with a public garden and a monument to the poet. The German king Conrad III. defeated Count Welf VI. ot Bavaria near Weinsberg in December 1140, and took the town, which later became a free imperial city. In 1331 it joined the league of the Swabian cities, but was taken by the nobles in 1440 and sold to the elector palatine, thus losing its liberties. It was burnt in 1525 as a punishment for the atrocities com- mitted by the revolted peasants. The famous legend of Weiber- treu (" women's faithfulness "), immortalized in a ballad by Chamisso, is connected with the siege of 1 140, although the story is told of other places. It is said that Conrad III. allowed the women to leave the town with whatever they could carry, where- upon they came out with their husbands on their backs. See Bernheim, " Die Sage von den treuen Weibern zu Weinsberg " (in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, vol. xv., Gottingen, 1875); Merk, Geschichte der Stadt Weinsberg und ihrer Burg Weiber- treu (Heilbronn, 1880). WEIR, ROBERT WALTER (1803-1889), American portrait and historical painter, was born at New Rochelle, New York, on the i8th of June 1803. He was a pupil of Jarvis, was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1829, and was teacher of drawing at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1834-1846, and professor of drawing there in 1846-1876. He died in New York City on the ist of May 1889. Among his better-known works are: " The Embarkation of the Pilgrims " (in the rotunda of the United States Capitol at Washington, D.C.) ; " Landing of Hendrik Hudson "; " Evening of the Crucifixion"; " Columbus before the Council of Salamanca "; " Our Lord on the Mount of Olives "; " Virgil and Dante crossing the Styx," and several portraits, now at West Point, and " Peace and War " in the Chapel there. His son, JOHN FERGUSON WEIR (b. 1841), painter and sculptor, became a Member of the National Academy of Design in 1866, and was made director of the Yale University Art School in 1868. Another son, JULIAN ALDEN WEIR (b. 1852), studied under his father, and under J. L. Ge'r&me, and became a distinguished portrait, figure and landscape painter. He was one of the founders of the Society of American Artists in 1877, and became a member of the National Academy of Design (1886) and of the Ten American Painters, New York. WEIR (from O. Eng. wer, a dam; cognate with werian, to defend, guard; cf. Ger. Wehr, defence), a barrier placed across rivers to raise the water-level for catching fish, for mills, for navigation or for irrigation, the discharge of the river taking place over the crest or through openings made for the purpose. Rough weirs, formed of stakes and twigs, were erected across English rivers in Saxon times for holding up the water and catching fish, and fish-traps, with iron-wire meshes and eel baskets, are still used sometimes at weirs. Weirs are essential for raising the head of water for water-wheels at mills, and for diverting some of the flow of a river into irrigation canals; but they have received their greatest and most varied extension in the canalization of rivers for navigation. There are three distinct classes of weirs, namely, solid weirs, draw-door weirs, including regulating